ANGLIA RUSKIN UNIVERSITY

Cambridge School of Art

Handwriting during early childhood

development and its relation to the
typography in children’s books

SYLVIA OLOO

A Dissertation in partial fulfilment of the

requirements of Anglia Ruskin University
for the degree of Master of Arts
Submitted: May 2016
 Acknowledgement
I say a special thank you to Hill Will for the constructive criticism and tutoring
that helped steer the research in the right direction.
I would like to thank my classmates and colleagues for giving me critical and
constructive remarks that encouraged my study.
I would also like to acknowledge Winnie Karuga and Nia Reid for cooperating
and I appreciate them for finding time to participate in the interview.
I acknowledge Hillary Namunyu for proof-reading my work, even at such short
notice.
Lastly, I would like to acknowledge Brian Ombagi and my family for being a good
support system.

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 ANGLIA RUSKIN UNIVERSITY
ABSTRACT
FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL
SCIENCES
MASTER OF ARTS
HANDWRITING DURING EARLY
CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT AND ITS
RELATION TO THE TYPOGRAPHY IN
CHILDREN’S BOOKS
By SYLVIA OLOO
MAY 2016
The dissertation traces and analyses the formal development of children’s
handwriting and references it has on the typography of children’s books. It gives a
historic background account of the development of children’s handwriting and its
adaptation into the typography of children’s books. Handwriting during early
development is mentioned for a deeper understanding and relates to how it is acquired
into children’s books to determine what works in terms of the two for legibility. The
research taps into the field of publishers requesting on what they look for while creating
books for children, along with the measures taken for legibility. The influences
technology has on handwriting and the typography of children’s books.
The methods used for the research comprises of both primary and secondary
sources. Secondary sources involve the use of books, journals and previous research on
the same topic. Primary sources involve collected data showing the methods used for
teaching children handwriting in schools compared to the typography used in the
publication of children’s books.
A lot of relations have been drawn from each other in both the writing process
and the development of children’s books. However, there are some alterations made
where necessary to ensure better legibility and communication.

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 Table of contents:
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….……………….………… 1
The history of handwriting …………………………………………………………………..………….... 3
Handwriting during early childhood ………………………………………………...……..……….… 5
Measures taken to ensure legibility in reading and writing ……………………….……...… 11
Guides used by publishers in the development of Children’s books……………..…………. 15
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……… 21
Reference ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 22
Appendix …………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 25

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Introduction
The aim of this dissertation is to investigate whether the reference of children’s

handwriting is present in the development of typography in children’s books for early

learners. The dissertation questions whether there is any sort of influences of children’s

handwriting on the typography of children’s books and vice versa.

This dissertation will begin from the handwriting approach where it mentions the

history of handwriting and children’s development of handwriting for a deeper

understanding. It will then explore the ties handwriting has on reading in terms of

legibility, relation to print and how the two correlate to form children’s books or any

additional materials that are generated for children.

The methods used for the research will comprise of both primary and secondary

sources. Secondary sources will involve the use of books, journals and other researches

on the same topic. Primary sources will involve collected data showing the methods used

for teaching children handwriting in schools compared to the typography used in the

publication of children’s books. The research will also compare the typography used in a

range of books published in different times to establish whether there are any changes

in the typography used over the years. Lastly the dissertation will note the guidelines

that are used in typography during the publication of children’s books.

Due to handwriting being the process of making letters or any written works on a

surface using tools such as a pencil or a pen, it is important to establish the best way of

writing for an appropriate level to achieving legibility. Since handwriting is a means of

our recording, we need to be able to achieve our writing legibly at speed (Freeman et al.,

2004). Understanding handwriting will generate a deeper understanding and explain

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the correlation it has with typography in children’s books. Reading on the other hand is

termed as being able to look at and comprehend the meaning of a written or printed

material by interpreting the characters or symbols composed. Dan Kurland (2000) who

holds a Masters in applied linguistics mentions that it is important to note that not all

readers can be writers but all writers must be readers! He further explains that you

cannot write without reading as you write and you cannot write without first

understanding how the language works to communicate ideas (Kurland, 2000), which

means handwriting is dependent on reading as if to say better to achieve knowledge in

writing as it results to reading as well.

Reading and writing develop together since children learn how to write from

printed texts that are given to them, according to Koralek and Collins (2011). Besides the

printed works from children’s books, the research will also include other forms of

technology that use typography such as computers, games and applications on mobile

phones to enhance the learning process. We find that children nowadays are exposed to

technology at an early age (MANGEN, 2010); hence the research will touch on the print

used on modern technology and include the advantages and disadvantages.

The scope of my research will cover cultures that use the Latin alphabet. Barbara

Brownie (2014) states that the alphabet consists of twenty six characters that are applied

into different context, which contribute to different meanings when used to form a word

(2014). Words are also arranged differently to form sentences that contribute to

numerous meanings as we see that word is affected by the context in which the word is

used in a sentence, suggests Brownie (2014).

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The history of handwriting
It is a shame that handwriting is taken for granted today due to the exposure to

technology. In 1839, Edward Bulwer Lytton suggests that the pen is mightier than the

sword to indicate that thinking and writing has a bigger influence than any violence. The

first sign of handwriting development was about six thousand years ago by the

Sumerians (Historyworld, n.d.). At the time children copied written symbols on clay

tablets that were used to communicate and represent meaning (Dibbell, 2010).

