01 Whole

ROMAN AND LATE ANTIQUE CERAMIC OIL LAMPS IN THE
MUSEUM OF ANCIENT CULTURES:
A TYPOLOGICAL AND COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSIS
Keira De Rosa, BA (Macquarie University)
Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Research
Department of Ancient History, Faculty of Arts
Macquarie University, Sydney
10th October 2014

D ECLARATI ON
I, Keira De Rosa, certify that this thesis has not been submitted for a higher degree to any other
university or institution.
Date: 10/10/2014
A BSTRACT
This thesis will analyse the typology and composition of twenty-four unpublished Roman and
Late Antique ceramic oil lamps from the Museum of Ancient Cultures, Macquarie University, Sydney,
Australia. A typological examination is used to place each lamp into relevant provincial groups and
chronological periods, accompanied with archaeological drawings. A new non-destructive analysis
technique will be employed, Duel Energy Computed Tomography (DECT), to determine the
mineralogical and chemical characteristics of each lamp. General mineralogical characteristics are
examined through the analysis of CT images, determining consistency of clay bodies, presence of
inclusions and evidence of damage and reconstruction. In addition, the CT data acquired is transformed
into 3D virtual models. These models are analysed for evidence of manufacturing techniques evident
on internal and external surfaces. Chemical compositional analysis is undertaken using Gemstone
Spectral Imaging (GSI), with cluster analysis applied to determine groupings amongst the lamps. These
new non-destructive methods of analysis are then compared and contrasted with the initial typological
examination, to determine the validity and advantages of adopting these new techniques for the study
ancient ceramic lamps. This study will suggest future recommendations for the utilisation of DECT for
research in archaeology and conservation.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisors: Associate Professor Tom Hillard, from
the very first lecture in my undergraduate year, I have been amazed and inspired by your passion for all
things Roman; Dr Jaye McKenzie-Clark, for offering me so many opportunities and invaluable
experiences over the past eighteen months, from 3D scanning ancient artefacts from the Museum of
Ancient Cultures, to travelling to the ancient Roman town of Carsulae, in Umbria Italy for archaeological
excavation. Despite a rocky start to the year with a change in focus for this thesis, there was never a
doubt that this study would come to fruition.
To Karl Van Dyke, Director of the Museum of Ancient Cultures, for allowing me unlimited access
to the twenty-four lamps under study, copious amounts of tea and enlightening conversation. To
Professor John Magnussen for DECT scanning the lamps, his expert radiographic knowledge and the
opportunity to work alongside him in exploring 3D modelling capabilities. Also to Macquarie Medical
Imaging for allowing the generous use of the CT workstation.
My special thanks to Christopher Haddad for his transliteration and translation of the potters’
stamps in the Catalogue of lamps. Also to the Carsulae crew, Samantha Jones, Rodney Cross and Sean
Commons for the countless late night messages and affirmation that we would all get through this year
together.
To my Mum, Judy De Rosa, for always believing in my abilities. Most of all to my wonderful
partner Slavomir Kucharski, for his continual love, support and patience throughout this entire year.
CONTENTS
D E C L A R A T I O N ................................................................................................................................. ii
A B S T R A C T ....................................................................................................................................... iv
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S .................................................................................................................. vi
L I S T O F F I G U R E S A N D T A B L E S ...................................................................................................... x
Chapter 1: Introduction...................................................................................................................... 1
A Brief Survey of the Development and Use of Ceramic Lamps ................................................. 1
Thesis Outline .................................................................................................................................. 4
Thesis Structure .............................................................................................................................. 4
A History of Research into Roman and Late Antique Lamps ....................................................... 6
Art-history to Typologies ......................................................................................................... 7
Production and Technology .................................................................................................... 9
Archaeometry, trade and economics ...................................................................................13
Summary........................................................................................................................................16
Chapter 2: Catalogue of Lamps .......................................................................................................19
Provincial Groups ..........................................................................................................................70
Chapter 3: Techniques of Manufacture ..........................................................................................71
Radiographic methods of ceramic analysis .................................................................................71
Capturing CT images .....................................................................................................................73
CT image interpretation ...............................................................................................................76
Italy..........................................................................................................................................76
The Levant ..............................................................................................................................78
Tunisia .....................................................................................................................................80
Egypt .......................................................................................................................................82
Cyprus .....................................................................................................................................84
Unplaced Greek East..............................................................................................................84
Evaluation of CT images ...............................................................................................................84
3D Modelling .................................................................................................................................86
CT for the creation of 3D models ................................................................................................87

Techniques of manufacture investigated through 3D models........................................... 89
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 92
Chapter 4: Compositional Analysis.................................................................................................. 95
Method .......................................................................................................................................... 95
Results ........................................................................................................................................... 97
Discussion ....................................................................................................................................101
Chapter 5: Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 105
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................107
Appendix A: CT Images...................................................................................................................115
Italy .......................................................................................................................................115
The Levant ............................................................................................................................123
Tunisia...................................................................................................................................129
Egypt .....................................................................................................................................136
Cyprus ...................................................................................................................................137
Unplaced Greek East ...........................................................................................................138
Appendix B: 3D Models ..................................................................................................................139
Appendix C: Outlier Scatterplots ...................................................................................................147

L IST OF F IGURES AND T ABLES Fig. 37. MU 4495 Axial slice ..................................... 81
Fig. 38. MU 4615 Axial slice ..................................... 81
Fig. 39. MU 446 Axial view ...................................... 81
CATALOGUE PHOTOGRAPHS AND DRAWINGS
Fig. 40. MU 3211 Axial view .................................... 81
Fig. 1. MU 446 (Scale: 3:4) ....................................... 23
Fig. 41. MU 3212 Axial view .................................... 81
Fig. 2. MU 1539 (Scale 3:4) ...................................... 25
Fig. 42. MU 4487 Axial view .................................... 81
Fig. 3. MU 2696 (Scale 3:4) ...................................... 27
Fig. 43. MU 4519 Axial view .................................... 83
Fig. 4. MU 3211 (Scale 3:4) ...................................... 29
Fig. 44. MU 4635 Axial view .................................... 83
Fig. 5. MU 3212 (Scale 3:4) ...................................... 31
Fig. 45. MU 4685 Axial view .................................... 83
Fig. 6. MU 3386 (Scale 3:4) ...................................... 33
Fig. 46. MU 3386 Axial view .................................... 83
Fig. 7. MU 3711 (Scale 1:1) ...................................... 35
Fig. 47. MU 4253 Axial view .................................... 83
Fig. 8. MU 3801 (Scale 1:1) ...................................... 37
Fig. 48. MU 4664 Axial view .................................... 83
Fig. 9. MU 3802 (Scale 3:4) ...................................... 39
3D MODELS FOR TECHNIQUES OF MANUFACTURE
Fig. 10. MU 3886 (Scale 3:4) .................................... 41
Fig. 49. MU 3802 view of right hand-side seam ....... 90
Fig. 11. MU 3949 (Scale 3:4) .................................... 43
Fig. 50. MU 4222, underside view of top.................. 90
Fig. 12. MU 4202 (Scale 3:4) .................................... 45
Fig. 51. MU 3802, view of left hand-side wall .......... 90
Fig. 13. MU 4222 (Scale 1:1) .................................... 47
Fig. 52. MU 4202, inside view .................................. 90
Fig. 14. MU 4253 (Scale 3:4) .................................... 49
Fig. 53. MU 3386, inside view of pierced air and fill-
Fig. 15. MU 4275 (Scale 1:1) .................................... 51
hole ......................................................................... 90
Fig. 16. MU 4487 (Scale 2:3) .................................... 53
Fig. 54. MU 4665, inside view of uneven seam and
Fig. 17. MU 4495 (Scale 3:4) .................................... 55
pierced fill-hole ....................................................... 90
Fig. 18. MU 4519 (Scale 2:3) .................................... 57
Fig. 55. MU 3949, view looking toward nozzle ......... 91
Fig. 19. MU 4615 (Scale 3:4) .................................... 59
Fig. 56. MU 4275, view of underneath of top ........... 91
Fig. 20. MU 4635 (Scale 3:4) .................................... 61
Fig. 57. MU 2696 inside view looking toward nozzle 91
Fig. 21. MU 4664 (Scale 3:4) .................................... 63
Fig. 58. MU 4615, inside left hand-side view ........... 91
Fig. 22. MU 4665 (Scale 3:4) .................................... 65
Fig. 59. MU 3212, view of impressions and ridges from
Fig. 23. MU 4685 (Scale 3:4) .................................... 67
potter ...................................................................... 91
Fig. 24. MU 4635 (Scale 3:4) .................................... 67
Fig. 60. MU 4487, view of inside base, evidence of
CT IMAGE AXIAL SLICES
repair before firing .................................................. 91
Fig. 61. MU 4685, inside right hand-side view, with
metallic object visible through fill-hole .................... 91
COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSIS SCATTERPLOTS
Fig. 62. MU 3211, sample consistency assessment, HU
at 70 keV and material decomposition of Iodine ...... 99
Fig. 63. MU 4253, sample consistency assessment, HU
at 70 keV and material decomposition of Iodine ...... 99
Fig. 64. Scatterplot of clusters established through
expectation maximisation clustering ..................... 100
APPENDIX A: CT IMAGES
Fig. 36. MU 4275 Axial slice ..................................... 79 Fig. 65. MU 1539 ................................................... 115
Fig. 66. MU 3801................................................... 116 Fig. 97. MU 3802, top and base isometric views .... 141
Fig. 67. MU 3802................................................... 117 Fig. 98. MU 3386 3D Model, top and base isometric
Fig. 68. MU 3886................................................... 118 views..................................................................... 142
Fig. 70. MU 4222................................................... 120 views..................................................................... 142
Fig. 72. MU 4741................................................... 122 views..................................................................... 142
Fig. 74. MU 3711................................................... 124 views..................................................................... 143
Fig. 76. MU 4275................................................... 126 views..................................................................... 143
Fig. 78. MU 4615................................................... 128 views..................................................................... 143
Fig. 79. MU 446 .................................................... 129 Fig. 104. MU 4487 3D Model, top and base isometric
Fig. 80. MU 3211................................................... 130 views..................................................................... 144
Fig. 82. MU 4487................................................... 132 views..................................................................... 144
Fig. 83. MU 4519................................................... 133 Fig. 106. MU 4519 3D Models, top and base isometric
Fig. 84. MU 4635................................................... 134 views..................................................................... 144
Fig. 86. MU 3386................................................... 136 views..................................................................... 145
Fig. 87. MU 4253................................................... 137 Fig. 108. MU 4635 3D Models, top and base isometric
Fig. 88. MU 4664................................................... 138 views..................................................................... 145
APPENDIX B: 3D MODELS Fig. 109. MU 4664 3D Model, top and base isometric
views..................................................................... 145
Fig. 89. MU 446 3D Model, top and base isometric
Fig. 110. MU 4665 3D Models, top and base isometric
views..................................................................... 139
views..................................................................... 146
views .................................................................... 139
views..................................................................... 146
views .................................................................... 139
views..................................................................... 146
APPENDIX C: OUTLIER SCATTERPLOTS
views .................................................................... 140
Fig. 93. MU 3212 3D Model, top and base isometric Fig. 113. MU 466, sample consistency assessment, HU
views .................................................................... 140 at 70 keV and material decomposition of Iodine 147
Fig. 114. MU 1539, sample consistency assessment,
views .................................................................... 140
HU at 70 keV and material decomposition of Iodine
............................................................................. 147
views .................................................................... 141
views .................................................................... 141
............................................................................. 148
Fig. 116. MU 3212, sample consistency assessment, Fig. 129. MU 4615, sample consistency assessment,
HU at 70 keV and material decomposition of Iodine HU at 70 keV and material decomposition of Iodine
............................................................................. 148 ............................................................................. 155
............................................................................. 149 ............................................................................. 155
............................................................................. 149 ............................................................................. 156
............................................................................. 150 ............................................................................. 156
............................................................................. 150 ............................................................................. 157
............................................................................. 151 ............................................................................. 157
HU at 70 keV and material decomposition of Iodine TABLES:
............................................................................. 151
Table 1. Scan parameters used for CT data acquisition
............................................................................... 73
Table 2. Scan parameters used for the CT data
............................................................................. 152
acquisition (GSI) ...................................................... 96
Table 3. Summary of total number of ROIs and voxels
analysed .................................................................. 98
............................................................................. 152
Table 4. Summary of average probability for cluster
membership of each lamp ..................................... 101
............................................................................. 153
............................................................................. 153
............................................................................. 154
............................................................................. 154
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
A Brief Survey of the Development and Use of Ceramic Lamps
Prior to the discovery of fire the only source of illumination between sunset and sunrise for our
human ancestors was limited to the light of the moon. According to both biological and archaeological
evidence, approximately between 400,000 and 800,000 years ago humans developed the means of
controlling fire and the many powers it possessed. 1 As humans developed so too did their control over
fire through the creation of hearths, fireplaces and torches. By the Neolithic period, it was discovered
that a wick made from any fibrous material soaked in either oil or animal fat produced a continuous
flame. When contained within a shallow vessel the first primitive lamp was invented. Early versions of
lamps primarily consisted of a stone cut into the shape of a shallow saucer. As primitive technology
developed, clay came to be used as medium by which to produce ceramic lamps. 2
Various methods were used to create these ceramic vessels including modelling by hand,
throwing on the wheel and casting by moulds. The first two techniques were utilised within Asia Minor,
the Levant, Crete and Cyprus from the third millennium BC and throughout the duration of the
Mediterranean Bronze Age.3 The typical forms of these lamps consisted of an open vessel, much like a
shallow bowl, with a folded wick rest created from the rim.4 It was not until the seventh century BC in
Greece that more sophisticated forms of wheel-made lamps were developed. From the seventh to the
third centuries BC, Greek wheel-made lamps became more enclosed due to a development in design
where the rim, or shoulder, of the vessel extended over the dish of the lamp. Nozzles were also formed
separately and then attached to the body. A nozzle would allow users to effectively adjust the length of
the wick which in turn assisted in controlling the flame.5 Manufacturing techniques continued to be
developed throughout the Classical Greek and Hellenistic periods. By the early third century BC, during
1
T. Twomey, "The cognitive implications of controlled fire use by early humans", Cambridge Archaeological Journal
23 (2013) p. 113.
