Transducers

Principle of Sensing
Signals are physical quantities that are functions of an independent variable (such
as time) and contain information about a natural phenomenon. Two types of
signals may be defined; digital and analogue- Digital signals provide information
regarding the voltage state (typically hi or low) and/or the rate of change of these
states. An analogue signal typically provides voltage level, shape or frequency
content information.

A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a

transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another
 Characteristics of transducer
• Ruggedness. It should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety
arrangement should be provided for overload protection.

• Linearity. Its input-output characteristics should be linear and it should

produce these characteristics in symmetrical way.

• Repeatability. It should reproduce same output signal when the same input
signal is applied again and again under fixed environmental conditions e.g.
temperature, pressure, humidity etc.

• High Output Signal Quality. The quality of output signal should be good i.e.
the ratio of the signal to the noise should be high and the amplitude of the
output signal should be enough.

• High Reliability and Stability. It should give minimum error in measurement

for temperature variations, vibrations and other various changes in
surroundings.

• Good Dynamic Response. Its output should be faithful to input when taken
as a function of time. The effect is analyzed as the frequency response.

• No Hysteretic. It should not give any hysteretic during measurement while

input signal is varied from its low value to high value and vice-versa.

• Residual Deformation. There should be no deformation on removal of local

after long period of application.
 Classification of Transducers
1. Primary & secondary
2. Active & passive
3. Analog & digital
4. Transducer & inverse transducer

Active Transducer
Active transducers are those which do not require any power source for their
operation. They work on the energy conversion principle. They produce an
electrical signal proportional to the input (physical quantity). For example, a
thermocouple is an active transducer. Examples: Piezo electric.

Passive Transducers

Transducers which require an external power source for their operation is called
as a passive transducer. They produce an output signal in the form of some
variation in resistance, capacitance or any other electrical parameter, which than
has to be converted to an equivalent current or voltage signal. For example,
a photocell (LDR)is a passive transducer which will vary the resistance of the cell
when light falls on it. This change in resistance is converted to proportional signal
with the help of a bridge circuit. Hence a photocell can be used to measure the
intensity of light. Examples: resistive, inductive, capacitive.

Primary transducer

When the input signal is directly sensed by transducer and the physical
phenomenon is converted into electrical form directly then such a transducer is
called primary transducer. Examples: Bourdon tube.

Secondary transducer

When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor then its output
being of some other form than the input signal given as input to transducer for
conversion into electrical form then such a transducer is called secondary
transducer. Examples: LVDT.

Analog transducer

In this transducer Input quantity is converted into an analog output. The Analog
output is a continuous function of time. Examples: Strain gauge, LVDT,
thermocouple

Digital transducer

This transducer converts input into an electrical output in the form of pulses. The
Digital output is a discrete function of time. Examples: Converters.

Transducer

A transducer is a device that is used to convert a physical quantity into its

corresponding electrical signal. Examples: Bourdon tube

Inverse Transducer

It converts electrical signal into physical quantity. Examples: Piezo electric

LVDT
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a type of
electrical transformer used for measuring linear displacement (position).

Construction

The linear variable differential transformer has three solenoid coils placed end-
to-end around a tube.

 The center coil is the primary, and the two outer coils are the top and
bottom secondary's.
 A cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attached to the object whose position
is to be measured, slides along the axis of the tube.
 An alternating current drives the primary and causes a voltage to be
induced in each secondary proportional to the length of the core linking
to the secondary.
 As the core moves, the primary's linkage to the two secondary coils
changes and causes the induced voltages to change. The coils are
connected so that the output voltage is the difference (hence
"differential") between the top secondary voltage and the bottom
secondary voltage.

Working of LVDT
• When the core is in its central position, equidistant between the two
secondary, equal voltages are induced in the two secondary coils, but the two
signals cancel, so the output voltage is theoretically zero.

• When the core is displaced toward the top, the voltage in the top
secondary coil increases as the voltage in the bottom decreases. The resulting
output voltage increases from zero. This voltage is in phase with the primary
voltage.

• When the core moves in the other direction, the output voltage also
increases from zero, but its phase is opposite to that of the primary. The phase
of the output voltage determines the direction of the displacement and
amplitude indicates the amount of displacement. A synchronous detector can
determine signed output voltage that relates to the displacement.

Applications of LVDT

LVDT is commonly used for position feedback in servomechanisms, and for

automated measurement in machine tools and many other industrial and
scientific applications. Also LVDT can be connected to other transducers whose
outputs are mechanical displacements.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Wide range of displacement from • Sensitive to stray magnetic

µm to cm. fields.