In the eighth century, Carolinian Miniscule was a calligraphic standard

handwriting which later developed into Gothic Script known as Blackletter. Blackletter

evolved from the late middle ages in the northern Europe in the eleventh century by its

dense weight of dark ink on each densely package (Vletter, 2016). Blackletter was the

standardized typeface for printed books at the time as it was recognized by the literate

class (Jury, 2016). However, the idea of a standardized handwriting is arguable even

today, as one wonders whether handwriting should be standardized across all children’s

books. To demonstrate that using a standard handwriting does not work, Blackletter

found faults, as in the matter of economy and saving pages the words were squashed to

enable the use of fewer pages to produces cheaper books (Historyworld, n.d.). The need

for the urgency of different types was brought along the notion of ‘fitness for purpose’

during the enlightenment age where type was examined (Jury, 2016). Handwritings

were then employed to copy official documents such as certificates and other important

documents (Vletter, 2016). In conjunction, involvement of the cursive handwriting was

seen on the printed books beginning in the sixteenth century where copperplates were

praised by written masters that claimed they would be sufficient for instructing students

to write beautifully (Vletter, 2016). As a result of copying handwriting a cursive writing

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called Spencerian by Platt Rogers Spencer developed in the latter middle ages and was

adopted for schools and businesses and can still be seen today on the Coca-cola logo

(Cohen, 2012).

In the twentieth century, educators said handwriting would be easier to learn if

the characters looked the same as the ones on books that children used for reading

(Vletter, 2016). Printscript devised early in the twentieth century was used in place of

letters that did not have strokes or flicks at the end of the main strokes (Walker, 1992).

In 1985 Rosemary Sassoon created the original Sassoon Primary typeface with the help

of Adrian Williams also in relation to children’s handwriting. Stone Informal is another

typeface that was common in children’s books that was originally designed for laser

output but due to the closeness to handwriting, was deliberately adapted into children’s

books (Walker, 1992). Charles Zaner published ‘Zaner method of the arm movement’

which was meant for teaching children how to write (Vletter, 2016). In the United States

around the mid-1970s, the D’Nealian script created by Donald Neal is one of the types

that formed loopy characters between the horizontal characters that originated as an

ease of easy transition between children’s prints and cursive writing (Cohen, 2012).

Later it was established by Vletter that cursive print was not suitable for print as it was

hard for children to read (2016). Therefore, once the child developed into the second

and the third grade children ignored the joint letterforms they were taught to write as it

restrained them in the earlier grades and introduced words with loops (Vletter, 2016).

Ever since the twentieth century a range of reading and writing typefaces have been

developed; however, in the 1980s, penmanship formal training was dropped in the

United States, where children spent more time mastering typing and computer skills

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that has resulted in the decline of handwriting (Cohen, 2012). However, despite

handwriting being dropped in the United States, in the age of computers, people still use

pencils and pens.

Handwriting during early childhood

Though the current trend may be somewhat away from handwriting and towards

type written word processing at present, it is safe to say the universal ability of

technology is insufficient to disregard handwriting altogether (Goldberg and Simner

1999). Sassoon (1995) remarks that it is as though the teaching professions had agreed

that society will have more use for the ability to receive ideas than for the ability to

create and communicate them. ‘The practical guide to children’s handwriting’ by

Sassoon (1995) puts an emphasis on the writing process. Sassoon (1995) points out the

early development years during where handwriting begins in a person and ensures that

if handwriting is developed strategically, it will help the child in the best way possible.

In the world today as we look at third world countries that lack technology in vast

areas, handwriting is the preferred means of recording. In third world countries

illiteracy was linked to poverty by UNESCO in 1988 as it was recognized that reading

benefits a society as a whole (Browne, 1998). Browne states that those who failed in

school or any education system would not become a part of the society since they are

unable to be employees let alone employers (1998). Hence, handwriting is still used in

countries that can’t afford the technology enhancements for recording information as it

is beneficial in the educative system. Handwriting at an early age helps the child express

their creative skills, mentions Sassoon (1995). We find that children in less fortunate

communities lack the resources of printed material for learning which could help

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develop the child’s learning process. Teaching literacy to children in developing

countries through chalkboards and manila paper is still being practiced as a source of

knowing how to write as opposed to the printed book system. Hence, one is in

agreement with Sassoon (1995) that handwriting will not be replaced anytime soon, at

least not entirely.

A child’s handwriting usually develops within the ranges of five to six years old,

which is known as the foundation stage (Gateway, 2009). In addition, a good

handwriting instills confidence and it can be a rewarding asset and exercise when taught

correctly (Sassoon, 1995). Teachers use different teaching styles in different schools, so

it is important to ensure that the parents and teachers are familiar with the current

teaching styles to ensure consistency in the child (Sassoon, 1995).

Karuga (2016) a practicing teacher for early learners in Kenya confirms that she

has already undergone different teaching styles in the few years she has been teaching.

She mentions through her teaching practice across two schools that cursive handwriting

has not been taught. However, Karuga (2016) says notes that cursive handwriting was

taught amongst her peers at the time she was learning how to write when younger about

thirty years ago. She was not able to confirm whether it is still being taught anywhere

else in other schools across Kenya since it was also not mentioned in the curriculum

which publishers use for creating educational books. Interestingly, in America, Reid

(2016), a practicing elementary teacher when interviewed, mentioned that her son at the

age of five years, still in daycare was being taught cursive handwriting. However, Reid

(2016) also mentions that they introduce the keyboard system at the end of the

elementary school year, confirmed by the school curriculum.

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 Experts also believe that handwriting helps children to read because, in order to

read, children need to understand the letters they see on their books and what they

sound like when put together to make words (Koralek and Collins, 2011). Koralek and

Collins (2011) then remark that children learn how to read from doing their own writing.

Hence marks the importance of relating the typography that goes into children’s books

to the writing process, even though children get introduced to typographic elements on

print from labels, signs and other materials before they begin writing.

Sasson suggests a handwriting that flows into a cursive easily because it helps in

speed and correlation for inputting ideas during recording (1995). She also suggests one

that is more oval and has a slant that will make it easier to join the letters for a more

economical style that enables an easier entry of strokes into the next letter (Sasson

1995). However, the cursive writing sounds like a more advanced stage in the writing

process to copy compared to what letters of the alphabet follows next when children are

still developing their motor controls. The reason being that, Sasso0n (1995) suggests, a

cursive handwriting for a fast pace when scribbling notes and during essay writing in

any case of a written exam will do justice to the child’s knowledge as they get older.