2
F. J. Forbes, Studies in ancient technology: Heat and heating (Leiden, 1958) p. 126.
3
D.M. Bailey, A catalogue of the lamps in the British Museum: Greek, Hellenistic and Early Roman pottery lamps
(London, 1975) p. 12.
4
For the intentions of this study, only an extremely brief overview of the development in form and function of
lamps dating from Neolithic times to Late Antiquity will be discussed. For in depth discussions of the evolution of
ceramic lamps within antiquity, refer to: S. Loeschcke, Lampen aus Vindonissa (Zürich, 1919); O. Broneer,
Terracotta lamps Corinth Part 4 (Cambridge, 1930) pp. 3-127; Bailey (1975); D.M. Bailey, A catalogue of the lamps
in the British Museum: Roman lamps made in Italy (London, 1980); D.M. Bailey, A catalogue of the lamps in the
British Museum: Roman provincial lamps (London, 1988). For an extended discourse of the function of light and
lamps from antiquity to the twentieth century AD, refer to F.W. Robins, The story of the lamp (London, 1939) and
Forbes (1958).
5
Furthermore, the use of lamps required the individual to burn what was essentially a food source, whether the
source of fuel being burned was olive, nut, fish or castor oil or even animal fat. Only provenances that produced a
surplus of food could afford to use clay oil lamps, which Bailey and Eckhart both purport as the reason why so few
ceramic lamps have been found in Roman Britain. See both: Bailey (1975) pp. 10-11 and H. Eckardt, Illuminating
Roman Britain, Monographies Instrumentum (Montagnac, 2002) p. 15.
ROMAN AND LATE ANTIQUE CERAMIC OIL LAMPS IN THE MUSEUM OF ANCIENT CULTURES
the rise of the Roman Republic, the technique of producing lamps from two-piece moulds was adapted.
Although this new technique was quickly became popular amongst lamp makers, wheel-made lamps
continued to be made into the first century BC in Greece, Sicily and Cnidus.6 The method of producing
lamps from two-piece moulds continued throughout the Mediterranean region into the Late Antique
period. 7 This study will focus on Roman and Late Antique period mould-made ceramic lamps
manufactured between the first century BC and the eighth century AD.
Early mould-made lamps of the Roman Republican period principally remained unchanged from
Greek and Hellenistic designs: the shoulders typically containing decorations and the filling hole
remained quite large in relation to the body of the vessel. 8 However, by the late first century BC the
overall body became more enclosed: nozzles were integrated into the moulds, in round, triangular and
heart-like shapes; the filling hole became smaller and the top became concave forming a circular
depression known as a ‘discus’. 9 Substantial decorative motifs, such as animals and human figures in a
range of different scenes were depicted on the discus of these lamps.10 In the third and fourth centuries
AD, with the rise of Christianity, mould-made lamps of the Byzantine Empire began to take more boat-
shaped forms in which a nozzle was formed that linked to the discus by a narrow channel.11 Motifs still
decorated the slightly depressed discus, but the shoulder had also begun to be decorated with reliefs
of animals, floral patterns and geometric designs.12
Despite the ever changing styles of Roman and Late Antique period lamps, their respective uses
did not change. During antiquity ceramic lamps were used in domestic, public, commercial and religious
contexts. Within the home the desire for artificial light, other than the light produced from hearths,
fireplace or torches, may well relate to activities such as reading, writing and dining. The use of lamps
by any individual would have transformed their perception of any area of their abode, influencing the
way in which they dictated their activities and movements within the space. 13 Public buildings and
commercial spaces from theatres to shops would have also required lamps for illumination, along with
torches or fire-baskets, when a larger light source was needed.
6
See R. H. Howland, The Athenian Agora: Greek lamps and their survivals (Athens, 1958) p. 129 for evidence and
explanation of this transitional period. See also Bailey (1975) pp. 12-16.
7
Howland (1958) p. 129.
8
Common shoulder decorations ranged from floral patterns, meanders, rays and other patterns containing raised
points. For examples of Greek and Hellenistic lamps refer to Bailey (1975) pls. 1-99.
9
Broneer (1930) pp. 7, 17 and 20.
10
Bailey (1980) p. 15.
11
In this study ‘Byzantine’, ‘Byzantine period’ and ‘Byzantine age’ will refer to the years AD 330 to AD 1453, from
the establishment of Constantinople by Constantine until the capture of the city by the Ottoman Turks. It must
always be kept in mind, however, that the citizens of the Byzantine Empire still referred to themselves as Romans.
Refer to A. Cameron, The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity: AD 395-700 (London, 2012) and L. James,
"Byzantium: A very, very short introduction", in L. James (ed) A companion to Byzantium (2010)
12
Broneer (1930) p. 120.
13
Eckardt (2002) p. 16.
2
INTRODUCTION
Within religious contexts, such as temples, burials, and churches, ceramic lamps were used for
different purposes. In temples, shrines and sanctuaries lamps were dedicated in vast numbers as votive
offerings, making it necessary at times for these lamps to be cleared out to make room for future
dedications.14 After the rise of Christianity, lamps also begun to be used in church services as the very
perception of light and dark took on ideological qualities. 15 Ceramic lamps were also used in tombs as
part of the furniture of burials. It is presumed that today a large number of intact lamps stem from such
circumstances.16
With production of ceramic lamps from the Roman and Late Antique period spanning across
eight centuries, modern find-spots of these artefacts have been numerous. From as far west as Roman
Britain, to as far East as the Levant, thousands of these ceramic lamps have been excavated or
discovered in caves, cisterns, military institutions and even in shipwrecks around the Mediterranean
sea. Uncovering any ceramic lamp from this period of time provides the archaeologist with an estimate
for dating other objects, due to both their common use by individuals around the Roman and Late
Antique period and the immense number of forms and designs which were produced during these
years.17
A vast number of these vessels today have found their way into the world’s museums and
private collections; however, far too many of these objects have been removed from their original
contexts, regularly making studies of such collections limited to only typological and chronological
studies.18 Without records of the original find-spots of these lamps, and their possible provenances of
manufacture being known, studies pertaining to trade relations, as well as consumption patterns, of
ceramic lamps across the Roman and Late Antique periods are presumably incredibly difficult to
determine. Furthermore, investigations into the trade of these ceramic lamps in the wider spectrum of
the Roman and Byzantine economies cannot be undertaken without this knowledge.
In the past thirty years researchers have sought other means by which to accurately determine
provenances of manufacture, other than merely determining them from typological analysis. Through
the use of archaeometric methods of analysis, including the use of both mineralogical and compositional
techniques, researchers are able to delve beyond the study of just observable characteristics.
Archaeometric analysis has been able to shed light upon the origin of the clay bodies, which in turn can
determine centres of production and information about the organisation of the lamp making industry
across the Roman and Byzantine Empires. These modern methods of analysis have become an
indispensable facet of modern research into ceramic lamps. This investigation will utilise both
14
Bailey (1975) p. 9.
15
Eckardt (2002) p. 16 and Broneer (1930) p. 27.
16
Bailey (1975) p. 9.
17
Broneer (1930) p. 5. This statement is particularly true for lamps dating from the first century BC to the second
century AD, due to their rapidly changing body and nozzle shapes.
18
Eckardt (2002) p. 25.
3
typological and archaeometric analysis in order to determine the centres of production and methods of
manufacture for twenty-four ceramic oil lamps dating from the Roman and to Late Antique period,
which have been removed from their original contexts.
Thesis Outline
This thesis will analyse the typology and composition of twenty-four unpublished Roman and
Late Antique ceramic oil lamps from the Museum of Ancient Cultures, Macquarie University, Sydney,
Australia. A typological examination is used to place each lamp into relevant provincial groups and
chronological periods, accompanied with archaeological drawings. A new non-destructive analysis
technique will be employed, Duel Energy Computed Tomography (DECT), to determine the
mineralogical and chemical characteristics of each lamp. 19 General mineralogical characteristics are
examined through the analysis of Computed Tomography (CT) images, determining consistency of clay
bodies, presence of inclusions and evidence of damage and reconstruction. In addition, the CT data
acquired is transformed into three-dimensional (3D) virtual models. These models are analysed for
evidence of manufacturing techniques evident on internal and external surfaces. Chemical
compositional analysis is undertaken using Gemstone Spectral Imaging (GSI), with cluster analysis
applied to determine groupings amongst the lamps. These new non-destructive methods of analysis are
then compared and contrasted with the initial typological examination, to determine the validity and
advantages of adopting these new techniques for the study ancient ceramic lamps. This study will
suggest future recommendations for the utilisation of DECT for research in archaeology and
conservation.
