UNIT-IV

LEGISLATIVE ASPECTS & HEALTH HAZARDS

POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD STANDARDS:
INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT STANDARDS:
Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of Environment and Forests issue the Maximum
permissible limits for industrial effluent discharges (in mg/litre) as follows:-
On land for irrigation
Into in land surface waters Into public sewers
Parameter Indian Standards: 3307
Indian standards: 2490(1974) Indian Standards:3306(1974)
(1974)
pH 5.50-9.00 5.50-9.00 5.50-9.00
Biological oxygen demand
30.00 350.00 100.00
(for 5 days at 20°C)
Chemicals oxygen demand 250.00 -- --
Suspended solids 100.00 600.00 200.00
Total dissolved solids
2100.00 0 2100.00 2100.0
(inorganic)
Temperature (°C) 40.00 45.00 --
Oil and grease 10.00 20.00 10.00
Phenolic compounds 1.00 5.00 --
Cyanides 0.20 2.00 0.20
Sulphides 2.00 -- --
Fluorides 2.00 15.00 --
Total residual chlorine 1.00 -- --
Pesticides -- -- --
Arsenic 0.20 0.20 0.20
Cadmium 2.00 1.00 --
Chromium (hexavalent) 0.10 2.00 --
Copper 3.00 3.00 --
Lead 0.10 1.00 --
Mercury 0.01 0.01 --
Nickel 3.00 3.00 --
Zinc 5.00 15.00 --
Chlorides 1000.00 1000.00 600.00
Boron 2.00 2.00 2.00
Sulphates 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00
Sodium(%) -- 60.00 60.00
Ammonical nitrogen 50.00 50.00 --
Radioactive materials . . .
Alpha emitters
10-7 10-7 10-8
(milli curie/millilitre)
Beta emitters
10-6 10-6 10-7
(as curie/millilitre)

EMMISION STANDARDS:
The first Indian emission regulations were idle emission limits which became effective in 1989. These
idle emission regulations were soon replaced by mass emission limits for both petrol (1991) and
diesel (1992) vehicles, which were gradually tightened during the 1990’s. Since the year 2000, India
started adopting European emission and fuel regulations for four-wheeled light-duty and for heavy-dc.
Indian own emission regulations still apply to two- and three-wheeled vehicles.
Current requirement is that all transport vehicles carry a fitness certificate that is renewed each year
after the first two years of new vehicle registration.

On October 6, 2003, the National Auto Fuel Policy has been announced, which envisages a phased
program for introducing Euro 2 - 4 emission and fuel regulations by 2010. The implementation
schedule of EU emission standards in India is summarized in Table 1.[8]

Table 1: Indian Emission Standards (4-Wheel Vehicles)

Standard Reference Date Region
India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide
2001 NCR*, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai
Bharat Stage II Euro 2 2003.04 NCR*, 10 Cities†
2005.04 Nationwide
2005.04 NCR*, 10 Cities†
Bharat Stage III Euro 3
2010.04 Nationwide
Bharat Stage IV Euro 4 2010.04 NCR*, 10 Cities†
* National Capital Region (Delhi)
† Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur and Agra

The above standards apply to all new 4-wheel vehicles sold and registered in the respective regions.
In addition, the National Auto Fuel Policy introduces certain emission requirements for interstate
buses with routes originating or terminating in Delhi or the other 10 cities.

For 2-and 3-wheelers, Bharat Stage II (Euro 2) will be applicable from April 1, 2005 and Stage III
(Euro 3) standards would come in force preferably from April 1, 2008, but not later than April 1, 2010.

Trucks and Buses

Emission standards for new heavy-duty diesel engines—applicable to vehicles of GVW > 3,500 kg—
are listed in Table 1. Emissions are tested over the ECE R49 13-mode test (through the Euro II stage)

Table 2 Emission Standards for Diesel Truck and Bus Engines, g/kWh
Year Reference CO HC NOx PM
1992 - 17.3-32.6 2.7-3.7 - -
1996 - 11.20 2.40 14.4 -
2000 Euro I 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36*
2005† Euro II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
2010† Euro III 2.1 0.66 5.0 0.10

* 0.612 for engines below 85 kW

† earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1

More details on Euro I-III regulations can be found in the EU heavy-duty engine standards page.