On the contrary, Walker (1992) suggests that joining letters should be introduced

earlier on, especially where letters combine like ‘ing’ since they are read together, since

combinational letters don’t look like they could be sans serif types that stand alone.

Walker imagines that a type that joins letters that combine such as ‘ing’ would be a

better coherent as it would make learning how to read easier for children. In a more

practical approach, during a discussion with Karuga, she mentions that in Montessori,

first the child in the early stages is taught how to hone their large and fine motor skills

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using many practical life activities like pouring, transferring and beading so on and

forth. After that the child is introduced to sandpaper letters and sandpaper numerals

and insets for designs. Sandpaper letters and numerals are used in Montessori schools

by teachers to help children learn the shapes and formations of the alphabet reports

according to Karuga. Sandpaper gives a visual and sensory impression for a better

learning and understanding process. In addition, a lot of social activities are used to

deepen the fine motor controls skills for holding a pencil and concentration which is

crucial for handwriting says Karuga (2016), based on her experience of teaching the

range of five and six year olds. The same way, doing repeated activities as children read

can help them process that information such as in reciting poems that make them relate

it to the words of the activity (Koralek and Collins 2011). Through the exposure to

reading and writing relation in typography in children’s books, children learn that print

carries meaning. Children learn that we read from left to right towards the bottom of the

page and flip pages from the front to the back. Therefore, if the guidelines to teaching

and writing are not followed properly or one does not pay proper attention, it could slow

down, mess up or make the child have difficulty in the learning process.

It is good to give a lot of guide to the child, though Bayley (2003) mentions that if

a child continues to copy an adult’s handwriting or if the child copies over printed type

for too long, they are not going to be able to reveal what they know on their own because

their copying only tells us how good they are at copying. Children need supervision in

the complexities of developing their own writing so that they will be able to express their

ideas correctly in ways that will be well understood by others (NAEYC, 2012). So in

order to get the skill right, it is important to get a skilled teacher that is specialized in

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handwriting, one that understands it, and uses the right materials for the child to get a

great experience (Sassoon, 1995).

There is a lot of emphasis on the follow up of teaching children handwriting, what

of the reading process? What vitality does the introduction of the reading process bring

to the child with relation to the different types used across different books? Walker

(1992) says that reading and writing will always be different and thus should be

introduced early to children. A type that contains both Sans serifs and Serif types which

prepare children for reading adulthood material. However, with an emphasis to follow

up on the child’s learning process, one never knows how much of the child’s learning is

being governed with the variety of letterforms to choose from. Could it be possible that

with the availability of learning material for teaching the child how to read there is a

possibility that there is misinformed information that is out there as well? Experts

mention that the best way to guarantee success in children’s reading is by introducing

the habits to them when they are still young as The National Association for the

Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2012) encourages parents and caretakers to start

reading to their children aloud even before they begin to speak (Koralek and Collins

2011). However, how much monitoring should be given? In further research it was

found that if a child gets too much guidance and leeway to copy the adults writing, they

get a negative attitude towards writing for themselves and they lack the confidence to

progress on their own (Bayley, 2003). Therefore, it is important to enable the child

freedom of writing to enjoy writing while they do, suggests Bayley (2003). Additionally,

a child should be allowed to develop their own style of handwriting because when

restricted, it can lead to repression of creativity and tension (Sassoon, 1995). In the

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same line of expressing freedom, reading invokes that for a more pleasurable experience

the child should be given their own leeway in the reading process (Center, 2005).

In the same way teaching children how to write demands freedom for the

development of the child’s own style to be expressed; reading demands the same to

enable a child to read comfortably. Imagine that between the ages of four and nine, a

child has to master about 100 phonics rules, and recognize multiple words at a glance to

get comfortable at reading at an approachable speed. Paul Kropp (1997 cited in Koralek

and Collins 2011) suggests about 100 words a minute and that a child at this age must be

able to recognize punctuations and translate them into meaning which is a task at hand.

Due to an overload of work research shows that instructions turn from teachers teaching

the children how to read to them influencing children to read on their own (NAEYC,

2012). Usually due to reluctant readers, teachers argue that their pre-service training

was not equipped well for struggling readers (Center, 2005). The teachers when

approached by researchers complained that accommodating the struggling readers was

a challenge since they got left behind, and hopped they would grow out of it (Center,

2005). However, as early as 1988, it was proven that most readers that struggled at the

end of the first grade continued to struggle throughout their primary or elementary

grades as reported by Connie Juel (1994 cited in Center, 2005), which means the

teachers should have paid more attention to the problem in the first place. Generally

about 20-25% of people are at a risk of illiteracy as stated by Stedman (1987 cited in

Center, 2005). In America a higher record of 25-40% in 1998, Australia 10-20% in 1996

was recorded (Center, 2005). It is true that in understanding print, children need to be

able to communicate their writing into a readable process that will enable both the

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reader and the writer to understand it. So in order to make the writing and reading

process easier, we need to know how type can be made easier for the children to follow.

Measures taken to ensure legibility in reading and writing

“Typographic characteristics such as the font, the size of the type, the spacing

between lines (interlinear spacing), the spacing between words and letters, and

the contrast of the print and paper are all thought to influence legibility” [(e.g.

Tinker,1963; Watts and Nisbett, 1974; Walker, 1992; Wilkins, 1995) Cited via

Hughes and Wilkins, 2000]

In reading there are two processes involved, learning how to decipher print and

understanding what the print means (Center, 2005). Children need to be able to

comprehend words that are written and be able to understand the words once they

identify the prints. Therefore, it is the strength of the printed word used in the language

approach contained in the environment surrounding them that allows them to want to

read (Center, 2005). The more prone they are to seeing print and interacting with it, the

more it enables the connection to sound and symbol recognition, says Center (2005).

The problem occurs when a child has difficulty at the level of recognizing words and

letters.

In ensuring a legible handwriting, a child should gain control over their bodies.