Thesis Structure
The investigation will consist of five stages. The remainder of Chapter 1 consists of a review of
the history of research into Roman and Late Antique period lamps dating from the first century BC to
the eighth century AD, divided into thematic sections of studies, including: ‘Art-history to Typologies’,
‘Production and Technology’ and ‘Archaeometry, trade and economics’. Chapter 1 will conclude with a
brief synthesis of the approaches and methodologies which will be used for this research.
19
J. McKenzie-Clark and J. Magnussen, "Dual energy computed tomography for the non-destructive analysis of
ancient ceramics", Archaeometry 56 (2013) pp. 573-90
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.simsrad.net.ocs.mq.edu.au/doi/10.1111/arcm.12035/pdf
4
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2 comprises of a small catalogue of the lamps in this investigation. Each catalogue entry
details the characteristics of each lamp, including: measurements; description of discus scenes; potter’s
stamps; clay and slip colours; typological classifications and estimated dates of production are recorded.
Photographs and drawings of each lamp accompany the catalogue. All lamps are classified according to
established typologies and, where possible, a comparanda is provided for reference to other parallel or
similar vessels.
Chapter 3 documents the techniques of manufacture employed in the creation of each of the
lamps being investigated in this thesis. Determined from Chapter 2, lamps are placed into provincial
groupings and their methods of manufacture examined. Through the use of conventional, single energy,
polychromatic technique, CT images are produced. These images are analysed to inspect: the
orientation, size, quantity and distribution of inclusions; preparation of clay; details of construction and
to identify any areas of reconstruction. 3D virtual renderings are also produced to explore techniques
of forming and finishing. A short discussion of the two methods of examination used within this chapter
will be compared and contrast to the provincial groupings established in Chapter 2, to validate the
results.
Chapter 4, details the examination of the composition of each lamp by DECT. GSI is used to
obtain samples from each vessel. Values for both monochromatic HU at 70 kiloelectronvolts (keV) and
the material decomposition of Iodine are assessed, as has been used in previous studies to determine
grouping amongst vessels with similar ceramic fabrics.20 This data is then processed using data mining
software, Rapid Miner, to detect outliers through local density factors. Outliers are then eliminated from
further analysis. Following the elimination of outliers, expectation maximisation clustering is used to
find groupings amongst the lamps’ ceramic fabrics. The results are then discussed in brief, with
comparison to the findings of the previous chapters.
Chapter 5 brings together all components of the research in order to create an overview of the
investigation and to analyse the effectiveness and accuracy of this study’s methodologies. The resultant
clusters from the compositional analysis are compared to the initial typological classifications and
further cross referenced with each lamps’ method of manufacture. Through these means, a validation
of the new techniques of DECT and 3D virtual renderings as tools for the analysis of ceramics through
non-destructive means is assessed. Lastly, potential for further investigative works using these new
techniques are proposed.
20
Ibid. HU is a unit of measurement representing the linear attenuation coefficient of the materials being
examined and reports an integer scale of values typically from -1000 to 3000 as Hounsfield units (HU).G.N.
Hounsfield, "Computerized transverse axial scanning (tomography): Part 1. Description of system ", British Journal
of Radiology 46 (1973) pp. 1016-22.
5
A History of Research into Roman and Late Antique Lamps
Roman and Late Antique period ceramic oil lamps have been studied from the seventeenth
century AD to the present. This is mainly due to their inherent aesthetic value, affordability and ease of
transport.21 Distinct trends of research have developed and evolved over these years, from antiquarian
studies to archaeometric investigations. Under the restrains of this review, a retrospective outlining of
historical methods and aims of research will be divided thematically. This structure is intended to show
that the evolution of study was a direct result of wider developments in the field of archaeology.22
The vast majority of publications on ceramic lamps traditionally consist of determining their
typology, chronology and significance to art-history, commonly in the form of a catalogue. These
catalogues are typically enriched by photographs or drawings. Although these two dimensional images
are valuable tools of study for the scholar, it still remains that only a partial representation of the vessels
are shown. Each lamp is described according to their type or classification, dependent upon both their
form and decoration.23 Typological analysis attempts to place the vessels within an established context,
however, it has only been in recent years that these typological considerations have been scrutinised
by mineralogical or compositional analysis. Investigations into methods of manufacture of individual
lamps has also been relatively scant and few examinations have attempted to understand what function
ceramic lamps played within their wider socio-economic contexts.
This review is divided into three groups that relate to characteristic features or thematic
approaches to the study of ceramic lamps. These are defined as: ‘Art-history to Typologies’, ‘Production
and Technology’ and ‘Archaeometry, trade and economics’. The use of a thematic discourse has been
chosen in favour of a chronological approach in order to discuss the most common features and
characteristics of major publications. An attempt has also been made to place these studies into their
own academic and historical contexts whilst also providing a critique of each approach.
The first theme combines investigations from the late 1600s to the present day. This includes
studies which use a primarily antiquarian approach that particularly accentuate the aesthetic value of
highly decorated ceramic lamps. Antiquarian studies, by the beginning of the twentieth century,
developed into publications emphasising a typological and chronological approach. The second feature
contains investigations into the methods of manufacture of ceramic lamps from two-piece moulds. New
21
Refer to P. Bartoli and G.P. Bellori, Le antiche Lucerne sepolcri figurate, raccolte dale cave sotterranee (Rome,
1691) for one of the earliest publications on ceramic oil lamps.
22
For an extensive bibliography of pre-modern lighting devices, refer to the International Lychnological
Associations (established in 2003) for over two thousand, five hundred sources: http://www.lychnology.org. See
also D.M. Bailey, "Lamps metal, lamps clay: A decade of publication", Journal of Roman Archaeology 4 (1991) pp.
51-62, for an overview of ceramic lamp studies from 1980-1990. See also D.G. Trigger, A history of historical
thought (Cambridge, 1989) for an examination of the intellectual historical, social and cultural context of changing
archaeological research paradigms and practices.
23
Eckardt (2002) p. 17.
6
INTRODUCTION
3D technologies are widening the spectrum of study into identifying individual potters, as well as
offering the potential for virtual reconstructions to be analysed by wider academic audiences. The third
group incorporates a wide range of studies including archaeometric examinations and the function of
ceramic lamp trade in the wider Roman and Byzantine economies.24
Art-history to Typologies
Most publications that exist to date on pottery lamps are the catalogues of museums and
private collections. 25 Whilst hundreds of these publications exist, the majority merely provide
photographs, drawings and accompanying descriptions of each individual lamp. An antiquarian, art-
historical attitude is inherent, even within modern examinations of Roman and Late Antique lamps,
where a distinct privilege is placed upon aesthetically pleasing decorated lamps amongst the thousands
of vessels found in collections and on the antiquities market.26
The very culture of collecting lamps can be dated back to the seventeenth century and the years
of the ‘Grand Tours’ of the gentry. Although pottery lamps were not originally popular during the early
years of travel, by the eighteenth century they began to be prized due to their affordability, size and
intricate and sometimes provocative moulded motifs.27 It is during this time that forgeries also began
24
A similar division into art-historical, typological and archaeometric studies has also been employed by C. Orton
and M. Hughes, Pottery in archaeology (Cambridge, 2013) and Eckardt (2002).
25
For a select sampling of the numerous museum catalogues which have been published from the 19th century to
the present see: L. Chrzanoski, Lumière! L'éclairage dans l'antiquité; Une exposition itinéranae concue par le Musée
Romain de Nyon, Suisse (Nyon, 2006); J. Deneauve, Lampes de Carthage (Paris, 1969); S. Djuric, The Anawati
collection: Ancient lamps from the Mediterranean (Toronto, 1995); E. Fabbricotti, Catalogo delle Lucerne di
Tolemaide (Cirenaica) BAR International Series 962 (Oxford, 2001); F. Fremersdorf, Römische Bildlampen (Leipzig,
1922); K. Goethert and K. Werner, Römische Lampen und Leuchter: Auswahlkatalog des Rheinischen
Landesmuseums Trier (Trier, 1997); Howland (1958); Y. Israeli and U. Avida, Oil-Lamps from Eretz Israel: The Louis
and Carmen Warschaw collection at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem (Jerusalem, 1988); C. Lyon-Caen and V. Hoff,
Musée du Louvre: Catalogue des lampes en terre cuite grecques et chrétiennes (Paris, 1986); H. Menzel, Antike
Lampen: im Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseum zu Mainz (Mainz, 1954); A. Mlasowsky, Die antiken
Tonlampen im Kestner-Museum Hannover (Hannover, 1993); R. Morais, A Coleccao de lucernas Romanas do
Museu Évora (Coimbra, 2011); J. Perlzweig, Lamps of the Roman World: First to seventh century after Christ The
Athenian Agora (Princeton, 1961) and R. Rosenthal and R. Sivan, Ancient lamps in the Schloessinger collection
QEDEM: Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology 8 (Jerusalem, 1978).
26
Collector’s guides have even been published because of the highly desirable nature of ceramic lamps. For
example see: J. Paton, Lamps: A collector's guide (London, 1978). No discussion will be made here on the implicit
debate of the moral and social issues attached to the acquisition of archaeological objects. For discussion on such
issues refer to: K.W. Tubb, Antiquities trade or betrayed: legal, ethical and conservation issues (London, 1995),
S.M. Pearce, On collecting: An investigation into collecting in the European tradition (London, 1995), J. Elsner and
R. Cardinal, The culture of collecting (London, 1994), M. Jones, Why fakes matter: essays on problems of
authenticity (London, 1992)
27
This is especially true of the ‘discus’ lamps of the early Roman Empire, which depict a range of different motifs
including: humans, flora, fauna and mythological scenes. For a selection of these discus lamps see: Bailey (1988).
7
to be produced and collected. Some of these imitations have even made their way into prominent
museums, originally being mistaken as objects of antiquity. 28
By the 1880s the typological phase developed amongst pottery studies due to the influence of
geology and biology upon archaeological methods. Emphasis was placed upon chronological and
regional spatial distributions, as attention had become focused upon cultural history and
development.29 In 1896 Fischbach created the first two divisional categories of Roman period lamps
from Poetovio: Bildlampen (picture lamps) and Firmalampen (factory lamps).30 Fischbach’s terminology
is still employed in studies to this day. Dressel was soon to follow in 1899 with the first complex typology
of ceramic lamps from Rome, consisting of thirty-one classifications, complete with illustrations of
potters’ stamps and inscriptions.31 Just one year later, Fink too published a lamp typology based upon
the changing shape of the nozzle.32
These early typologies were largely superseded by Loeschcke in 1919. In this study of 1100
ceramic lamps from the military camp of Vindonissa, provenanced to the north-western regions of the
early Roman Empire, vessels were divided into fourteen types based on the form of the base, shoulder
and nozzle 33 Fischbach’s categories were also expanded to include Talglampen (open lamps).