• Frictionless and electrical • Affected by vibrations.

isolation.
• Dynamic response is limited
• High output. mechanically by the mass of
core and electrically by
• High sensitivity [sensitivity is
frequency of excitation
expressed in mV (output voltage)/
voltage.
mm (input core displacement)].

• Has almost linear characteristics.

• Consumes very less power.

Sliding contact devices

There is a long conductor whose effective length is variable. One end of the
conductor is fixed, while the position of the other end is decided by the slider
or the brush that can move along the whole length of the conductor along
with the body whose displacement is to be measured. When the body moves
the slider also moves along the conductor so its effective length changes, due
to which it resistance also changes. These devices can be used to measured
linear as well as angular displacement.
Construction of rotary and slider types

• The unit consists basically of a ‘track’ having a fixed resistance and a

variable contact which can be moved along and make continuous contact
with the track.

• If the track resistance is proportional to the length along the track (i.e.
linear track), the output voltage will be proportional to the movement of
the variable contact and the unit is suitable for use as a position transducer.

• The track may comprise a film of carbon formed on a substrate or may be a

length of resistance wire wound on an insulator former.

Potentiometer
The Potential divider is the most obvious application.  In its simplest form it is
two resistors in series with an input voltage Vs across the ends. If only two
terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or
rheostat. Potentiometers were formerly used to control picture brightness,
contrast, and color response in Television sets. Low-power potentiometers,
both linear and rotary, are used to control audio equipment,changing
 loudness, frequency attenuation and other characteristics of audio signals.

Strain Gauge
If a strip of conductive metal is placed under compressive force (without
buckling), it will broaden and shorten. If these stresses are kept within the elastic
limit of the metal strip (so that the strip does not permanently deform), the strip
can be used as a measuring element for physical force, the amount of applied
force inferred from measuring its resistance. This is the principle of a Strain
Gauge.

The gauge factor  is defined as:

Half Bridge Strain Gauge Circuit

Unlike the Wheatstone bridge using a null-balance detector and a human
operator to maintain a state of balance, a strain gauge bridge circuit indicates
measured strain by the degree of imbalance, and uses a precision voltmeter in the
center of the bridge to provide an accurate measurement of that imbalance:

With no force applied to the test specimen, both strain gauges have equal
resistance and the bridge circuit is balanced. However, when a downward
force is applied to the free end of the specimen, it will bend downward,
stretching gauge #1 and compressing gauge #2 at the same time:
TYPES

Based on principle of working :

• Mechanical

• Electrical

• Piezoelectric

Based on mounting :

• Bonded strain gauge

• Unbonded strain gauge

Based on construction :

• Foil strain gauge

• Semiconductor strain gauge

• Photoelectric Strain gauge

• MECHANICAL STRAIN GAUGE is  made up of two separate plastic layers.
The bottom layer has a ruled scale on it and the top layer has a red arrow or
pointer. One layer is glued to one side of the crack and one layer to the
other. As the crack opens, the layers slide very slowly past one another and
the pointer moves over the scale. The red crosshairs move on the scale as
the crack widens. 

Piezoelectric generate electric voltage when strain is applied over it. Strain
can be calculated from voltage. Piezoelectric strain gauges are the most
sensitive and reliable devices.
ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGE

When an electrical wire is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that

it does not break or permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer,
changes that increase its electrical resistance end-to-end. Strain can be
inferred by measuring change in resistance.

A bonded strain-gauge element, consisting of a metallic wire, etched foil,

vacuum-deposited film, or semiconductor bar, is cemented to the strained
surface.

The unbonded strain gauge consists of a wire stretched between two points in
an insulating medium such as air. One end of the wire is fixed and the other
end is attached to a movable element.
• The foil strain gage has metal foil photo-etched in a grid pattern on the
electric insulator of the thin resin and gage leads attached

• The photoelectric gauge uses a light beam, two fine gratings, and a

photocell detector to generate an electrical current that is proportional to
strain. The gage length of these devices can be as short as 1/16 inch, but
they are costly and delicate.

• For measurements of small strain, semiconductor strain gauges, so called

piezoresistors, are often preferred over foil gauges. Semiconductor strain
gauges depend on the piezoresistive effects of silicon or germanium and
measure the change in resistance with stress as opposed to strain.

Advantages

• There is no moving part.

• It is small and inexpensive.

Disadvantages

• It is non-linear.

• It needs to be calibrated.