In order for a child to acquire a fluent, fast and legible handwriting they need to develop

a good, fine and gross motor control, be able to recognize patterns, develop a language

to talk about movements and shapes and know the main handwriting movements in the

basic letters of the Latin alphabet such as l, c, and r (Gateway, 2009). Gross motor

control describes the development of movement of the whole body or limbs while fine

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motor control is the development of smaller movements such as the fingers and toes.

Therefore, allowing children to produce patterns enables flexibility and the flow of

letters (Sassoon, 1995). The Media Seven Group Kenya Limited (2016) reported that if

children exercise their motor control as they grow older, they will be able to use

keyboards easily and be able to apply the same skills they use to enable children’s

thinking into words at a faster pace (Hotz, 2016). Therefore, enabling children to get

into the habit of writing early will make the adaptation onto the keyboard as they are

able to generate the letter recognition concept, exercise their motor controls adaptively

and effectively.

In 1790s an experiment was set up by Anisson-Duperon to test legibility. He set

up a series of distance tests, one using Didot’s modern Roman type and the other

Garamond style. They established Garamond as readable several stages after Didot

became indistinguishable (Jury, 2016). In another research, by Wilkins et al. (2009)

while comparing Primary Sassoon and Verdana, a lot of the students claimed to have

preferred Verdana as a typeface, which is contrary to what early readers use in their

books. The experiment conducted showed that size matters and there is a hindrance in

the speed of reading and comprehension in terms of the design and the typeface used in

children’s books (Wilkins et al., 2009). The same concept applies to handwriting,

Sassoon mentions that lines in books help direct the children’s handwriting in that they

shouldn’t be too close forcing the child to write small (1992). Instead, double lines are

recommended to suit the child’s needs.

In the nineteenth century, an eye movement was investigated during reading by

Emile Javal in University of Paris where it was discovered that the eye moves in a series

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of quick jerks and not as smoothly as presumed (Jury, 2016). Apparently twelve letters

are perceived within each fixation where about 250 and 300 words are read in a minute

(Jury, 2016). Perception occurs only when there is a fixation on a word which lasts

about a quarter a second (Jury, 2016). Regression is where a backward eye movement

occurs, and where there is a more difficult text to be comprehended and this then slows

down the reading process (Jury, 2016). In the case of reading speed, Wilkin’s et al.,

(2009) experiment uses words randomly to see how the children perform in speed in

terms of the size rather than the words they comprehend, which also showed the smaller

the size, the slower the reading speed.

Emile Javal also recognized that the top half parts of letters are what is quickly

recognized (Jury, 2016). Therefore, ascenders provide the most prominent signpost for

readers and lowercase letters are more definitive than all uppercase letters. The

definitive letter shapes explains why brief statements use Sans serifs whereas extended

texts use Serifs because it is more important to distinguish the individual letters within

words as opposed to letter shapes not always being the key factor where San serifs are

used (Jury, 2016). San serif fonts are also preferred as the ticks and tails at the end of

the letters obscure the letter shapes hence confusing children, especially those that are

dyslexic (Kerrigan, 2012). If the signpost reasoning is applied to the letters preferred in

children’s books where San serifs are used, the typeface provides perception to content

of statement where information is better for communication rather than aesthetics. In

comparison of definitive shapes to handwriting, a good handwriting is one which can be

read easily and written in speed for easy recording (Sassoon, 1995). Cursive and loops in

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handwriting can lose letter shapes if written at speed and when not legible, the written

form loses its definitive purpose.

The same way handwriting takes on legibility in good letter arrangement in print

space is convenient when children learn how to read as it defines the boundaries

between the letters and words (Raynolds and Walker, 2004). The space helps us

distinguish the letters or words during reading. In 1997, Tshichold defined rules of

typesetting for Penguin books by remarking that spacing between words should be

tightly wide-spaced since most typographers prefer narrow word spacing (Raynolds and

Walker, 2004). Tschichold compares the measurable amount of space that should be

given to match up with the thickness of the letter ‘I’ in the type size used; along with the

punctuation in the letterforms to give a definitive idea (Reynolds and Walker, 2004).

Until the twentieth century, the penguin composition rule was established to mark a

good typesetting practice (Reynolds and Walker, 2004). The rule had stated that any

additional space is not regarded for sound practice during reading, as it isolates the

individual’s letter spacing, giving a role to play whenever words cease to matter. That

one may read an isolated letter within a word individually where words cease to matter,

giving in a whole new meaning (Reynolds and Walker, 2004). Walker (1992) also

remarks that children are required to be generous with space between words when they

are learning how to write. However, if the spaces are too wide, it affects the overall

horizontal reading performance flow.

Charles Babbage 1827 (cited via Jury, 2016) stated that letters printed in black

were less straining to the eyes if printed on a yellow paper. Comparing to today’s black

on white type on screen where it is found to be less strenuous if the black tone is

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reduced. The same concept of contrasting colours should be considered for children’s

books in order for the child to have an easy flow over the words. It is important to

consider the colours that are mixed together to ensure that they contrast well so that

they make the reading process easier. Child’s Play Publishers suggest a dark text on a

light background as a good contrast such as yellow on black as suitable especially since

most publishers suggest that children’s books be coloured. In the writing process, one

writes on a white paper and uses a dark colour writing material for easy visibility

(Sassoon, 1995). Even with the default settings on documents that come with technology

such as Microsoft Word.

Guides used by publishers in the development of children’s

books
There are many types of children’s books; books for reading with adults, books for

reading alone, books for beginning reading, books for referencing, sharing together as a

group, informational books, so on and so forth. However, what do the guidelines

publishers use for the typography that goes on to the printing of children’s books?

Studies show that for children aged five to eleven years, their typefaces reduce

earlier than it should and this hinders the comprehension process (Wilkins et al., 2009).