Loeschcke’s typology became and still is the widest used typology for the dating and classification of
Early to Middle Roman Empire period lamps. This is chiefly due to datable examples of lamps, making
the work a reliable, systematic set of classifications and chronology. However, despite Loeschcke’s
accuracy, this typology is primarily only relevant for the site of Vindonissa and for lamps attributed to
the north-western provinces of the first century BC to the second century AD. Over the past hundred
years, other typologies have been created with major works including: Deneauve, for lamps from
Carthage; Provoost, for the lamps of Italy; Ponsich, for the lamps of north-western Africa and Bailey, for
the Roman provincial lamps contained in the British Museum.34 Despite many and varied typologies
28
For discussion on forgeries refer to: H.-G. Buchholz, "Kaiserportäts auf Tonlampen", Jahrbuch des deutschen
archäologischen Instituts (1961) pp. 173-87; E. Paul, "Eine italienische Terrakotta-Fälscherwerkstatt", Klio 49
(1967) pp. 329-47 and Bailey (1988) pp. 422-49.
29
Orton and Hughes (2013) p. 8.
30
O. Fischbach, "Römische Lampen aus Poetovio", Mitteilungen des historischen Vereins für die Steiermark 44
(1896) pp. 3-64.
31
H. Dressel, "Inscriptiones urbis Romae latinae: Instrumentum Domesticum", Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XV
2 (1899) pp. 782-870. See also N. Lamboglia, "Apuntes sobre cronologia ceramic", Publicaciones del Seminario de
Arqueología y Numismática Aragonesas 3 (1952) pp. 72-90 and R. Bailly, "Essai de classification des marques de
potiers sur lampes en argile dans la Narbonnaise", Cahiers ligures de préhistoire et d’archéologie (1962) pp. 79-
127 for further corpora of potters’ stamps and inscriptions found on ceramic lamps.
32
O. Fink, "Formen und Stempel römischer Tonlampen", Sitzungsberichte der bayerischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften 5 (1900) pp. 685-703.
33
Loeschcke (1919). According to W. Drack and R. Fellman, Die Römer in der Schweiz (Stuttgart, 1988), the military
camp dates to the period AD 16/7 to AD 101.
34
Deneauve (1969); A. Provoost, "Les lampes antiques en terre cuite: introduction et essai de typologie générale
avec des details concernant les lampes trouvées en Italie", L’Antiquité classique 45 (1976) pp. 5-19; M. Ponsich,
Les lampes romaines en terre cuite de la Maurétanie tingitane (Rabat, 1961); Bailey (1980); Bailey (1988).
8
INTRODUCTION
existing, no study has thus far compiled all known lamps into one definitive corpus, doubtless due to
the sheer immensity of the task.
It is assumed that the creation of typologies stem from objective study; however, the
establishment of classifications is purely a means for archaeologists to create a theoretical framework
upon which to build evidential pieces into a historical reconstruction, inherently to the exclusion of
potential alternatives.35 Typological analysis, as a subjective means of study, is constantly in need of
change as new lamps are continually excavated from current-day archaeological sites and as the
attributes selected to define classifications are adjusted.36 Whilst it is necessary to base new finds on
specimens which have been excavated from datable deposits, accepted typologies can still only give an
estimated date, a point which has been validated by Lund.37 Further complications also arise as the use
of lamps as distinct chronological indicators becomes uncertain past the second century AD.38
Thus, although typological and chronological classifications are very valuable tools for the
archaeologist in order to potentially date and provenance newly excavated finds, or classify museum
and private collection pieces, it is necessary to keep in mind that typological analysis is an ever changing
subjective theory, open to interpretation and scrutiny.
Production and Technology
Within the wider scope of pottery studies, questions as to how and where lamps were produced
has created interest since the late seventeenth century.39 It was not until the late nineteenth century
that the first in-depth discussion was produced on the manufacture of mould-made lamps from the
Roman and Late Antique periods. Fremersdorf produced a very detailed examination of the forming and
firing of Bildlampen based upon the kiln site in Mainz Weisenau.40 Such an investigation was possible
41
because of the evidence derived from the kiln, moulds and wasters. Since Fremersdorf’s study,
35
K. Van Bekkum, From conquest to coexistence: Ideology and antiquarian intent in the historiography of Israel's
settlement in Canaan (Leiden, 2011) p. 85.
36
M. Shanks and C. Tilley, Social Theory and Archaeology (Cambridge, 1987) p. 79.
37
R. Rebuffat, "Lampes romaines à Gholaia (Bu Njem, Libye)", in T. Oziol and R. Rebuffat (ed) Les lampes de terre
cuite en Méditerranée des origins à Justinien (1987) pp. 83-90. See also J. Lund, "Towards a better understanding
of the production pattern of Roman lamps", Acta Hyperbpora 3 (1991) pp. 269-95
38
A. Leibundgut, Die römischen Lampen in der Schweiz (Bern, 1977) p. 13 and Provoost (1976) pp. 5-6.
39
See J. Conyers, Sloane MSS 958, f.105, f.108ff (London, 1675) and J. Conyers, Sloane MSS 958, f.106-7 (London,
1677) for observations and drawings of a Roman pottery kiln which was discovered during the work on the building
of the new St Paul’s Cathedral in London in 1675.
40
Fremersdorf (1922) pp. 15-76.
41
Eckardt (2002) p. 22. Other than the kiln site discovered in Mainz Weisenau, two other well preserved lamp
producing kilns have been uncovered in Pompeii, Regio I, Insula 20, 2-3. Additional to the discovery of these two
kilns with preserved lamps and moulds in situ, the workshop, living quarters and shop have also been retained.
Such a finding is extremely rare and unparalleled elsewhere, with the usual remnants of workshops being limited
to rubbish pits merely containing sherds, moulds and wasters of not only lamps, but other ceramic vessels. See G.
Cerulli Irelli, "Una official di lucerne fittili a Pompeii", in H. Carandini (ed) L’instrumentum domesticum di Ercolano
9
investigations into the technical production of ceramic lamps of the period in question have been
extremely limited. The most contemporary and reasonably detailed explanation of manufacturing
techniques has been related by Bailey and Goethert and Werner, the latter having reproduced an
abbreviated version of Fremersdorf’s work. 42 Despite these limited publications, it seems that the
method of production of two-piece mould-made lamps is not inherently understood even by those who
43
have published extensive catalogues. Due to confused assumptions around the method of
manufacture of mould-made lamps, it is necessary to relate here a concise yet detailed account of the
moulding and casting process for their production.
Although the use of moulds for the production of ceramic figures had been in use since the
early fifth century BC, the manufacture of lamps via this method was not utilised until the early third
century BC.44 Manufacture by moulds was a quicker and easier process than either hand-building, or by
throwing on the wheel, as multiples of each lamp were able to be mass produced from the same mould
time and time again.
The lamp-maker would first create an archetype, from which a mould could be produced. The
archetype would be fashioned from a solid lump of clay, which would then be shaped into the form of
the lamp desired. Decoration would be added by carving, incising, stamping and mould-applique. Once
the archetype was complete it was allowed to dry and was then fired.45 During Roman and Late Antique
times, the vast majority of lamp moulds were made of either plaster or clay. Despite plaster moulds
made of either gypsum or lime degrading easily over time, a number of examples have survived in Egypt
and North Africa due to the areas’ dry climates.46
To create a mould, plaster was either poured into a container or clay was pressed over half of
the archetype to its widest point. If plaster was used, it was left to harden completely. If instead clay
e Pompei nella prima età imperial (1977) pp. 53-72 for the Pompeii kilns. Refer to T. Szentléleky, "Lamp-producing
workshop at Aquincum", Budapest Régiségei 19 (1959) pp. 167-203 and B. Liesen, "Töpfereischutt des 1. Jahrh.
N. Chr. Aus dem Berich der Colonia Ulpia Traiana", in Xantener Berichte 4 (1994) for examples of rubbish pits filled
with ceramics sherds.
42
Bailey (1975) pp. ; Goethert and Werner (1997) pp. 16-19
43
For example see Israeli and Avida (1988) p. 11-12, in which the technique of creating a mould is misunderstood.
Isreali and Avida assert that after the archetype is made (out of clay or wood) that is then covered in clay or plaster
and subsequently cut in half. This assumption is most definitely unfounded. Having created the archetype, the
potter would not cut his work in half, as the archetype would be needed again to make more moulds.
44
R.A. Higgins, Catalogue of the terracottas in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum
(Oxford, 1954) pp. 49 and 57-9.
45
Techniques of manufacture here are a production of a summarised version of Bailey (1975) pp. 2-8.
46
For information how to determine if a lamp was produced from a plaster or clay mould see: H. Vertet,
"Observations sur les vases à médaillons d'applique de la vallée du Rhone", Gallia 27 (1969) p. 117. And Bailey
(1975) p. 5. Examples of these moulds have been found at Herakleopolis Magna, Carthage and many have been
housed within the Cairo Museum. See: W.M.F. Petrie, Roman Ehnasya (Herakleopolis Magna) (London, 1905) pl.
56: a, b and c for moulds from Herakleopolis Magna; Deneauve (1969) pl. 104-105, for top moulds 1148, 1149,
1150, 1151, 1152, 1154 and base moulds, 1153 and also C. C. Edgar, Catalogue général antiquités Égyptiennes du
Musée du Caire: Greek moulds (Cairo, 1903) pl. 28: 32299, 32304, 32306, 32307, 32309, 32310; pl. 31: 32292; pl.
33: 32301, 32303. It cannot be determined if these examples are still housed within the Cairo Museum due to
looting in 2011.
10
INTRODUCTION
was the chosen material, it would be left to dry to a leather-hard state. In both cases, if needed,
registration bosses would be cut or impressed into the mould if desired. The second half of the mould
would be created by pouring over plaster, or pressing over clay, onto the other half mould, with the
archetype still in situ. Once dry the two half moulds would be prised apart and the archetype removed.
Clay moulds would then be fired.
Once the mould was produced, clay would be rolled out into thin sheets and pressed into the
top and bottom moulds. The lamp-maker could use one of two techniques to produce a lamp. First, the
moulds were brought together, registration marks would be lined up and force then applied to press
the two halves together. 47 The lamp was allowed to dry sufficiently inside the mould before it was
removed. The second technique forms both halves of the lamp in their relative moulds, but instead of
the moulds being brought together, the clay was removed from the moulds once leather-hard and both
halves were then joined together by hand.48 Both methods would then require the lamp-maker to tidy
up the seam; add further decoration49 and pierce the nozzle, fill and air-hole if desired. Bailey asserts
that the first technique was widely used and would have proven less laborious and difficult for the lamp-
maker. However, his assertions may be unfounded, particularly due to his experimentations with a
modern potter who in fact used the second technique.50 Once fashioned, the lamp’s viscosity may be
increased by dipping the lamp into a slip.51 The lamps were then stacked into a kiln and fired.52 In most
cases for Roman and Late Antique period lamps, firing was a straightforward single-stage oxidising firing,
except where a black surface was required.53
This means of producing lamps holds inherent problems when it comes to the identification of
either regions or individual workshops for Roman and Late Antique period lamps. Although it has been
long thought, even by Loeschcke, that lamps produced in the same region or workshop could be
determined through a detailed examination of the form, decoration, potter’s stamp and clay fabric or
slip, there are a few characteristic features that must be kept in mind.54
Manufacture by moulds gave rise to three problems when trying to identify a provenance,
based upon form. These features include: similar lamps being produced in different workshops due to
47
Bailey (1975) p. 6. asserts that any excess clay produced from this technique was forced inwards, however, this
statement needs further investigation, as Bailey does not provide evidence of this practice.