Light duty diesel vehicles

Emission standards for light-duty diesel vehicles (GVW ≤ 3,500 kg) are summarized in Table 3.
Ranges of emission limits refer to different classes (by reference mass) of light commercial vehicles;
compare the EU light-duty vehicle emission standards page for details on the Euro 1 and later
standards. The lowest limit in each range applies to passenger cars (GVW ≤ 2,500 kg; up to 6 seats).

Table 3 Emission Standards for Light-Duty Diesel Vehicles, g/km

Year Reference CO HC HC+NOx PM
1992 - 17.3-32.6 2.7-3.7 - -
1996 - 5.0-9.0 - 2.0-4.0 -
2000 Euro 1 2.72-6.90 - 0.97-1.70 0.14-0.25
2005† Euro 2 1.0-1.5 - 0.7-1.2 0.08-0.17
† earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1

The test cycle has been the ECE + EUDC for low power vehicles (with maximum speed limited to 90
km/h). Before 2000, emissions were measured over an Indian test cycle.

Engines for use in light-duty vehicles can be also emission tested using an engine dynamometer. The
respective emission standards are listed in Table 4.

Table 4 Emission Standards for Light-Duty Diesel Engines, g/kWh

Year Reference CO HC NOx PM
1992 - 14.0 3.5 18.0 -
1996 - 11.20 2.40 14.4 -
2000 Euro I 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36*
2005† Euro II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
* 0.612 for engines below 85 kW

† earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1

Light duty gasoline vehicles

4-wheel vehicles

Emissions standards for gasoline vehicles (GVW ≤ 3,500 kg) are summarized in Table 5. Ranges of
emission limits refer to different classes of light commercial vehicles (compare the EU light-duty
vehicle emission standards page). The lowest limit in each range applies to passenger cars (GVW ≤
2,500 kg; up to 6 seats).

Table 5 Emission Standards for Gasoline Vehicles (GVW ≤ 3,500 kg), g/km
Year Reference CO HC HC+NOx
1991 - 14.3-27.1 2.0-2.9 -
1996 - 8.68-12.4 - 3.00-4.36
1998* - 4.34-6.20 - 1.50-2.18
2000 Euro 1 2.72-6.90 - 0.97-1.70
2005† Euro 2 2.2-5.0 - 0.5-0.7
* for catalytic converter fitted vehicles
† earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1

Gasoline vehicles must also meet an evaporative (SHED) limit of 2 g/test (effective 2000).

3- and 2-wheel vehicles

Emission standards for 3- and 2-wheel gasoline vehicles are listed in the following tables. [2]

Table 6 Emission Standards for 3-Wheel Gasoline Vehicles, g/km

Year CO HC HC+NOx
1991 12-30 8-12 -
1996 6.75 - 5.40
2000 4.00 - 2.00
2005 (BS II) 2.25 - 2.00

Overview of the emission norms in India

• 1991 - Idle CO Limits for Gasoline Vehicles and Free Acceleration Smoke for Diesel Vehicles,
Mass Emission Norms for Gasoline Vehicles.

• 1992 - Mass Emission Norms for Diesel Vehicles.

• 1996 - Revision of Mass Emission Norms for Gasoline and Diesel Vehicles, mandatory fitment
of Catalytic Converter for Cars in Metros on Unleaded Gasoline.

• 1998 - Cold Start Norms Introduced.

• 2000 - India 2000 (Eq. to Euro I) Norms, Modified IDC (Indian Driving Cycle), Bharat Stage II
Norms for Delhi.

• 2001 - Bharat Stage II (Eq. to Euro II) Norms for All Metros, Emission Norms for CNG & LPG
Vehicles.