Scholarly Publishers like Storymoja in Kenya use different font sizes for their textual

materials. The guidelines for Kenyan publishers, on addressing the eight-four-four

education system, which use a required point level system ensures a comfortable size for

early learners. The lower level books for early readers use an eighteen points font size,

standard one and two which are a level higher use sixteen points, standard three and

four use fourteen points, standard five to eight use twelve points and secondary level

and above use not less than ten points. It is interesting that the guidelines accounting

15
for the typeface size is measured in the number of points instead of a size measurable in

values that are fixed across different typefaces; since point sizes vary across different

fonts. For most publishers, the guidelines given after a certain level of age are not so

strict. Take for instance at Storymoja Publishers, where after standard four the

guidelines used to develop books for educative purposes in the classes onwards are the

choices made at the discretion of the publisher.

Many typefaces exist today and it is a challenge having to choose the right one as

a designer for children’s books. Therefore, it is important to find the right one that is

most appropriate for the job. Most, if not all publishers, suggested that Sans serif fonts

be used for early readers as a standard approach to factual publishing. The reason for

San serifs being that they resemble the letterforms closely that are used by children to

copy when children are introduced to learning how to write, whereby the shapes are

easy to learn (Walker, 1992). In picture books, it is often assumed that an adult is

reading the book for the child; therefore, the typography used could be playful.

Scholastic Publishers use a characteristic approach and mood of the book in order to

compliment the artwork and the visual language. In most picture books that are read,

different typefaces for each character when they speak is a fun visual way to further

personality and also assist readers to understand the book content. An example of such

a book that uses different typefaces is ‘Moody Margaret’s School’ by Francesca Simon

where using different typefaces is used as a focusing tool to show different elements

within the text.

Most of the publishers also suggested that early readers besides using Sans serif

fonts for their typeface, should have a single-storey for the letters a and g. Waker and

16
Reynolds (2003, 2004 Cited via Wilkins et al, 2009) argued that the two story a and g

are familiar to the children already as they begin their reading early and have already

visited the letters, meaning that the doube-storey a’s and g’s may be preferred to the

single-storey types of the infant letters because the double-storey letters are less

confusable during reading. Walker’s (1992) confirms that most children are aware that

there is a difference in the forms of the letters a and g across books in comparison with

the ones used in their own writing.

“Some commented favourably about what they perceived as the 'normal' g used in

Gill Schoolbook. Others thought that double-storey a's and g's were 'harder' than

single-storey a's and g's, but this did not affect their reading performance.”

(Walker and Reynolds, 2005).

Children are able to pick and choose their own fonts. The BDA technology

website showed that dyslexic readers favored certain features in a font. Obvious

ascenders and descenders that had stems on the letters like p and b, where if the letters

are too short, the shape hinders the reading process and makes it difficult to read.

Karuga (2016) also confirmed in an interview that most of her students confused the

letters p and b in handwriting, however not so much the ‘a’s and ‘g’s as would be

presumed to be the case. The letters ‘p’ and ‘b’ are somewhat similar, as Walker (1992)

claims the dangers of using infant characters that are almost the same like ‘a’ and ‘o’ can

be confusing. Child’s Play Publishers gave a suggestive font, ‘Gill Dyslexia’ for their

children’s books. If not Gill Dyslexia then preferably a font that compares to it so that

they can incorporate all children even those with learning disabilities. In addition, other

letters like descenders of G and J and recently the letter R was suggested by Scholastic

17
Publishers as one of the requirements for young readers to be looked upon with stylistic

preferences to that which matched up to the ones used for teaching children how to

write, as it is important to surround children with letterforms that they are mostly

familiar with.

A lot of the references of fictional books draw focus on reference in handwriting

where there is a left alignment for paragraphing, the same way lines are used as

guidelines for easy tracking during writing on exercise books which give a neat and

organized look. In the fictional books, Scholastic Publishers guidelines are of a more

traditional type where the young fiction titles of children ranging between the ages five

to eight ensure the leading allows enough white space to be comfortable to read. On

spacing and leading, Walker (1992) says it is not necessary that early readers use a large

type but instead the relationship between the letters and the space between the lines is

what makes the difference. The white space should be enough so as not to create a wall

of text which is seen as daunting. The left side is left-aligned when it comes to

justification for easy consistency, tracking and keeping the reading in relation to what

they are already used to in a school environment. In Scholastic Publishers, they suggest

where illustrations are placed, the left alignment allows the artwork to be easily placed

and for consistency through the pages. The illustrations used in children’s books of the

ages of five to eight range bridges a gap between picture books to more adult structured

books. As children get older they should be exposed to different forms of typography as

they are bound to run into them anyway.

18
Technology influences on writing and the typography of
children’s books
Technology has influenced the faces of the book designing process. There is a lot more

that goes on to the child’s reading and writing process besides just children’s books. It is

said that at the same time children learn sounds of the language through other means as

games they play through the parent’s phones, nursery rhymes, and rhythmic activities

such as skipping and word games as noted by the NAEYC (2012).

Type is no longer tangible with the digital age as pixel have replaced metal and

wood and now exist as an image. Shaw (2015) argues that there is no such thing as

handlettered type. Shaw (2015) remarks that type is prefabricated letters that can be set,

disassembled, rearranged and reused and that its forms are fixed by a designer whereas

lettering is drawn by hand, whether one uses pencil, pen or a vector based program and

that the individual parts cannot be taken apart without damaging the overall design. The

only time we can refer to handlettering is when lettering deliberately, trying to mimic a

typeface, though this is still lettering and not type. Paul exclaims that children have been

writing with keyboards their entire life. Reid (2016) confirms that in North Carolina,

through her teaching practice they do teach handwriting in the early years like in day

care when the child is still developing their motor controls but during the end year of

kindergarten they begin to teach writing on the keyboard.

Robert Lee Hotz (2016) in his latest research finds that students who take notes

by hand perform better than those who type and that more students use type as the

preferred means of recording information these days. Hotz (2016) mentions that

19
something about being able to write things down excites the brain, that when you type

you are able to record more as you would write and is the point at which the writing

system is going to be in the future. The good thing with being able to take down more

information with the writing process is you can go back and revise it at your own free

time, the down side is it lacks a communication in the input process of transforming

what you hear and the brain consuming it as it happens at a faster speed (Hotz, 2016).