48
Presumably through scoring and moistening the joins
49
Such as potters’ stamps, handles and moulded motifs.
50
Bailey (1975) p. 6.
51
Here a slip refers to a suspension of clay in water. D. Hamilton, The Thames and Hudson manual of pottery and
ceramics (London, 1974) p. 105 and Bailey (1975) p. 6-7.
52
The lamps were able to be placed one upon the other, as there was minimal risk of the lamps fusing together
during the firing process. However, unexpected mishaps did occur sometimes, as evidenced from wasters, where
lamps have been fused together during the firing process. Bailey (1975) pp. 7-8. For examples of both square and
circular updraft kilns used for firing lamps see Irelli (1977).
53
For a detailed explanation of how lamps with black slips were produced, refer to: J.V. Noble, The technique of
painted Attic pottery (London, 1988) pp. 148-157 and Bailey (1975) p. 9.
54
Eckardt (2002) p. 22.
11
the exchange and reproduction of existing lamps - identification must be based upon clay fabric, surface
treatment, or potters’ stamps; 55 a reduction in size due to copies being taken of existing lamps;
modifications of original patterns may be made to a mould in cases of breakage and top and base
moulds could be interchangeable, creating lamps that may not identically match. 56 Despite these
difficulties in assessing classifications due to these features of manufacture, Bonnet has made an
attempt to distinguish individual workshops by investigating the details and associations of form,
decoration and stamps.57
Determining methods of manufacture for scholars who do not have access to the lamps that
they are studying are primarily limited to cataloguing efforts, which contain only a limited amount of
textual data and two-dimensional (2D) photographs, conveying only a partial representation of the
vessel. Within the last fifteen years, methods of producing 3D virtual models have developed in order
to: document archaeological sites;58 preserve cultural heritage,59 virtually reconstruct material culture60
and to extract potters’ fingerprints.61 Despite a growth in popularity of documenting cultural heritage
in 3D models, only Lapp and Nicoli have employed the use of laser scanning to document and analyse
the shape and appearance of ceramic oil lamps.62 In their study of two lamp fragments and one whole
lamp, Lapp and Nicoli stress the benefits of 3D imaging as a tool for further scholarly research. Their
rationale lies in individuals’ personal ability to manipulate and examine important details of each lamp,
as if they were manipulating the original artefact themselves. With the advances of 3D technologies,
Lapp and Nicoli’s vision of creating an online database of not only ceramic lamps, but the material
culture of the world’s museum and collections, could come to fruition as technology becomes more
55
A potter’s stamp may not be sufficient evidence for a lamp being produced in a particular workshop, as the
stamp could be ‘pirated’ in effect. Refer to J.W. Hayes, Ancient lamps in the Royal Ontario Museum: Greek and
Roman clay lamps (Toronto, 1980) p. 2.
56
Ibid, p. 2.
57
J. Bonnet, "La production d'un atelier de lampes romaines en terre cuite", in Y. Burnand and H. Vertet (ed)
Céramique antique en Gaule (1985) pp. 107-31; J. Bonnet, Lampes céramiques signées. Definition critique d'ateliers
du Haut Empire (Paris, 1988) and J. Bonnet and C. Delplace, "Lampes signées de Gaule", in T Oziol and R. Rebuffat
(ed) Les Lampes de terre cuite en Méditerranée des origines à Justinien (1987) pp. 167-89.
58
F. I. Apollonio, M. Gaiani and B. Benedetti, "3D reality-based artefacts models for the management of
archaeological sites using 3D GIS: a framework starting from the case study of the Pompeii Archaeological area",
Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) p. 1271-87.
59
L. Gomes, O.R.P. Bellon and L. Silva, "3D reconstruction methods for digital preservation of cultural heritage",
Pattern Recognition Letters (2014) pp. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167865514001032;
A. Guarnieri, F. Pirotti and A. Vettore, "Cultural heritage interactive 3D models on the web: An approach using
open source and free software", Journal of Cultural Heritage 11 (2010) pp. 350-53; M. Pieraccini, G. Guidi and C.
Atzeni, "3D digitizing of cultural heritage", Journal of Cultural Heritage 2 (2001) pp. 63-70; F. Stanco, S. Battiato
and G. Gallo, Digital imaging for cultural heritage preservation: Analysis, restoration and reconstruction of ancient
artworks (Boca Raton, 2011); N. Yastikli, "Documentation of cultural heritage using digital photogrammetry and
laser scanning", Journal of Cultural Heritage 8 (2007) pp. 423-7.
60
X. Zhang, J. Blaas, C. Botha, P. Reischig, A. Bravin and J. Dik, "Process for the 3D virtual reconstruction of a
microcultural heritage artifact obtained by synchrotron radiation CT technology using open source and free
software", Journal of Cultural Heritage 13 (2012) pp. 221-5.
61
E.C. Lapp and J. Nicoli, "Exploring 3D modeling, fingerprint extraction, and other scanning applications for
ancient clay oil lamps", Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage (2013) p. 44.
62
In this study, Lapp and Nicoli analysed two lamp fragments and one intact Classic Nabataean lamp.
12
INTRODUCTION
widely available, cheaper and easier to use. Lapp and Nicoli’s study may provide the impetus for change,
eliminating some of the inherent problems in identifying provenances of manufacture, based upon
comparisons of 2D images and drawings of lamps.
Archaeometry, trade and economics
Since the 1960s scientific techniques have become more popular in order to date, provenance,
and study the function of ancient ceramics.63 As has been outlined, difficulties have arisen from applying
a typological approach in order to identify and determine workshops, or at least regional centres, of
production as the conclusions drawn can be purely subjective. 64 As a means of confirming initial
typological analysis and quantitatively proving regions or workshops of manufacture, both
compositional and mineralogical analysis has been employed for this function from the late 1970s.
Through the use of archaeometric analysis, an archaeologist is able to: determine which workshops or
region of production a lamp may be from; discriminate between unidentified lamps and lamps of already
known groups; ascertain origins of manufacture of previously unprovenanced examples; identify
different workshops within localities which have used different clay resources; workshops which have
utilised a range of different clays and even suggest the type of geological environment the clay may
have been sourced from.65
Archaeologists have utilised both mineralogical and compositional analytical methods in order
to investigate ceramic lamps. The most common mineralogical method of analysis include X-Ray
diffraction (XRD), thin-section petrographic analysis and scanning election microscopy (SEM-EDS), all of
which are used to determine different kinds of minerals, their size, location, abundance, orientation and
association within the clay body, along with any surface treatments achieved due to firing.66 On the
other hand, compositional analysis determines the chemical composition of the vessels, with different
techniques able to identify different elements present within the objects clay body. Common chemical
analyse methods include X-Ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), neutron activation analysis (NAA),
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and inductively coupled plasma optical
63
Orton and Hughes (2013) p. 17.
64
Although, Bailey still asserts that archaeologists who are skilled in the field can attribute provenances and
chronologies based upon visual characteristics, he at least admits that scientific control is lacking. D.M. Bailey,
"The Roman terracotta lamp industry", in T. Oziol and R. Rebuffat (ed) Les lampes de terre cuite en Méditerraneée
des origines à Justinien (1987) pp. 61-2.
65
Surface treatments include the application of slips or burnishing, for example. M.J. Hughes, "Inductively coupled
plasma analysis of tin-glazed tiles and vessels produced at several centres in London", in K. Tyler, I. Betts and R.
Stephenson (ed) London's delftware industry MOLAS Monograph 40 (2008) pp. 120-31; Orton and Hughes (2013)
pp. 19 and 188, and E.C. Lapp, "Clay lamps shed new light on daily life in Antiquity", Near Eastern Archaeology 67
(2004) pp. 174-5.
66
For details on these methods of mineralogical analysis see: P.M. Rice, Pottery analysis: a sourcebook (Chicago,
2005) pp. 379-86.
13
emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). 67 Whilst studying ceramics mineralogically or compositionally in

isolation can provide valuable information, many studies employ a combination of techniques in order
to gain optimal characterisation of: the origin of the clay source; fabrication methods and sources of
elements present within the vessel and how they relate to each other.
One of the earliest and most prolific scholars, Schneider, has used archaeometric techniques to
analysis ceramic lamps. To investigate the validity and usefulness of compositional analysis during its
formative years, Schneider used a combination of XRF and NAA in order to determine the composition
of not only some Roman lamps, but terra sigillata and Samian wares. 68 Since this first publication,
Schneider has archaeometrically analysed Firmalampen from Vindonissa using XRF and petrographic
analysis; a study that identified three distinct production centres, namely Modena, Lyons and Trier. 69
Schneider also applied archaeometric analysis on first to third century AD lamps from the Rhine-Maine
area, Regensburg and the Roman province of Raetia. In doing so he proved the existence of local
production for the province of Raetia and the long-distance trade of Firmalampen from northern Italy
to Vindonissa.70 His studies also tested ceramic lamp moulds from locations in Switzerland (Bern-Enge
and Lausanne-Vidy Augst), Germany (Frankfurt) and Italy (Modena and Aquileia), all proving to be of
local production.71
Apart from the multiple investigations headed by Schneider, primarily concentrated upon the
composition of Firmalampen from Vindonissa, multiple other studies have been undertaken using both
XRF, NAA and petrographic analysis. Through the combined used of XRF, optical microscopy and XRD,
Bemont and Lahanier were able to separate Roman Republican lamps from Glanum and France into six
distinct groups which were attributed to regions in France and Italy. 72 Mastripieri and Ceci have also
67
For details on these methods of chemical analysis see of XRF see ibid, pp. 393-8 and S.M.M. Young, P. Budd, R.
Haggerty and A.M. Pollard, "Inductively couple plasma-mass spectrometry for the analysis of ancient metals",
Archaeometry 39 (1997) pp. 380-1 and 391.
68
G. Schneider, "Anwendung quantitativer Materialanalysen auf herkunftsbestimmungen antiker Keramik",
Berliner Beiträge zur Archäometrie 3 (1978) pp. 63-122 and G. Schneider, B. Hoffman and E. Wirz, "Significance
and dependability of reference groups for chemical determinations of provenance and ceramic artefacts",
Archaeo-Physika 10 (1979) pp. 269-83.
69
G. Schneider and E. Wirz, "Chemische Analysen von Firmalampen aus Vindonissa", in Gesellschaft pro Vindonissa
Jahresbericht 1991 (1992).
70
G. Schneider and E. Wirz, "Chemical answers to archaeological questions - Roman terracotta lamps as
documents of economic history", in S. Méry (ed) Sciences de la Terre et ceramiques archeologiques -
Expérimentations, applications 16 (1992) pp. 13-48. See also G. Schneider, "X-ray fluorescence analysis and the
production and distribution of terra sigillata and Firmalampen", in W.V. Harris (ed) The inscribed economy:
Production and distribution in the Roman empire in the light of instrumentum domesticum (1993) pp. 129-37 and
G. Schneider, "X-ray fluorescence analysis of vernice nera, sigillata and firmalampen from North Italy", in G.
Brogiolo and G. Pietro Olcese (ed) Produzione ceramica in area padan tra il II seclo a.c. e il VII secolo d.c.: nuovi
dati e prospettive di ricerca. Convegn internazionale di Desenzano del Garda, 8-10 Aprile (2000) pp. 103-6.