• 2003 - Bharat Stage II (Eq. to Euro II) Norms for 11 major cities.

• 2005 - From 1 April Bharat Stage III (Eq. to Euro III) Norms for 11 major cities.

• 2010 - Bharat Stage III Emission Norms for 4-wheelers for entire country whereas Bharat
Stage - IV (Eq. to Euro IV) for 11 major cities. Bharat Stage IV also has norms on OBD
(simalar to Euro III but diluted)

STANDARDS FOR DEEP BURIAL:

 1. A pit or trench should he dug about 2 meters deep. It should be half filled with waste, then
covered with lime within 50 cm of the surface, before filling the rest of the pit with soil.

2. It must be ensured that animals do not have any access to burial sites. Covers of galvanised
iron/wire meshes may be used.

3. On each occasion, when wastes are added to the pit, a layer of 10 em of soil shall be added
to cover the wastes.

4. Burial must be performed under close and dedicated supervision.

5. The deep burial site should be relatively impermeable and no shallow well should be close
to the site.

6. The pits should be distant from habitation, and sited so as to ensure that no contamination
occurs of any surface water or ground water. The area should not be prone to flooding or
erosion.

7. The location of the deep burial site will be authorized by the prescribed authority.

8. The institution shall maintain a record of all pits for deep burial.

THE PETROLEUM ACT 1934

Object :
This Act regulates the import, transport, storage, production refining and blending of
petroleum.
Coverage : It extends to whole of India.
Definitions
Petroleum :
Petroleum means any liquid hydrocarbon or mixture of hydrocarbons, and any inflammable
mixture (liquid, viscous or solid) containing any liquid of hydrocarbon).
There are three classifications of petroleum as per this Act. They are:
a) Class A Petroleum : Petroleum having flash-point below 23oC comes under this group.
Eg : Petrol, Naphta.
b) Class B Petroleum : Petroleum having flash-point of 23oC and above but below 65oC is
grouped in this type.
Eg: Kerosene, Diesel.
c) Class C Petroleum: Petroleum with flash-point 65oC and above but below 93oC is groups as C
class petroleum.
Eg: LSHS

Some of the provisions of this Act are given below

1. Restriction on leaky receptacles: No leaky tank or container containing petroleum shall be
tendered for transport.
2. Loading of containers: Barrels, drums and other containers filled with petroleum shall be
loaded with bung upwards.
3. Prohibition of smoking, fires, lights : No person while engaged in loading or unloading or
transporting shall smoke or carry matches, lighters or other appliances capable of producing
ignition or explosion.
4. Provision of fire extinguishers : Fire extinguishers suitable for fighting oil fires shall be placed
at convenient points on any vessel transporting petroleum class A. Not less than two such fire
extinguishers shall be placed on the after deck.
5. Tank vehicles : Every tank vehicles used for the transport of petroleum in bulk on land should
be built, tested and maintained in accordance with the requirements laid down in the Third
Schedule and be of a type approved in writing by the Chief controller of explosives (CCE).
6. Restriction on other use: Tank vehicle means for the carriage of petroleum in bulk shall not be
used for any other purpose except when so authorized by Chief Controller in writing.
7. Prohibition as to parking: No vehicle carrying petroleum by road shall be parked on a public
road or in any congested area or at a place within 9 meters from any source of fire.
8. Precaution against static charges: All Petroleum by road shall be parked on a public road or in
any congested area or at a place within 9 meter from any source of fire.
9. Precautions against Electrical hazards of a running engine: No mechanically propelled vehicle
for the petroleum shall be loaded or unloaded until its engine has been stopped and battery
isolated from the electrical circuit. The engine shall not be restarted and the battery shall not
be connected to the electrical circuit until tanks and valves have been securely closed.
10. Precaution against product contamination : No person shall load or unload any tank vehicle
unless he has selected the correct filling hose and otherwise satisfied himself that such loading
or unloading will not result in any dangerous contamination of one class of petroleum with
another class of petroleum.
11. Repair of Tank : No tank, which has carried petroleum, shall be repaired by welding, brazing,
soldering or hot riveting unless it has been examined by a competent responsible person and
certified in writing by such person to be free from inflammable vapours or oil. All repairs to
tanks which have contained petroleum shall be carried out by qualified and experienced
person.
12. Precaution against corrosion: The pipe shall be protected against corrosion by suitable
coating, strapping and where necessary by cathode protection.
13. Hydrostatic testing of pipe line : Before transporting petroleum for the first time, each pipe line
or completed sections thereof shall be filled with water and the pressure in the line of section,
as the case may be, raised to 1.1 times internal pressure and maintained for a period of at
least 24 hours. A pipe line or a section thereof showing any significant drop or pressure during
the period of testing shall not be used for transporting petroleum until necessary repairs have
been carried out and a satisfactory reset done.
General Provisions
14. Prohibition of Employment of children and intoxicated persons: No child under the age of 16
years and no person who is in a state of intoxication shall be employed on the loading
unloading or transport of petroleum or in any premises caused under these rules.