Nowadays one finds that besides the books available for teaching handwriting,

technology provides easy access for printed worksheets for children to use. The

advantage is that there is ready material for the child to learn, but the disadvantage is

how much of the material being got freely can be said to be trusted and reliable. Some of

the websites that provide worksheets for teaching handwriting go as far as enabling one

to pick their own font for the child to copy over, for example the website:

http://www.handwritingworksheets.com. Having accessible information online can be

dangerous as the information given to the child could be misleading in terms of the

usefulness of the material. That is if the guide given to the child does not follow the

requirements of the teaching level at which the child has reached in terms of

understanding type or writing. On a skilled environment, the person giving the child aid

should always pay attention to when the child needs help in terms of what they are not

able to do on their own without aid (Bayley, 2003).

Technology such as eBook readers for children, the font decisions are not

manageable by publishers or the designers. Scholastic Publishers mention that they can

be undone by the reader which then becomes a challenge when making decisions and

considering to give the best reading experience as all is altered by a click of a button.

20
However, there is room for both traditional and electronic book forms to coexist

comfortably with each other; borrowing stylistically from each other, says Silvey (1995).

Conclusion
The research reveals that references are made from children’s handwriting in the

development of the typography for children’s books. A few influences have been

determined by the letters and spacing. A link in the history of handwriting revealed how

the development of the cursive print was generated and why they are used as the

preferable style for teaching children how to write. However, in some cases it is safe to

say that reading is separate in the making of the letters as the letters borrow from each

other, but it doesn’t affect so much whether a child will learn how to read. The most

important thing that has been established for an easy writing and reading process is that

legibility plays a big role in both; by achieving legibility we achieve success.

21
References:
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Lawrence Educational Publications.
Browne, A.C., 1998. A practical guide to teaching reading in the early years. London:
Paul Chapman Educational Publishing.
Brownie, B., 2014. Transforming type: New directions in kinetic typography. United
Kingdom: Berg Publishers.
Center, Y. (2005) Beginning reading: A balanced approach to teaching literacy during
the first three years at school. London: Continuum International Publishing
Group.
Cohen J., 2012. A brief history of Penmanship on national handwriting day - history in
the headlines. Available at: http://www.history.com/news/a-brief-history-of-
penmanship-on-national-handwriting-day (Accessed: 19 March 2016).
Dibbell, J., 2010. Best Technology Writing: Best Technology Writing. New Haven, CT,
USA: Yale University Press, 2010. ProQuest ebrary. Web (Accessed: 19 March
2016).
Freeman, A.R., MacKinnon, J.R. and Miller, L.T., 2004. ‘Assistive technology and
handwriting problems: What do occupational therapists recommend?’, Canadian
Journal of Occupational Therapy, 71(3), pp. 150–160 Available through: Anglia
Ruskin University Library Website (Accessed: 4 February 2016).
Gateway. 2009. Developing Handwriting. Available at:
http://www.foundationyears.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Gateway-to-
Writing-Developing-handwriting.pdf (Accessed: 13 February 2016).
Goldberg, E.R. and Simner, M.L., 1999. A comparison of children’s handwriting under
traditional vs. Whole language instruction; Canadian Journal of School
Psychology, 14(2), pp. 11–30. doi: Available through: Anglia Ruskin University
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Handwritingworksheets, n.d. Amazing handwriting worksheet maker. Available at:
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Historyworld, n.d., History of writing. Available at:
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(Accessed: 4 February 2016).
Hotz, R.L., 2016. Can handwriting make you smarter? Available at:
http://www.wsj.com/articles/can-handwriting-make-you-smarter-1459784659
(Accessed: 7 April 2016).

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Hughes, L. and Wilkins, A., 2000. ‘Typography in children’s reading schemes may be
suboptimal: Evidence from measures of reading rate’, Journal of Research in
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Library Website (Accessed: 19 March 2016)
Jury, D., 2015. Legibility, science and art. MOD00225 Typographic Enquiry. [online via
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1/Documents/Week%2007/Legibility.%20Notes%20Cambridge%20week%204_
Layout%201.pdf (Accessed: 9 March 2016).
Karuga W. 2016. Interview with Winnie Karuga. Interviewed by Sylvia Oloo. [Whatsapp]
19 March 2016, 06;00.
Kerrigan, S., 2012. Best font for Dyslexia Available through:
http://hantsda.org.uk/dyslexia-friendly-fonts/ (Accessed: 5 April 2016).
Koralek D. and Collins R. 2011. How most children learn to read. Available at:
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/how-most-children-learn-read (Accessed:
4 February 2016).
Kurland J. D., 2000. Learning to read and write. Available at:
http://www.criticalreading.com/learn_read_write.htm (Accessed: 4 February
2016).
MANGEN, A. 2010. ‘Point and click: Theoretical and phenomenological reflections on
the digitization of early childhood education’, Contemporary Issues in Early
Childhood, 11(4), p. 415. (Accessed: 4 February 2016).
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)., 2012. Learning to
read and write: What research reveals. Available at:
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/learning-read-and-write-what-research-
reveals (Accessed: 4 February 2016).
Reid, N., 2016. Interview with Nia Reid. Interviewed by Sylvia Oloo. [Facebook] 9 April
2016, 14:01
Reynolds, L. and Walker, S. (2004) ‘’You can“t see what the words say”: Word spacing
and letter spacing in children’s reading books’, Journal of Research in Reading,
27(1), pp. 87–98. Available through: Anglia Ruskin University Library Website
(Accessed: 22 March 2016)
Sassoon, R., 1995. The practical guide to children’s handwriting. London: Hodder &
Stoughton.
Shaw, P., 2015. From the God-Awful to the Transcendent: Why handlettering is not
type, 69(1), p. 31. doi: 100317438. Available through: Anglia Ruskin University
Library Website (Accessed: 22 March 2016)

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Silvey, A. (1995) Children’s books and their creators: An invitation to the cornucopia of
twentieth-century children’s literature. Houghton Mifflin (T).