71
G. Schneider, "Studies of Roman lamps from the northern provinces and from Rome", AttiConv Ceramica e
archeometria: lo stato degli studi: Giornate Internazionali di Studio. Castelli di Montegufoni (FI), 26-27 aprile 1993
(Firenze, 1995) pp. 132-8.
72
C. Bémont and C. Lahanier, "Lampes tardo-républicaines à Glanum: Essai de détermination typologique et
physico-chimique", Revue Archéologique de Narbonnaise 18 (1985) pp. 221-61.
14
INTRODUCTION
conducted XRF studies into lamps in Rome featuring the OPPI potter’s stamp, confirming that they were
locally produced in Janiculum.73 Hughes, Leese, Smith and Bailey, have also conducted NAA research
into lamps from Ephesus and other Eastern Mediterranean sites. 74 Subsequent analysis of some of the
lamps in the British Museum have also been analysed using NAA and digitized into a database.75 Also
using NAA, Amr was able to divide sixty lamps sherds from Petra into twelve groups consisting of local
products and local imitations and lamps produced in Egypt, Palestine and Jordan identified.76 Knowles
has also employed petrographic analysis to distinguish between imported Italian lamps and products of
Tunisia.77
More recent studies have analysed lamps from Patras, using XRD, ICP-OES and SEM-EDS. This
work identified two workshops in the region which used the same material, oxidising conditions and
temperature in the kilns.78 Parallels between the clay bodies of Archaic wares and Roman period lamps,
both from the same region, have been proven to have used the same raw materials through NAA.79
Separate examinations using ICP-MS and XRPD have been used to analyse lamps from the second to
sixth centuries AD in the catacombs of ‘Ponte delle Lama’, which were shown to be locally produced in
Canusium80 and analysis using ICP-MS had determined that some Late Roman period clay lamps from
Egnatia had been locally produced, while others were imported from North Africa and the southern
Mediterranean.81
73
D. Mastripieri and M. Ceci, "Gli Oppi: una famiglia di fabbricanti urbani di lucerne", Journal of Roman
Archaeology 3 (1990) pp. 119-32. See also M. Ceci and G. Schneider, "Analisi chimiche su gruppi di lucerne bollate
di fabbricazione urbana", Epigrafia della produzione e della distribuzione, Colloque de Rome, 1992, EFR 193 (Rome,
1994) pp. 434-5, in which lamps from Ostia were divided into three distinct groups using XRF and petrographic
analysis.
74
M.J. Hughes and D.M. Bailey, "Neutron activation Analysis of pottery lamps from Ephesus dating from the
Archaic to the late Roman period", in A. Aspinall and S.E. Warren (ed) Proceedings of the 22nd Symposium of
Archaeometry, held at the University of Bradford, 30th March – 3rd April 1982 (1983) pp. 368-76 and M.J. Hughes,
M.N. Leese and R.J. Smith, "The analysis of pottery lamps mainly from Western Anatolia, including Ephesus, by
neutron activation analysis", in D.M. Bailey (ed) Catalogue of the lamps in the British Museum: Roman provincial
lamps 3 (1988) pp. 461-85.
75
M.J. Hughes, "Neutron activation analysis at the British Museum, London", Archaeometry 49 (2007) pp. 255-70.
76
K. Amr, The pottery from Petra: A neutron activation analysis study BAR International Series 324 (Oxford, 1987)
pp. i, 29 and 159-60.
77
K. Knowles, “The lamps”, in M.G. Fulford and D.P.S. Peacock (ed), Excavations at Carthage: The British Mission.
Vol. II. 2.: The Circular Harbour, North Side. The Pottery (Oxford, 1994) pp. 23-5.
78
C. Rathossi, P. Tsolis-Katagas and C. Katagas, "Technology and composition of Roman pottery in northwestern
Peloponnese, Greece", Applied Clay Science 24 (2004) p. 325.
79
C. Rathossi, C. Katagas and P. Tsolis-Katagas, "Major and trace element characterization of Archaic and Roman
pottery from Achaia, Greece", Understanding people through their pottery: Proceedings of the 7th European
meeting on ancient ceramics (EMAC'03) October 27th-31th, 2013 (Lisbon, 2005) pp. 217-88.
80
G. Eramo, L.C. Giannosa, A. Rocco, A. Mangone, S.F. Graziano and R. Laviano, "Oil lamps from the catacombs of
Canosa (Apulia, fourth to sixth Centuries AD): Technological features and typological imitation", Archaeometry 56
(2013) pp. 1-17. See also: G. Eramo, R. Laviano and I.M. Muntoni, "South-Italian Late Bronze Age pottery
production: raw materials and paste preparation at Madonna del Petto (Barletta, Bari)", Atti del II Congresso
Nazionale di Archeometria, AIAr (Bologna, 2002) pp. 517-27, for preliminary compositional analysis using XRF of
alluvial deposits from around Canosa and the Ofanto River.
81
C. Fioriello and A. Mangone, "Analisi archeometriche su lucerne fittili tardoantiche da Egnazia", Rei Cretariae
Romanae Fautorum Acta 41 (2010) pp. 199-210.
15
Whilst different methods of mineralogical and compositional analysis techniques have been
employed, all investigations have sought the same primary aims where possible: to separate the lamps
into distinct provenance groups and determine the original location of the clay bodies. It must also be
kept in mind that all of these techniques require part of the vessel to be destroyed and with some of
these processes being time-consuming, expensive and in need of comparative data. 82 Despite these
draw backs, questions around lamp production and provenance ultimately lead to the wider subjects of
the nature of the lamp trading industry and its implications for our understanding of the Roman
economy.
Focussed debates on the subject of the organisation of the lamp trade industry and its wider
significance in the Roman economy, have been very limited. The first in-depth discourse on the subject
in relation to Firmalampen was opened up by Harris. He hypothesised that as lamps were cheap
products, economically speaking long-distance trade would not make sense. Hence it was much more
likely that the lamps were produced in local workshops, managed by institores, who were running a
commercial business.83 Harris’s initial hypothesis has since been disproven, owing to the proliferation
of archaeometric analyses and the discovery of shipwrecks found with lamps on board, both of which
supports the trade of lamps over long distances. 84 For this reason, Harris adjusted his views and
accepted that lamps were traded over long distances, however still maintains that Firmalampen were
produced in distinct production centres and more commonly traded closer to these centres. 85 Whilst
there are problems proving the existence of these commercial production centres, Harris does make an
attempt to place Firmalampen into the wider context of an integrated Roman economy. Even though
Duncan-Jones argues against this notion, instead suggesting that distinct commercial zones and trade
regions were in operation, Harris’s work is still yet to be superseded. 86
Summary
Since the beginnings of studies into Roman and Late Antique period lamps from the
seventeenth century, the aims and methods of these investigations have evolved and widened the
scope of information that we can gather from these common artefacts. From the implementation of
82
H. Eckardt, Illuminating Roman Britain (Montagnac, 2002) p. 23.
83
W.V. Harris, "Roman terracotta lamps: the organisation of an industry", Journal of Roman Studies 70 (1980) pp.
126-45. See also J.–J. Aubert, "Workshop managers", in W.V. Harris (ed) The inscribed economy: Production and
distribution in the Roman Empire in the light of instrumentum domesticum (1993) pp. 171-81.
84
See Bailey (1987) for disagreement with Harris’s theory. For shipwrecks laden with lamps see: A.J. Parker,
Ancient shipwrecks of the Mediterranean and the Roman provinces (Oxford, 1992) pp. 126-45 and C. Domergue,
"Un envoi de lampes du potier Caius Clodius", Melanges de la Casa de Velázquez 2 (1966) pp. 5-40.
85
W.V. Harris, "Production, distribution and instrumentum domesticm", in W.V. Harris (ed) The inscribed economy:
Production and distribution in the Roman empire in the light of instrumentum domesticum (1993) pp. 186-89.
86
R. Duncan-Jones, Structure and scale in the Roman economy (Cambridge, 2002) pp. 48-58.
16
INTRODUCTION
scientific methods in the 1970s, the study of Roman and Late Antique period lamps has gradually moved
away from merely placing these vessels into established chronologies, or simply describing them for
their aesthetic appeal. Whilst typological analysis is a valuable preliminary tool in any investigation into
lamps, it has become necessary to quantify hypothesises of possible provenances and methods of
manufacture through archaeometric analysis.
This study will be seeking to expand upon and augment previous methods of analysis for the
study of ancient ceramic lamps. Twenty-four ceramic oil lamps from the Museum of Ancient Cultures
will be analysed using new methods of non-destructive analysis to establish possible provenances of
manufacture, quantified by subsequent archaeometric analysis. As the vessels being investigated have
been obtained from a Museum, and the removal of samples from these pieces is rarely permitted, this
investigation would not have been possible if the means of analysis were destructive. Unlike many
compositional analysis techniques such as ICP-MS, NAA and XRF, which have been used to investigate
ancient ceramic lamps in previous studies, this investigation will utilise DECT using a GE HD750 (GE
Medical Systems, Milwaukee, WI), 128-slice fast switching, DECT scanner located at Macquarie
University Hospital in Sydney, Australia to analyse ancient ceramic oil lamps without destruction.87 This
technique has been used previously to chemically analyse Black Gloss and Vesuvian Sigillata from
Pompeii, which proved its effectiveness at determining the provenance of the ceramics by association.
The overall results also appeared to be able to characterise pottery fabrics comparable to traditional
methods of analysis, such as ICP-MS, ICP-AES and thin-section petrographic analysis.
Further to the potential of this technology, it is possible to create high fidelity virtual 3D models
of each vessel under investigation. As discussed previously in this chapter, 3D technologies are
increasingly making an appearance within the documentation, preservation, conservation and research
of ancient ceramics. Within this study, these 3D reconstructions will be utilised to establish observable
methods of manufacture of the ceramic lamps under investigation.
By combining traditional techniques of analysing ancient ceramics and new medical imaging
technologies, this study adopts an archaeometric approach. As the methods being used within this
investigation are only within their infancy, complete methodologies of these techniques will be outlined
and discussed within relevant chapters. As with any traditional research into ceramic oil lamps, it is
essential to establish the typology, chronology and possible provenance of each vessel under
examination to serve as a basis upon which to quantify and qualify the new methods being explored.
This typological analysis will be further scrutinised by comparison to the results of Chapters 3 and 4, by
determining if the original established typologies were correct in their assertions. The results of each of
these Chapters will be brought together in Chapter 5 to establish conclusions on the benefits of each of
the methods used and the potential for future studies of ancient ceramics using these new techniques.
87
McKenzie-Clark and Magnussen (2013) pp. 573-90.
17
18
CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
The catalogue entries are laid out in order of Macquarie University acquisition number (MU) as
each lamp is labelled within the Museum of Ancient Cultures at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia,
not in provenance or date periods. This arrangement will be utilised until the end of the chapter where
by the vessels will be segmented into relative provenances and date periods. The subsequent chapters
will build upon the assertions made within this catalogue to quantify this well-established, but subjective
method.