15. Notice of Accidents with petroleum:

a) Whether an accident occurs in any place in which petroleum is refined, blended or kept,
or accident occurs while loading, unloading or transporting of petroleum, the occupier of
the place or the person for the time being in charge of the petroleum or the person in
 charge of the carriage or vessel should give notice there of to the Chief Controller of
Explosives, Nagpur within 24 hours of the accident. The notice of accident should also
be given to the officer-in-charge of the nearest police station by quickest means of
communication.
b) Pending the visit of the Chief Controller or his representatives, or until instruction is
received from Chief Controller that he does not wish any further investigation or inquiry
to be made, all wreckage and debris shall be left untouched except in so far as its
removal may be necessary for the rescue of persons injured and recovery of the bodies
of any persons killed by the accident or in the case of railways, for the restoration of
through communication.
GAS CYLINDER RULES 1981
Object :
The object of the gas cylinder rule is to regulate the filling, possession, import and transport of
gas cylinders. The gas cylinder means closed metal containers intended for the storage of
compressed gases having a volume exceeding 500m. But not exceeding 1000 litres. Controller of
explosive, Nagpur is the administrative authority for the enforcement of these rules.

Some Provisions
1. Cylinders manufacture in India, are fitted with safety relief devices. Such devices shall be
manufactured and maintained in accordance with Indian Standard 5903. Cylinders
manufactured in foreign countries, approved for use in this country, if fitted with safety relief
devices shall have these devices fully maintained in accordance with the requirements of the
specification to which they where originally made.
2. Every gas cylinder shall be permanently marked in accordance with the conditions laid down.
3. Valves fitted to cylinders shall be clearly and durably marked by stamping, engraving or similar
processes.
4. Every cylinder shall be labeled with the name of the gas and the name and address of the
person by whom they cylinder was filled with gas. A warning in the following term shall be
attached to every cylinder containing permanent or liquefiable gas, namely – “WARNING” (Gas
Cylinder Rules 1981).
a) Do not change the colour of this cylinder.
b) This cylinder should not be filled with any gas other than the one it now contains.
c) No flammable material should be stored in the immediate vicinity of this cylinder or in
the room in which it is kept.
d) No oil similar lubricants should be used on the valves or other fitting of the cylinder.
e) Please look for the next date of test which is marked on a metal ring inserted between
the valve and the cylinder and if this date is over, do not accept the cylinder.
5. No person shall smoke and no fires, other than blow pipe flames for repairs, or no articles or
substances of flammable nature or liable to spontaneous or communicate fire or explosion
shall be alloyed at any time in proximity to a place where any cylinder for flammable gases is
being filled, stored or handled. No person in any or near any place where cylinders containing
flammable gases are filled, stored or handled shall have in his possession any matches, fuses
or other appliances for producing ignition or explosion.
6. Cylinders together with valves and other fittings and the identification colours under these rules
shall always be maintained in good condition. No oil or similar lubricant shall be used on any
 valve or other fittings of any cylinder. No cylinder shall be subjected to any heart treatment or
exposed to a high temperature or explosive material.
7. Every cylinder containing compressed gas shall have its valve securely closed so as to prevent
leakage. Valves fitted to the cylinders containing liquefied petroleum gas highly toxic gases
like boron trifluoridem, Carbon monoxide, Fluorine, Hydrogen Chloride, Chlorine trifluride,
Methly bromide, Nitrogen tetroxide, Chlorine, Amonia or Sulphur Dioxide shall be provided
with security net on the outlet to act as a secondary means of safeguard against leakage of
gas.
8. If a leak in the valve cannot be rectified by tightening the gland nut or the spindle, the cylinder
shall be removed to an open space where it is least dangerous to life and property and the
filler shall be informed.
9. No person shall commit or attempt to commit any act which may tend to cause a fire or
explosion at any place where gas under pressure in a cylinder is stored, handled or
transported.