VLetter, 2016. History of handwriting - vLetter, Inc. Available at:

https://www.vletter.com/help/font-faq/history-of-handwriting.html (Accessed:
19 March 2016).
Walker, S.,1992. How it looks: A teachers guide to typography in children’s books.
Reading and language information Centre.
Walker, S. and Reynolds, L. (2005) The typographic design for children project.
Available at: http://www.kidstype.org/?q=node/4 (Accessed: 15 February 2016).
Wilkins, A., Cleave, R., Grayson, N. and Wilson, L., 2009. ‘Typography for children may
be inappropriately designed’,Journal of Research in Reading, 32(4), pp. 402–
412. Available through: Anglia Ruskin University Library Website (Accessed: 22
March 2016).
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http://www.sassoonfont.co.uk/ (Accessed: 11 May 2016).

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 Appendix
1. Interview with Winnie Karuga (Whatsapp)
[19/03 6:00 am] Sylvia Oloo, Do you teach handwriting?
[19/03 6:01 am] Winnie Karuga: Yes, handwriting is taught.
[19/03 9:02 am] Sylvia Oloo: Is there a specific book for teaching handwriting to the
kids?
[19/03 10:24 am] Winnie Karuga: Nope, not really.
[19/03 10:24 am] Winnie Karuga: Not that I know of anyway.
[19/03 10:32 am] Sylvia Oloo: So what materials do you use
[19/03 10:55 am] Winnie Karuga: In Montessori, first the child in the earliest stages is
taught how to hone their large and fine motor skills using many practical life activities
such as pouring, transferring, beading etc.
[19/03 10:57 am] Winnie Karuga: From this the child is introduced to sand paper letters
and sand paper numerals and insets for designs. A lot of social activities are used as well
to deepen fine motor skills of holding a pencil and concentration which is crucial for
writing.
[19/03 10:59 am] Sylvia Oloo: Oh ok
[19/03 11:00 am] Sylvia Oloo: So when do you start introducing the pencil for them to
write
[19/03 11:00 am] Winnie Karuga: Not social... Sensorial
[19/03 11:00 am] Sylvia Oloo: I saw that on my research as well
[19/03 11:01 am] Sylvia Oloo: So teachers usually have the skills taught but whats in the
curriculum what do you follow
[19/03 11:03 am] Winnie Karuga: Once the child is comfortable with the sandpaper
numerals and in literacy starts using the movable alphabet to form words then I suppose
they can start using a pencil cause by then the pincer grip is already formed.
[19/03 11:04 am] Winnie Karuga: All the above is in the Montessori Curriculum.
[19/03 11:14 am] Sylvia Oloo: Oh ok, so kids at that age do they have books that you give
them?
[19/03 11:14 am] Sylvia Oloo: Maybe for reading or writing over?

25
[19/03 11:17 am] Winnie Karuga: Reading starts from as early as 2 years. For writing
maybe from around 4 years. Unlined plain books at first then they progress to lined
books where they learn how to space words and use punctuation rules.
[19/03 11:18 am] Sylvia Oloo: Cool so what books do you usually use for that?
[19/03 11:18 am] Sylvia Oloo: Chats?
[19/03 11:18 am] Winnie Karuga: The younger they are, the idea is to strengthen their
fine motor. As this improves, the materials are more complex. Some schools teach
cursive(joined) writing, others don't.
[19/03 11:19 am] Sylvia Oloo: Does yours teach it
[19/03 11:19 am] Sylvia Oloo: And at what point?
[19/03 11:19 am] Winnie Karuga: Books for reading depend on the child's reading level.
[19/03 11:21 am] Winnie Karuga: I have been in two schools: First in Montessori which
am trained in and they did not use cursive. Same as this British System school am in
now.
[19/03 11:21 am] Winnie Karuga: But when I was in kindergarten myself, I used cursive.
[19/03 11:30 am] Sylvia Oloo: I did too
[19/03 11:30 am] Sylvia Oloo: Maybe it's in the 844 curriculum
[19/03 11:31 am] Sylvia Oloo: So what ages do you teach currently?
[19/03 11:32 am] Winnie Karuga: Yeah.
[19/03 11:32 am] Winnie Karuga: I first had a class of 6 to 7 year olds.
[19/03 11:32 am] Winnie Karuga: Now am in a class of 5 to 6 year olds.
[19/03 11:33 am] Sylvia Oloo: Oh perfect that's around the years they develop
handwriting
[19/03 11:34 am] Sylvia Oloo: Are there any challenges you face when you teach them
handwriting?
[19/03 11:40 am] Winnie Karuga: I have not had a lot of hands on experience in a class.
This is only my third month! And they have already learnt the basic concepts of
handwriting.
[19/03 11:40 am] Sylvia Oloo: That's good
[19/03 11:41 am] Winnie Karuga: But for these advanced ones mostly I have seen
spacing problems, punctuation problems,writing neatly.
[19/03 11:41 am] Sylvia Oloo: Oh ok