This catalogue is set out to facilitate millimetres as the primary unit of measure and
abbreviations for lamp dimensions include: L, length; W, width; H, Height and HH, Height including
handle (where handles are present). As none of the lamps within this study have find spots recorded
due to being donated or purchased through vendors, and auctions, provenances and dates stated within
this catalogue are based upon comparable parallels. Where parallels are known from dated deposits,
these are listed within the Comparanda and the relative date and provenance can be regarded as
relatively accurate. Where no precise parallels exist, date and provenances are suggested through a
consideration of the shape, decorative motifs, clay and slip colour. These parallels are stated as sharing
‘similar’ characteristics, however as this method is subjective, a wide date range has been given, and
possible other provenances suggested in the Comparanda for these vessels. 88 Provenances are
described in general geographical terms as follows: Italy, Tunisia, the Levant, Cyprus and Egypt.89 Basic
descriptions are given for each lamp, focusing particularly on describing the rim, shoulder, discus,
handle, base and any potters’ stamps that may be present.90 The orientation of the physical details of
the lamps are described when looked at from above with the nozzle pointing downwards and details
described as being on the right hand-side are on the viewer’s right.91 Damage to any of the lamps is
briefly stated. Both the clay and slip colour are recorded according to Munsell Soil Colour Charts, along
with a brief description of the state and application of the slip. Types given refer to mainly to their overall
body shape, however nozzle and shoulder forms are also stated where appropriate.92 No attempt has
been made to find every possible parallel with each of the lamps within this catalogue, instead an
88
Mentioned works are cited in this catalogue by author and date. Full citations are given in the bibliography.
89
Where provenance is stated as being from Tunisia: for the period 146 BC-AD 293, these lamps are from the
province of Africa Proconularis; from AD 293-698, these lamps are from the province of Byzacena. Where the
provenance is stated as being from the Levant, it refers to the geographical area of Judea, Palestine and Syria.
90
My thanks go to Christopher Haddad, Macquarie University, for his transliterations and translations of the
potters’ stamps within this catalogue. Notes are also provided for his interpretations.
91
This convention has been followed by Bailey (1980).
92
For types stated within this catalogue refer to the following: Bailey (1980); Broneer (1930); Deneauve (1969);
J. J. Dobbins, Terracotta lamps of the Roman province of Syria (Ann Arbor, 1979); J. W. Hayes, Late Roman pottery
(London, 1972); Loeschcke (1919); G. Pohl, Schriftenreihe zur bayerischen Landesgeschichte 62 (1962) pp. 219-
28. For Cnidian nozzle form typology see Bailey (1988) Fig. 160, p. 330.
attempt has been made to provide comparative material, which bears reference to each lamps
geography and chronology.
Pictures and drawings of each lamp accompany each description, with photographs of the top,
base and side displayed and drawings of the top, potters’ stamps and cross-sections accompanying. All
photographs and drawings are to scale, which is stated in each figure caption. The cross-sections drawn
of each lamp are accurate representations, which have been based upon slicing high fidelity 3D
renderings of each lamp in half in 3D the imaging software Meshlab (version 1.3.4) and tracing the cross-
section profiles. Chapter 3 will discuss how these 3D models were produced and what information they
can provide about the techniques of manufacture of the lamps within this study.
20
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
21
MU 446
Measurements: L, 120; W, 90; H, 32; HH, 49
Date Acquired: 2nd April 1980, ex Graham Joyner Collection purchased from Ede Catalogue:
113, No 21a, 7336.
Type: Deneauve VIIIb - Loeschcke Shoulder form VIIIb
Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Tunisia, Africa Proconsularis
Description: Mould made lamp with heart shaped nozzle. Concave discus defined by three
concentric circles, fill-hole located to the right. Central omphalos with air-hole pierced in
centre, with shallow groove surrounding the hole. Rim decorated with symmetrical olive
spray/myrtle-wreath motif. Two impressed concentric circles define flat, shallow base. Ring
handle with two groves on spine.
Potter’s stamp: INCLITI, with two dots impressed above and below
incliti = incluti
Translation: ‘of the famous/renowned’ (cf. Gr. κλυτός ‘renowned’)93
Clay Colour: 7.5YR 7/6 reddish yellow
Slip Colour: 2.5YR 6/8 light red, buff thin slip applied to entire vessel
Chronology: Late second or early third century AD.
Comparanda: Refer to matching fragment in Humphrey (1978b) pl. 6, G 21, with fill-hole
located on right-hand side. Similar lamps with rays on omphalos and short rays on discus can
be found in Humphrey (1978a) pl. 2, 14 and Bailey (1988) p.188, pl.14, Q 1709. 94 Bailey
suggests a date range of AD 175-225, Humphrey agrees. See Bailey (1988) p. 188, Q 1709 for
an exhaustive comparanda.
93
Translation by Christopher Haddad. Note: If Greek was in mind when writing this word, it would explain Latin
<i> being used for <u>. The relationship between Lat. inclutus and Gr. κλυτός probably facilitated this confusion.
94
Refer to Humphrey (1978a): J. H. Humphrey, Excavations at Carthage 1975, conducted by the University of
Michigan (Ann Arbor, 1978) and Humphrey (1978b): J.H. Humphrey, Excavations at Carthage 1976, conducted
by the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, 1978)
22
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 1. MU 446 (Scale: 3:4)
23
MU 1539
Measurements: L, 97; W, 68; H, 28
Purchased: 18th October 1982, purchased from Ye Olde Corner, Artarmon, NSW, Australia
Type: Loeschcke Type IV - Shoulder form VIIb
Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Italian
Description: Mould-made lamp with volute nozzle and round tip. Discus defined by a singular
circular groove with air-hole pierced between the nozzle volutes. Large scallop shell with eight
ribs decorated discus. Fill-hole pierced at bottom of shell motif. Slightly raised circular base.
Potter’s stamp: planta pedis, impressed
Clay Colour: 5YR 5/6 yellowish red
Slip Colour: 10YR 3/1 very dark grey, applied unevenly on exterior, thicker on base. Signs of
wear on rim, nozzle and base
Chronology: Late first century AD
Comparanda: Refer to Bailey (1980) p. 179, pl.18, Q 940 and Menzel (1954) abb.24, 10 for very
similar examples. Bailey suggests date and provenance.
24
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 2. MU 1539 (Scale 3:4)
25
MU 2696
Date Acquired: Late 1987, donated by Mrs J. Williams
Type: Dobbins Type 21
Probable Provenance of Manufacture: The Levant
Description: Carinated mould-made lamp with nozzle channel and raised rim. Wreath pattern,
with leaves radiating toward fill-hole on rim. Fill-hole surrounded by moulded circle. Circle and
dot impression located in nozzle channel. Slightly raised foot ring. Rectangular handle
decorated with parallel ridges.
Potter’s stamp: five ring and dot stamp made, in mould
Slip Colour: No visible slip applied
Chronology: Sixth to seventh century AD
Comparanda: See similar shaped lamp 478 in Israeli and Avdia (1988) p. 169 and 194 with
similar ring and dot stamp on base. An elongated version, Q 2344, in Bailey (1988) p. 289, pl.
61. bears similar resemblance. Date range based upon Bailey.
26
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 3. MU 2696 (Scale 3:4)
27
MU 3211
Measurements: L, 106, W, 72; H, 32; HH, 47
Date Acquired: 31st August 1993, purchased from Tim Goodman Auctioneers, Double Bay, Lot
No. 684
Type: Hayes Type I variant
Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Tunisia, Byzacena
Description: Mould-made lamp with branch pattern in depression on shoulder, outer ring of
depression extended toward nozzle hole. Slightly depressed discus with possible hound or
hyena. Fill-holes pierced to the left and right of figure. Sunken base, defined by a groove, with
three grooves extending to handle. Single groove on handle.
Clay Colour: Not visible, unable to determine
Slip Colour: 5YR 4/4 reddish brown, applied to entire vessel
Chronology: Late fourth to sixth century AD.
Comparanda: Unusual vessel form and discus figure depicted. Date and provanance
determined through similar forms Q 1741, Q 1742, Q 1743, Q 1744, Q 1747 and Q 1749 in
Bailey (1988) pp. 192-193, pl. 17-19, all date within the range of AD 375-500.
28
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 4. MU 3211 (Scale 3:4)
29
MU 3212
Date Acquired: 31st August 1993, purchased from Tim Goodman Auctioneers, Double Bay, lot
683
Type: Broneer Type XXXI variation
Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Italy or Tunisia, Byzacena
Description: Mould-made lamp with depressed rim. Decorated with alternating concentric
triangle and semi-circle pattern in rim, with circles moulded in-between main pattern. Broad
channel on neck, with basic volutes on the shoulders. Running hound depicted in shallow
channel with two fill-holes located left and right of figure. Raised circular foot ring, from which
extends three spines, one to the handle and one to each voluted shoulder. Left hand-side of
nozzle dented, presumably before firing.
Clay Colour: Not visible, unable to determine
Slip Colour: 10R 5/8 red, applied to entire vessel
Chronology: Fourth century AD
Comparanda: Uncommon lamp form, a similarly shaped example, 1453(1058), found in

Corinth, said to have been imported probably from Italy in Broneer (1930) p. 285. Uncertain
provenance, either Tunisisa or Italy, date given by Broneer, claims Type XXXI to be from the
Early fourth century AD.
30
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 5. MU 3212 (Scale 3:4)
31
MU 3386
Date Acquired: June 1998, donated by Mrs C. Leask
Type: Loeschcke Type I - Shoulder form IVa
Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Egypt
Description: Mould-made volute lamp with semi-rounded nozzle. Shallow discus defined by
two grooves. Discus figure lack definition, due to a worn mould and/or heavy usage and
handling post-production. Discus figure, appears to be Cupid with right leg on ground and left
leg raised at a right angle. Right hand perhaps holding basket of grapes, with left arm raised,
perhaps holding a thyrsus. Fill-hole pierced inside the cupid’s right arm. Raised base, defined
by two grooves. Handle made in mould. Lamp has been broken around the nozzle and the
base, reconstruction has obscured part of the potter’s stamp. Two circle impressed above and
below potter’s stamp.
Potter’s stamp: C·IVN[II--]
Translation: ‘of Gaius Iunius [----]’95
Clay Colour: 7.5YR 5/4 brown
Slip Colour: 10YR 3/2 very dark greyish brown, applied exterior only, worn off nozzle
Chronology: Late first century AD to early second century AD
Comparanda: Unusual nozzle form and with the addition of a handle, however, most similar
in body and nozzle shape to Q 1898 in Bailey (1988) p. 234, pl. 33. Approximated date from
comparison.
95
Transliteration and translation by Christopher Haddad. The letter/letters are obscured by a break in the base.
32
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 6. MU 3386 (Scale 3:4)
33
MU 3711
Date Acquired: 15th August 2002, purchased from M.R. Roberts P/L, Sydney, Australia
Type: Dobbins Type 21
Description: Mould-made boat shaped lamp. Narrow shoulder decorated with semi-circle and
dot pattern, fill-hole pierced in convex discus. Small short foot ring, roughly defined. Pointed
handle formed in mould, with concentric triangular grooves on back of handle.
Clay Colour: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow
Slip Colour: No visible slip applied
Chronology: Sixth to seventh century AD
Comparanda: Similar shaped lamp with human face on handle Q 2345 in Bailey (1988) p. 289,
pl. 61. Broad date range based upon Bailey.
