RAILWAY ENGINEERING

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Track or Permanent Way
• The combination of rails, sleepers, fittings,
ballast etc is known as a track or permanent
way.

• In other words, railway locomotives, coaches or

wagon need a path to run over it

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 Track Components
• Rails
• Sleepers
• Fittings and fastening
• Ballast
• Formation

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 Sleeper

Rails

Ballast
Fittings &
Fastenings

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Gauge

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 Formation
Ballast

Natural Subgrade

Cross Section of a Railway Track

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Functions of Track Components
• RAILS
– Rails are the steel girders over which the train
moves and transmit the wheel loads of the
trains to the sleepers below.
• SLEEPERS
– The sleepers hold the rails at exact distance
or gauge throughout with the help of fittings
and fastening and transfer the load from the
rails to the ballast below.
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Functions of Track Components
• BALLAST
– Ballast holds the sleeper in position and
provides a uniform level surface.
– Ballast act as an elastic bed to absorb the
blows and shocks of the moving train.
– They also provide drainage to the track and
transfer the load to larger area of the
formation below.

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Functions of Track Components
• FITTINGS AND FASTENING
– They provide a grip between the rails and the
sleepers.
– The rails are fastened with the sleepers by
fittings and fastening.
• FORMATION
– Formation is the foundation of the railway
track made up of locally available earthen
material.
– It distribute the load over wider area of the
natural ground. 9
 Requirement for an ideal track
• The gauge of the track should be uniform.

• The alignment of the track should be correct.

• In straight reaches the rail level should be the

same while on curves proper transition curves
should be provided between straight and the
curves.

• On the curves the outer rail should have proper

super elevations to take into account the
centrifugal forces.
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 Requirement for an ideal track
• The gradient should be uniform and as gentle as
possible. Too steep gradient should be avoided.
• The drainage system of the track should be
perfect.
• The friction between the wheels of the rolling
stock and the rail should be minimum.
• The track should be designed in such a way that
the load of the train should be uniformly
distributed over it.

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 Capacity of railway Track
• Maximum number of trains that can run
safely on any given length of the track per
hour.
• In actual practice it is somewhat less due
to safety considerations (i.e., speed of
train, signaling and control system etc.)
• Maximum number of the trains which can
be handled in a yard per day is known as
terminal capacity.
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Measures to Increase Track Capacity

• The track speed of all the trains should be kept

same. This can be achieved by providing
uniform gauge and uniform traction.

• To alert the driver regarding the position of the

section ahead, multi aspect signaling may be
adopted.

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 Measures to Increase Track Capacity

• The speed of the trains can be increased

by making suitable modification in the
existing tracks and removing the speed
restrictions.

• Reduction in stoppage time of the trains

will increase the track capacity.

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 Measures to Increase Track Capacity

• To meet the present requirements,

existing yard facilities should be improved.

• For quick shunting operations, additional

operating facilities should be provided.

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 Comparison of Roads and
Railways
• Nature of Track
– Flexible or rigid pavement
– Track is considered as a beam on
elastic foundation
• Service to user
– Door delivery is possible
– Delivery is at the railway station

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Comparison of Roads and
Railways (cont’d)
• Transportation cost
– Economical for short distances because of
saving in time and money
– Economical for long distances

• Nature of traffic
– Traffic ranging from pedestrian to heavy
trucks
– Track is reserved for scheduled trains
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Comparison of Roads and
Railways (cont’d)
• Stresses
– transmitted to subgrade through pavement
and formation
– Heavy concentrated loads of locomotives,
wagons and coaches come on the track
• Speeds
– Speed is restricted due to variety of traffic
– Comparatively higher speed can be achieved
because there is no obstruction on the track
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Comparison of Roads and
Railways (cont’d)
• Frictional Resistance
– Between the tires of the vehicle and the road
surface is high
– Between the steel rails and the steel wheel.
Frictional resistance is about 20% of the road
resistance.
• Cost of construction
– Comparatively less
– The rails have to be carefully laid and rigidly
fixed at fixed distances hence heavy cost 19
• Maintenance Cost
– Comparatively less
– Even slight change in track position would
result in derailment.
• Change of track
– Change from one highway to another is
done by junctions and crossings
– The lateral movement of train wheels is
restricted. Moreover to move from one
track to another is done through points
and crossings.
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Rail Gauges
• Is defined as the clear distance between
the inner or running faces of the two rails
forming the track.