Handling and Use

a. Cylinders shall be adequately supported during handling.
b. Trolleys and cradles of adequate strength shall be used when moving the cylinder.
c. The cylinder shall be handled carefully and not be allowed to fall upon one another or
otherwise subjected to any undue shock.
d. Sliding, dropping, or playing with cylinder is prohibited.
e. Liquefied petroleum gas cylinders containing liquefiable gases shall always be kept in an
upright position and shall be so place that they can not be knocked over.
f. Open flames, lights, lightning of fires, welding and smoking shall be prohibited in close
proximity to any cylinder containing flammable gases except those whole in use for welding,
cutting and heating.
Retractions on Filling
a. Welded cylinders shall not be used for filling any permanent of high pressure liquefiable gas or
hightly toxic gas like Boron trichloride, Carbonyl Chloride, Chlorine tetrafluoride, Cyanogen,
Cyanogen chloride, Hydrogen cyanide, Hydrogen fluride, Hydrogen Sulphoide.
b. No cylinder which has once been used for storage and transportation of coal gas shall be used
for filling with any other gas.
c. No cylinder shall be filled with any gas that is capable of combining chemically so as to
endanger its serviceability.
THE EXPLOSIVE ACT 1884
Object : The object of the Act is to regulate the manufacture, possession, use, sales, import and
export of explosive.
Coverage: The Act extends to whole of India
Explosive: An explosive may be defined as a single chemical compound or a mixture of substances
which under suitable conditions of initiation undergo a sudden chemical change liberating large
quantities of energy in the form of gases at a very high temperature and pressure.
Explosion: An explosion is a sudden rapid escape of gases from a confined place accomplished by
high temperature. violent shock and loud noise.
All authorized explosive are divided into 8 classes as given under
Class 1 - Gun powder
 Class 2 - Nitrate mixture
Class 3 - Nitro compound
Class 4 - Chlorate mixture
Class 5 - Fulminate
Class 6 - Ammunition
Class 7 - Fire works
Class 8 - Liquid oxygen explosive
Home made bombs and deceptive devices are unauthorized explosives and these do not
come under the explosive rules 1983.
Uses: Explosives are used widely in mines and quarries for blasting rocks and mining coal and
minerals. large quantities of explosives are also used by Cement Industries for quarrying limestone
and other raw materials. Public works departments and railways also make use of explosives.
Special type of explosive are used for seismic survey to study Geophysical features to locate oil
fields.
Some Provisions of the Act
1. The Chief Controller of Explosive – Nagpur is the Administrative authority dealing with his Act.
2. The Act prohibits explosives being sold or exposed for sale on highways and public place.
3. The Act empowers the appointment of Government Inspectors and to make rules, assign and
regulate their duties.
4. The Inspector has power to require the occupier of any factory of magazine (a place licensed
for keeping of an explosive) to rectify / remedy anything connected with his factory or
magazine which is in the opinion of the inspector dangerous or defective.
5. A notice of accident arising from explosion or fire occurring in the factory or magazine shall be
given to the explosive inspector.
6. Every building in a factory shall be used only for the purpose specified in the license granted
under the Act/Rules.
7. Every building used for production, handling, storage and testing of explosives in a licensed
factory, unless otherwise exempted by the licensing authority shall be surrounded by a
substantial mound which shall be of a type and design approved by the Chief controller of
explosive.
8. Oil cotton oil rags, oil waste and any article liable to spontaneous combustion shall not be
taken into any building connected with explosive except for the purpose of immediate supply and
work or immediate use in such buildings and upon cessation of work or use shall forthwith be
removed.
9. No tools or other implement shall be used , or allowed to be present in a building used for
carrying out process or manufacture, unless they are of wood, copper, brass or soft metal or
material are covered with safe and suitable material.