Applications
• Residual stress

• Vibration measurement

• Torque measurement

• Bending and deflection measurement

• Compression and tension measurement

• Strain measurement
 Thermistor
Thermistor work on the principle that resistance of some materials changes with
the change in their temperature. When the temperature of the material changes,
its resistance changes and it can be measured easily and calibrated against the
input quantity. The commonly used thermistors are made up of the ceramic like
semiconducting materials such as oxides of manganese, nickel and cobalt.
Thermistors can be used for the measurement of temperature, as electric power
sensing devices and also as the controls for various processes. The most common
type of  thermistor that we use has a resistance that falls as the temperature
rises.  It is referred to as a negative temperature coefficient device(NTC). 

The thermistor resistance-temperature relationship can be approximated by,

where T is temperature (in kelvin),

TRef is the reference temperature, usually at room

 
temp. (25 °C; 77 °F; 298.15 K),

  R is the resistance of the thermistor (),

  RRef is the resistance at TRef,

 is a calibration constant depending on the thermistor

 
material, usually between 3,000 and 5,000 K.
Applications of Thermistor

• Measurement of temperature

• Measurement of Difference of two temperatures

• Control of temperature

• Temperature compensation

• Thermal conductivity measurement.

• Measurement of Gas Composition

• Measurement of Flow

• Current-limiting devices for circuit protection as replacement for fuse (PTC)

• Presence of magnetic field deflects electrons flowing through conductive
material

• As electrons move to one end of conductive material:

– Potential is developed in direction perpendicular to gross current

flow

– Potential indicates strength of magnetic field

 Piezoelectric transducers
• The piezoelectric transducers work on the principle of piezoelectric effect.
When mechanical stress or forces are applied to some materials along
certain planes, they produce electric voltage. This electric voltage can be
measured easily by the voltage measuring instruments, which can be used
to measure the stress or force.

• Detect motion (high and low frequency)

• Cheap, reliable but has a very limited range of motion

 Photoelectric transducer
• A photoelectric transducer converts a light beam into a usable electric
signal. As shown in the fig, light strikes the photo emissive cathode and
releases electrons, which are attracted towards the anode, thereby
producing an electric current in the circuit.

• The cathode & the anode are enclosed in a glass or quartz envelope, which
is either evacuated or filled with an inert gas.

• The photo electric sensitivity is given by; I=s*f where I=Photoelectric

current, s=sensitivity, f= illumination of the cathode.

• The response of the photoelectric tube to different wavelengths is

influenced by

• (i) The transmission characteristics of the glass tube envelope and

• (ii) Photo emissive characteristics of the cathode material.

 Thermocouple
The thermocouples work on the principle of Seebeck effect, Peltier effect and
Thomson effect. As per the Seebeck effect, when two dissimilar elements are
joined at their ends the electromotive force exists at their junction. As per Peltier
effect, the amount of electromotive force generated depends on the temperature
of the junction. While, the Thomson effect says that the amount of voltage
generated depends on the temperature gradient along the conductors in the
circuit. The voltage output from the thermocouple changes as its temperature
changes or the temperature of the body in whose contact it is changes. The
voltage output is calibrated against the temperature of the body that can be
measured easily. Thermocouple is a very popular device used for measurement of
temperature.

Applications: Thermocouple

• Steel Industry

• Heating Appliance Safety

• Power Production : Thermoelectric Generation

• Thermoelectric Cooling

• Diesel Engines

• Gas Turbine Exhaust Temperature Measurement

 Tri-Axial Sensors
• Accelerometer is used to measure acceleration. Basically the sensors
measures some electrical quantity like capacitance, current or voltage
based on the acceleration it senses. The electrical quantity is then
converted to its equivalent acceleration reading. Now a day’s any smart
phone contains accelerometer.

• Gyroscopes measures angular velocity. Here also the sensors measure

some change in capacitance proportional to the angular velocity the sensor
is experiencing.

• Magnetometer measures the heading based on earth’s magnetic field. But

one has take care of the fact that there is no magnetic substances nearby.
Otherwise the reading will be seriously flawed.

• Accelerometer and Gyroscope Applications

• Accelerometers have been used for a long time in automobiles for

detecting car crashes and for triggering airbags at just the right moment.
They have many applications in mobile devices like switching between
portrait and landscape modes, tap gestures to change to the next song,
tapping through clothing when the device is in a pocket, or anti-blur
capturing and optical image stabilization
 References

• Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements Techniques –Albert

d.Helfrick and William David Cooper-PHI

• Electronic Instrumentation- G.K.Mithal- Khanna Publishers

• Electronic Devices and Circuit theory-Boylestead and Nashelsley.

• www.nptel.ac.in/courses

• nptel.iitk.ac.in

• www.youtube.com/watch?v=11cWFio3h4U

• powerengineersmucet.weebly.com