Gauge

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History of Rail Gauges
• In Britain, a gauge of 1525 mm was initially
adopted.
• The flanges at that time were outside.
• The gauge to which first railway track was laid is
4 ft & 8.5 in (1435 mm)
• The reason for this was the plateways of 18 th
century which were 5 ft apart.
• When George Stephenson was building the
Stockton & Darlington Railway he decided the
rail gauge should be just over 4 ft 8 ins (1.44m).
• The reason for this was that was the width of the
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wagonway.
History of Rail Gauges (cont’d)
• When Isambard Brunel (1838) was building the
London to Bristol line, he decided to use what
became known as the broad gauge (2.2 m)
instead of the standard gauge (1.44m)
• Brunel argued that by using a wider track, he
could provide larger and faster locomotives.
• It was also pointed out that the broad gauge was
safer and that locomotives would be less likely to
leave the rails on sharp bends.

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Gauges on World Railways
• Standard Gauge • England, USA,
– SG Canada, Turkey,
– 1435 mm or 4’ 8.5” China
– % 62 of total length

• Broad Gauge • Pakistan, India,

– BG Brazil, Argentina,
– 1676 mm or 5’ 6” Russia
– 15 % of Total length

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Gauges on World Railways (cont’d)
• Cape Gauge • Africa, Japan,
– CG Australia & Newzeland
– 1067 mm or 4’ 6”
– 8 % of total length

• Meter Gauge
• France, Switzerland
– MG
– 1000 mm or 3’ 3.5”
– 9 % of Total length

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Gauges on World Railways (cont’d)
• 23 various other • Various countries
gauges
– 6 % of total length

• Narrow Gauges
– 2’6” or 2’
– Development of poor
area where there is
less traffic

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Choice of Gauge
• The choice of gauge is very limited as
each country has a fixed gauge
• However three factors are kept in mind
– Cost consideration
– Traffic Consideration
– Topography of the country

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Construction Cost
• There is only a marginal increase in the
cost of track if wider gauge is adopted

– Cost increases proportionally due to land

acquisition, earthwork, components of track
for wider gauge

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Construction Cost (cont’d)
– Cost of constructing station buildings,
platform, level crossing is more or less
remains constant

– Cost of rolling stock is dependent on the

construction of gauge

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Traffic Consideration
– Wider gauge carry more traffic, more revenue
generation

– Traction and signaling is independent of the

gauge

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Topography of the Country

– Wider gauge require more space

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Problems caused by Change of
Gauge
– Inconvenience to passengers
• Climbing stairs, climbing brdiges
• Find seats in compartment of later
trains
• Missing connection with the later train
incase earlier train is late
• Over charging by porters
• Uncertainty & delay in reaching
destination
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Problems caused by Change of
Gauge (cont’d)
– Trans-shipment of Goods
• Damage to goods
• Delay in receipt of goods at
destination
• Theft or misplacement of goods
• Mishandling due to non-availability or
absence of specialized trans-shipment
labor

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Problems caused by Change of
Gauge (cont’d)
– Inefficient use of Rolling Stock

• Idle wagons of one gauge cannot be used

on the other gauge

• Wagons have to move empty in the

direction of transshipment point

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Benefits of Uni- Gauge Policy
• No transport bottlenecks
• No transshipment hazards
• Improved Utilization of track
• Balanced Economic Growth

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Loading & Construction Gauge
• Loading Gauge
– Maximum width and height to which a rolling
stock i.e locomotive, coach or wagon can be
loaded or built
– It is generally located at the exit of the goods
yard
– It ensures that the wagons are not over
loaded and the top and width of the load will
clear all the structures e.g bridges, tunnels
along the route