10. Prohibition of smoking except in places especially approved by the licensing authority, no
person shall smoke in any part of the licensed factory.
11. Protection against lighting: Every process building shall have one or more efficient lighting
conductors designed and elected in accordance with the specification laid down in Indian
Standard No.2309 as amended from time to time.
12. Taking hazardous articles or substances into the process building should be prevented. The
persons employed in the process building should be required to wear cloths without pocket
and with suitable shoes.
13. Any licensed magazine or store house shall be kept securely closed or locked it all times
except when goods are being placed in or taken ouit or when it must be kept open for some
other purposes in connection with the management of such premises.
14. The licensee shall provide for round the clock safe custody of ther magazine or store house as
per the guidelines of District Authority.
15. The quantity of any kind of explosive kept in any licensed magazine or store house shall not
exceed the quantity entered, in the license against such kind of explosives.
The Explosive (Substances) Act 1908:
The main object of this Act is to impose penalty for making or processing explosive substances
with unlawful intent and to provide for the punishment of any person who cause an explosion which is
likely to endanger life or property or the one who attempts to cause such an explosion.
Definition of “Explosive Substance”:
In this Act the expression “explosive substance” shall be deemed to include any materials for
making any explosive substances also any apparatus, machines, implement or material used to
intended to be used or adapted for causing or aiding in causing any explosion in or with any explosive
substance, also any part of any such apparatus, machine or implement.
ENVIRONMENTAL (PROTECTION) ACT-1986:
It describes the protection and improving the quality of environment for prevention, control and
reduction of environmental pollution.
Salient Features:
1. The setting up of standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes.
2. It gives the maximum permissible limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants
for different areas.
3. Procedures and safeguards for handling of hazardous substances in different areas.
4. Prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and to carry on process and
operations in different areas.
5. Prohibition and restrictions on handling of hazardous substances in different areas.
6. The procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and providing for remedial measures for such accidents.
Penalties for violating the provisions under the Act:
Any person who fails to comply or who contravenes any provisions of the act shall be
punishable with imprisonment for a term extending to 5 years or be punishable with fine up to Rs.1
lakh or both. If violation continues, an additional fine of Rs. 5000 per day may be imposed for entire
period of violation of rules.
Environment al Impact Assessment (EIA)
The Environments Impact Assessment (EIA) is an essential technique for ensuring that the
likely effects of a new development on the environment are fully considered before development can
go ahead. Although regulatory bodies will obtain sufficient information in advance of a development
to give planning permission. EIA provides a systematic analysis allowing proper evaluation of
environment potential impacts of the project.
When assessments controls and preventative measures are taken. It is important to further
assess if the measures being adopted do not create other problems which have not been identified
eg control over pollution occurring via one medium i.e. air, will not be deemed to be sufficient if it
results in a diversion of the pollutant to another medium in water.
Environmental audits are detailed studies of existing plant, materials and projects and will be
carried out by Safety Advisers. Audits will be either part of Company policy or in request by Senior
Management . The format of the audits will be set out in the Company Positive Safety Measurement
Manual. A comprehensive report will be produced at the conclusion of each audit.
Environment inspections will be carried out as part of the normal safety and health inspection
of sites by the Safety Department. They may on occasions be supplemented by a specific
measurement of the effect on the environment eg. from particular plant.
OCCUPATIONAL AND HEALTH HAZARDS:
Healthy worker is an asset to the management as only a healthy worker can give his maximum
output in terms of productivity.
It is stated that if a worker has to give his maximum, he should have
1) Economic satisfaction of earning a livelihood.
2) Social satisfaction of identifying himself as one in the group
3) Individual satisfaction of doing a job well done.
The health will have a bad influence on all the three factors mentioned above. Most
management employ healthy workers, selecting them by pre employment check up and later
subjecting to periodical medical check up.
Health of the worker is influenced by:
1) Occupational factors (working environment)
2) Non occupational factors (food, clothing, water, housing, diet habits, personal habits like
smoking, alcohol etc.)
The interaction of the workers with his working environment may result in impairment of his
health leading to work related illnesses known as occupational diseases.
Classification of occupational health hazards:
Working environment can be classified broadly into:
1. Physical 2. Chemical 3. Biological (Parabites and infection diseases)
4. Social
1. Physical Agents
a) Heat: Reduced mental alertness increased errors, decreased product sickness, absenteeism,
Accidents, Heat exhaustion, Cramps, Heat stroke.
b) Cold: Excessive cold can cause shivering, vasco constriction and local effects such as frost
bite.
c) Light: Accidents, increased errors, Cataract due to infra red radiation etc.
d) Noise: Hearing loss
e) Ionizing radiation: Acute: Radiation sickness Anaemia
Chronic: Cancer of skin, bone, blood
f) Vibration: Vibration white finger
g) Changes in atmospheric pressure: Decompression sickness