26
[19/03 11:41 am] Sylvia Oloo: What do you use to account for that on what is right and
wrong on that level
[19/03 11:42 am] Sylvia Oloo: Your own knowledge on the matter?
[19/03 11:42 am] Sylvia Oloo: From what you learnt on training?
[19/03 11:44 am] Winnie Karuga: My own knowledge and my training:literacy module.
[19/03 11:44 am] Sylvia Oloo: Ok
[19/03 11:44 am] Sylvia Oloo: Oh and the question on teaching and materials
[19/03 11:45 am] Sylvia Oloo: Any indication of print and typography work (as in text
reference of print work)
[19/03 11:45 am] Sylvia Oloo: Like do they confuse the kids
[19/03 11:46 am] Sylvia Oloo: In terms of the g on a's on some books
[19/03 11:46 am] Sylvia Oloo: Would you know anything about that
[19/03 11:46 am] Sylvia Oloo: Based on your own experiences
[19/03 11:47 am] Winnie Karuga: Okay in my previous school it was b and d.
[19/03 11:48 am] Winnie Karuga: That is what I have seen with my little experience.
[19/03 11:49 am] Sylvia Oloo: Oh ok
[19/03 11:49 am] Sylvia Oloo: So at that age they dont have books they use in class
[19/03 11:49 am] Sylvia Oloo: For referal
[19/03 11:59 am] Winnie Karuga: Referral as in?
[19/03 12:00 pm] Sylvia Oloo: Reference
[19/03 12:00 pm] Sylvia Oloo: Like we had text books
[19/03 12:00 pm] Sylvia Oloo: In class
[19/03 12:00 pm] Sylvia Oloo: Any reference materials
[19/03 12:01 pm] Sylvia Oloo: That they can use at home etc
[19/03 12:01 pm] Winnie Karuga: Mmmmh, oh yes they are the usual textbooks like
Word Perfect, Junior English, Key Grammar, Key Spelling, Key Comprehension.
[19/03 12:02 pm] Winnie Karuga: Those are the textbooks I have seen.
[19/03 12:02 pm] Winnie Karuga: But reading books are all kinds. I can check the ones
in my class next week.
[19/03 12:05 pm] Sylvia Oloo: Ok thanks let me know

27
[19/03 12:05 pm] Sylvia Oloo: Do you also have copies of the same?
[19/03 12:06 pm] Winnie Karuga: Copies of the books?
[19/03 12:06 pm] Sylvia Oloo: Yea
[19/03 12:07 pm] Sylvia Oloo: At least one or two am curious to know how they decide
on the books and how they know they are great for the kids
[19/03 12:07 pm] Sylvia Oloo: As in what works in them and why others wouldn't
[19/03 12:07 pm] Sylvia Oloo: Such things
[19/03 12:08 pm] Sylvia Oloo: Who would know that information?
[19/03 12:12 pm] Winnie Karuga: Okay, will do my best.
[19/03 12:13 pm] Winnie Karuga: People who prepare curriculums I guess.
[19/03 12:15 pm] Winnie Karuga: I have no idea...
[19/03 12:19 pm] Sylvia Oloo: Ok thanks anyway
[19/03 12:20 pm] Sylvia Oloo: So that's what I mostly need from you
[19/03 12:21 pm] Winnie Karuga: If I get to know anything more, will let you know.
[19/03 12:22 pm] Sylvia Oloo: Ok thanks

2. Interview with Nia Reid (Facebook Chat)

9 APRIL 14:01

Sylvia Oloo:

Hallo Nia,

I'm sure this comes as a surprise since it has been a long time. I wanted to know if it
would be ok to ask you a few questions that would be helpful for my research for my
master's dissertation. I am working on children's handwriting and comparing it to the
typography used in children's books. I remember you studied education and I am not
sure if you still teach the early ages. Please let me know if you would be ok.

Thanks in advance.

Nia Reid:

Hi

28
 Yes that would be fine
I'm still teaching
Sylvia Oloo:
Oh that’s great! What age range do you teach? I also needed to know if handwriting is
still being taught in the US and if not what means do you use to introduce writing (in
terms of technology).
Nia Reid:
5 years and towards the end of the year most turn 6
Handwriting is taught in kindergarten
And in prek
11 APRIL 15:22
Sylvia Oloo:
Hi Nia,

I find it interesting that most of the research based on my end claim that American
schools have quit teaching handwriting and are now teaching the keyboard system. I see
a lot of contradiction on the teaching curriculum on writing practices but is this
handwritten? I wasn't able to follow up with the links as they didn't open for some
reason. I just wanted you to clarify this statement for me. Whether handwriting is still
been taught in schools today in the US.

Thanks in advance.

12 APRIL 01:12
Nia Reid:
Hi,
No handwriting is still being taught. Now every state has its own standards that they
follow.
For the most part all of North Carolina still works on handwriting in kindergarten.
The students learn how to use the keyboard closer towards the end of the school year on
kindergarten and in 1st grade.
Sylvia Oloo:
Ok thanks Nia. That’s good to know.
14 APRIL 01:33
Nia Reid:
Here is what my son does for handwriting
He's still in daycare will start kindergarten in August
Manu of the daycares and preschools also teach handwriting
14 APRIL 07:32
Sylvia Oloo
Interesting!
Thanks for sharing.

29
 How old is he now?
14 APRIL 11:24
Nia Reid:
He turned 5 in March
He can read and write spell his name etc
They have a curriculum book they use in his daycare that works to prepare them for
elementary school
Sylvia Oloo:
That’s great I didn’t know. Is it equivalent to kindergarten or he still has to go through
kindergarten?
Nia Reid:
No he still goes through kindergarten which would be elementary school
You have the daycare stage which is birth to age 4 or 5. Depending on when the child
turns 5 will determine when they will start off in kindergarten
Most daycare start circle time in the toddler room which prepares them early on for
sitting and listening to instructions from the teacher
Typically they do a story, the weather for the day, a song and days of the week etc
Each year they move to a different room and that circle time increases based of what the
research says their attention span is at that age
Most daycare centers in the 3 year old room will introduce the alphabet and numbers
and shapes etc
They play and learn in centers
Then typically once they turn 4 they build on the skills in preparation for elementary
school where they do sight words practice writing counting adding objects etc
Some public schools have a free preK in the school building
In North Carolina children have to do an assessment and based off the need of the child
will determine their selection for preK
So the more at risk they higher chances of getting into the public school system prek
program
My son didn't get in
Every state is different though on how they run prek programs
Places like Headstart would be great for you to look up
Or the More at Four programs
Sylvia Oloo
Wow! Thanks so much Nia.
Nia Reid
You're welcome

30
 Handwriting during early childhood
development and its relation to the
typography in children’s books

By Sylvia Oloo

This work contains material that is the copyright property of others which cannot be
reproduced without the permission of the copyright owner. Such material is clearly
identified in the text

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