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Loading Gauge

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Loading & Construction Gauge
• Construction Gauge
– Is decided by adding necessary clearances to
the loading gauge so that the vehicle can
move safely with infringement
– It fixes the width and height of bridges and
tunnels along the route.
– It is more than loading gauge

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Loading Gauge
Height above
Gauge Width
Rail
British Railway (4’8 ½”) 13’6” 9’6”
European Railway (4’8
½”)
14’-0” 10’2”
American Railway (4’8
½”)
16’ –0” 11’-0”
BG 15’ 6” 12’ 0”
MG 11’ 3” 8’6”
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NG 10’6” 7’6”
Gradient
• The rise or fall in the track level per unit
length of the track is called gradient.

• It is not practicable to have same gradient

through out the length of track since
longitudinal slope of the country is not
uniform

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Gradient (cont’d)
• When a train moves along a rising
gradient, extra pull is required
• The extra pull required is the same as
would be required to lift the train up the
height through which it rises in every foot it
traverses.
• If a train rises 1 foot in 100 feet, the
gradient is called 1 in 100 or 1%

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Gradient (cont’d)
• Train weighing 500 tons is moving over a
rising slope of 1 ft in 150 ft. What is the
additional force required.

1/150 * 500 = 3.33 tons

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Types of Gradient
• Ruling Gradient
• Momentum Gradient
• Pusher gradient
• Station Yard Gradient

- Such gradients are provided only to haul

the train.

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Ruling Gradient
• The grade at which a single locomotive
can easily pass out train without any
additional efforts.
OR
• The steepest uphill gradient in one
direction on a section of railway line, which
determines the load that can be pulled by
one locomotive over that section. A
typical ruling gradient could be 1:50
(2%).
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• A ruling gradient limits the maximum
weight of a train which can be hauled over
the section by a locomotive.

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Momentum Gradient
• The gradient at which momentum is
provided to locomotive at down grade to
overcome steeper gradient.
• If falling gradient is followed by a rising
gradient.
• While the train goes down, it gains
momentum

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Pusher Gradient
• In Hilly areas gradient steeper than ruling
gradient are called pusher gradients.

• They are provided in hilly areas.

• The gradient at which more than one

locomotives are used to push the train.

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Station Yard Gradient
• The grades in the station yards have to be
sufficiently low in order so that
– Boggies left standing on the tracks donot start moving
automatically due to effect of gravity combined with a
strong wind and/or a gentle push.
– Locomotives at starting have to overcome a
resistance which is twice as much as when they are
already on the move, should not be encountered with
a further resistance due to grade.

• In Pakistan, the upper limit of gradient for station

yards is 1 in 400 while a gradient of 1 in 1000 is
recommended.
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Changing the Direction of
Locomotive
• Turntable
• Triangles
Turntable
– This consists of a rectangular platform with a track on
a pair of girders, braced and supported or suspended
from the central pivot.
– It is installed in a circular pit and two or more track
radiate from the edge of this pit.
– The level of track on the turntable and the radiating
track is kept same.

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Turntable

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Turntable
• For turning the engine, the turntable is revolved
on the pivot till the track on it comes in line with
the track on which the engine stands.
• Thus the turntable is locked in position and the
engine is moved on to it. The locking bolt is
removed and the turntable is rotated manually or
by power.
• The bottom of the pit is sloped towards the
center where a sump and drain is provided to
drain off the rainwater. Turntables are provided
on all the main junctions.
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Arrangement
• Stage 1
D A
– ABC F F
• Forward
• Stage 2 B

– CBD
• Reverse

C
F
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Level Crossing
 Level Crossing
• Is an arrangement of the crossing of a
railway track and a highway at the same
level
• Grooves are left in the roads along the
inner edge for the wheel flanges
• These grooves are provided by guard rails
 Guard Rails
End Flare

Check
Block
LEVEL
CROSSING
Level Crossing (cont’d)
• For smooth entry or exit for the wheel
flanges, the guard rail is widened at the
end.
• This gradual widening is called end flare.
• Level Crossing
– Guarded
– Unguarded
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