2. Chemical Agents
Chemicenter the body through three routes:
1. Ingestion - Least common and important route
2. Inhalation - main route
 3. Injection
4. Skin absorption -substance which have fat dissolving property
Eg: NICOTINE, CS2, C6 H6 etc.,
Classification of Chemical Agents
1. Metals
a) Ancient metals : Lead, Hg.
b) Other metals : Arsenic and its compounds, P and its Compounts, Zn and
its Compounts
C) Never Metals : Berylluim, Cadmium, Cr, mn, Ni, Ur, Vn, etc.,
2) Aromatic Compounds: C6H6, Phenol, Hexachlorophenol etc.,
3) Aliphatic Carbon Compounds: Methyl Alcohol, Nitroglycerine, Halogenated Hydrocarbons,
Vinyl Chloride etc,
4) Noxious Gases: (Causes suffocation)
SAFE WORKING ENVIRONMENT:
The need to build safe working environments has lead to enormous increase in the proportion
of design time devoted for safety studies.
Plants must function as planned and safely carry out the operations. The requirements of
acceptable quantity values on the parameters and which are also affected by such factors as
experience, operability, good practice and the meeting of guarantees, operating limits of the
parameters are concerned with safety on operation.
Design implies selection of proper materials of construction, proper reaction volumes,
simulation of reaction conditions, reaction time with utmost safety considerations in all these parts.
Material must stand both corrosion and erosion at the operating conditions, metallic materials
used for equipments are tested for tensile strength, ductility, hardness, impact strength and fatigue.
It’s physical properties like thermal, electrical and magnetic characteristics density, dimensional
accuracy are clearly taken for consideration during design of equipments.
Also fabrication procedures like heat treatment, hardening methods, stress relieving in
wielding, surface finish are given due importance before the equipment is installed.
Generally in the design of process or equipments the variables like temperature of operation,
pressure, flow and velocity conditions, level, chemical reactivity, mechanical stresses are mentioned
clearly for enabling process operations.
Margins of variables like upper limit, lower limit and normal operating limit are to be specified
for each of the parameters. Also during designing, an allowance for safety should be added normally
i.e. the design pressure must be maximum pressure plus 10% operating pressure.
Other variables to be included are chemical composition, corrosion conditions, vibrations and
shocks, water hammer, expansion or contraction and environmental conditions so that safe operation
of the equipment is possible.
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