34
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 7. MU 3711 (Scale 1:1)
35
MU 3801
Date Acquired: September 2005, donated by Macquarie Ancient History Association (MAHA)
Type: Loeschcke Type IC - Shoulder form IVb / Bailey Type A(v)
Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Italy, perhaps Campania
Description: Mould-made lamp with angular volute nozzle. Flat shoulder, separated from
concave discus by a single circular groove. On the discus, a theatre mask with headdress
pictured on the right, with a cornucopia depicted on the left. Fill-hole located to the left of the
cornucopia. Slightly raised base defined by a single groove.
Potter’s stamp: two ring and dot stamp impressed in centre of base, matching stamp above
central stamp and impressed R below
Clay Colour: 10YR 6/3 pale brown
Slip Colour: 5YR 3/3 dark reddish brown, applied to entire vessel, finger marked
Chronology: Last third of the first century AD
Comparanda: Compare to similar shaped examples Q 838, Q 841-Q 844 (with ring handles) in
Bailey (1980) pp. 150-151, pl. 8.
36
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 8. MU 3801 (Scale 1:1)
37
MU 3802
Date Acquired: January 2006, purchased from Charles Ede Ltd, 5853
Type: Bailey type Q(v)
Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Central Italy
Description: Mould-made lamp with rounded nozzle, heart shaped on the upper surface. Slight
charring around nozzle. Two dots in relief flank the nozzle and ring handle, with two grooves.
Rounded shoulder separated from discus by three equidistant grooves. Discus depicts two
roosters, the left rooster with bent legs, tilting head backwards; the right rooster on straight
legs head tilted backwards. Fill-hole located in-between the two roosters. Slightly raised foot
ring, defined by two concentric grooves.
Slip Colour: 10R 5/8 red, applied over entire vessel
Chronology: Late second to early third century AD
Comparanda: Unusual lamp form, closest to Q 1366-7 in Bailey (1980) pp. 356-77, pl. 79. This
lamp does not possess a potter’s stamp, and has the addition of four dots in releif on the
shoulder,. However, the nozzle shape, rounded shoulder and shallow discus conforns to Bailey
Type Q(v).
38
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 9. MU 3802 (Scale 3:4)
39
MU 3886
Date Acquired: May 2006, donated by Dr Stuart Babbage on behalf of his grandfather
Type: Loeschcke Type VIII - Shoulder form VIIb / Bailey Type P (i)
Description: Mould-made lamp with rounded nozzle, terminated on shoulder by a straight line.
Singular groove separates shoulder from discus. A civic or prize wreath is depicted in centre of
discus, with fill-hole pierced in middle of wreath. A rough air-hole is pierced directly below
motif on the edge of the discus groove. Slightly raised base, defined by singular groove. Ring
handle, broken. Slight charring around nozzle.
Potter’s stamp: GABINIA, impressed96
Clay Colour: 7.5 YR 6/4 light brown
Slip Colour: 7.5YR 3/2 dark brown, applied exterior only
Chronology: Late first to mid second century AD
Comparanda: Body shape matches Q 1256 – Q 1271 in Bailey (1980) pp. 319- 22, pls. 65-6.
Refer also to Q 1210, for a similar potter’s stamp, dating to the same time period.
96
This potter’s stamp is not defined in the photograph, it is however visible on very close inspection of the lamp
and in the 3D reconstruction (Fig. 98).
40
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 10. MU 3886 (Scale 3:4)
41
MU 3949
Date Acquired: March 2007, purchased from Collector Antiquities, London
Type: Loeschcke Type IV -Shoulder form VIIIa
Description: Mould-made lamp with rounded volute nozzle with two mirroring ridges in-
between the volutes. Shallow concave discus surrounded by moulding, with two inset grooves.
Four tentacled cuttlefish positioned transversely. Fill-hole pierced below motif. Slightly raised
circular base. Ring handle.
Potter’s stamp: impressed elongated planta pedis
Clay Colour: 2.5Y 7/3 pale yellow
Slip Colour: 7.5YR 3/1 very dark grey, applied exterior only
Chronology: Second half of the first century AD
Comparanda: Bailey and Djuric both suggest first century AD date. Example excavated from
Carthage, see both Bailey (1988) p. 284, pl. 57, Q 2295 and Walters (1914) p. 115, 765. See also
Djuric (1995) p. 45, C119 (with three-ribbed ring handle).
42
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 11. MU 3949 (Scale 3:4)
43
MU 4202
Date Acquired: 24th June 2008, purchased from Gorney and Mosch Auction, Lot No. 388
Type: Loeschcke Type IV - Shoulder form IIIa
Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Italy
Description: Mould-made lamp with voluted nozzle and rounded tip. Air-hole is pierced in-
between the nozzle volutes. Narrow flat shoulder, separated from discus by three grooves,
sloping into discus. Discus depicts a biga (two-horsed chariot), running to the right, charioteer
leaning forward holding reins and a whip, all on a base line. Fill-hole pierced below horses.
Slightly raised circular base. Semi-circular mark in relief on base, presumably from a mould
imperfection.
Slip Colour: 5YR 4/2 dark reddish grey and 2.5Y 8/3 pale yellow, mottled slip, finger marked on
base, applied exterior only
Chronology: Mid to late first century AD
Comparanda: Matching lamp Q 883 in Bailey (1980) p. 165, pl. 13. No particular provanace
given, but is assumed by Bailey to be Italian.
44
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 12. MU 4202 (Scale 3:4)
45
MU 4222
Date Acquired: 6th November 2008, purchased from Gerhard Hirsch Nachf, Munich, Lot No.
834, Auction September 2008
Type: Loeschcke Type VIII / Bailey Type P(iii)
Description: Mould-made lamp with circular body and short round nozzle. Narrow flat
shoulder with small rectangular lugs located on either side of the shoulder. Discus separated
into two zones: first defined by two moulded rings, the outer with small volute-like flourish at
the nozzle and the inner ring brought to a point in-between the volutes. A very small air-hole
is pierced in-between this point. Three theatre masks surround the inner, concave zone of the
discus, defined by two concentric grooves. Fill-hole is pierced in centre of inner zone. Base
defined by circular groove. Ring handle with three grooves on top half. Very slight charring on
nozzle.
Potter’s stamp: planta pedis, impressed
Slip Colour: 2.5YR 5/6 red, applied over entire vessel
Chronology: Late first to early second century AD
Comparanda: Date given in comparison with similar orange-buff clay with orange-red slip
example from Central Italy dated between AD 90-130 in Bailey (1980) p. 335, pl. 72, Q 1326.
Other similar examples include a top fragment in yellow buff clay, said to be either Corinthian
of Athenian dated to the second century AD in Bailey (1988) p. 116, pl. 116, Q 3242. Another
similar example with a dark brown slip, without volute flourish and none symmetrical
rectangular lugs said to be either Italian or Tunisia in Mlasowsky (1993) pp. 216-217, 206. If
this piece is a Central Italian example, other similar designs, such as those demonstrated here,
may be mimicking earlier Italian designs.
46
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 13. MU 4222 (Scale 1:1)
47
MU 4253
Measurements: L, 108; W, 69; H, 26; H, 45mm
Date Acquired: 18th November 2008, ex Graham Joyner Collection from Helios Gallery
Antiquities, Inv. No. 06/353; Stock No. H596b, ex private collection, Aberdeenshire, UK
Type: Loeschcke Type V - Shoulder form VIIIb
Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Cyprus
Description: Mould-made lamp with rounded volute nozzle. Discus defined by single groove
and relief, decorated with impressed ovules on the shoulder. Shallow undecorated concave
discus, with fill-hole pierced off-centre. Base slightly raised. Ring handle. Patch underneath
handle has been slightly damaged.
Clay Colour: 10YR 7/4 very pale brown
Slip Colour: No slip applied
Chronology: Early to mid first century AD
Comparanda: Matching lamp found in Salamis, Cyprus, see Oziol and Pouilloux (1969) pl. IV,
137. Bailey gives the above about date for two lamps, said to be from Cyprus in Bailey (1988)
p. 307, pl. 66, Q 2460 (without leaves) and Q 2464.
48
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 14. MU 4253 (Scale 3:4)
49
MU 4275
Date Acquired: 18th November 2008, from the estate of Graham Joyner, donated by Mrs Grace
Jolley
Type: Loeschcke Type VIII - Shoulder-form VIIIb
Description: Mould-made lamp with round voluted nozzle. Shoulder decorated with
impressed ovules. Discus separated from shoulder by circular relief. Discus decorated with a
fifteen petalled rosette, fill-hole pierced in centre. Pseudo base ring. Slight charring around
nozzle.
Clay Colour: 5YR 6/4 light reddish brown
Slip Colour: 10R 5/6 red, applied unevenly, applied exterior only
Chronology: Late first to early third century AD
Comparanda: Refer to lamp, Q 2303, with similarly decorated shoulder and pseudo base ring
in Bailey (1988) pp. 284-5, pl. 58. See also No. Reg. 1. 493 in Meyers, et al. (1976) pl. 8.9, which
has very similar shape and shoulder pattern.97
97
Meyers et al. (1976): E. Meyers, A. Kraabel, J. Strange, R. Bullard, R. Hanson and M. Bales, Ancient synagogue
excavations at Khirbet Shema, Upper Galilée, Israël 1970-1972 (Durham, 1976).
50
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 15. MU 4275 (Scale 1:1)
51
MU 4487
Date Acquired: 20th February 2009, purchased from Gorny and Mosch, Munich; Auction Sale
174 , Lot No. 509
Type: Pohl Type 3e
Description: Mould-made lamp with depressed shoulder channel. Radiating cigar shaped
pattern, in circular shoulder, with two, three ringed circles surrounded by six smaller circles
located in the shoulder in line with the nozzle. Within the discus is an outlined reverse
Christogram, with fill-holes located to the left and right of the motif. Raised foot ring,
elongated to handle. Charring around nozzle.
Clay Colour: 2.5YR 6/8 light red
Slip Colour: 2.5YR 5/8 red, applied exterior only
Chronology: Fifth to sixth centuries AD
Comparanda: Uncommon North African lamp shape, close to Pohl type 3e and type Atlante
VIII C1. For a similar example see 605, Menzel (1965) abb. 77, 10. Date based upon Bonifay’s
(2004) chronology, see pp. 360-1, Fig. 202.98
98
Bonifay (2004): M. Bonifay, Etudes sur la céramique romaine tardive d'Afrique BAR International Series 1301
(Oxford, 2004)
52
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 16. MU 4487 (Scale 2:3)
53
MU 4495
Date Acquired: 17th March 2009, purchased from Antiquarius, New Zealand
Type: Byzantine period, Type 4
Description: Mould-made lamp with large fill-hole, surrounded by three concentric circles in
relief. Shoulder decorated with a radial design. A three leaf motif is placed above the nozzle
hole. Small foot ring and vertical handle ornamented with a branch.
Slip Colour: 5YR 5/6 yellowish red, applied exterior only, worn
Chronology: Late fifth to sixth century AD
Comparanda: For a definition of this lamp type refer to Hadad (1997) pp. 160-1, figs. 21, 22.
See also Q 2347 in Bailey (1988) p. 290, pl. 61.99
99
Hadad (1997): S. Hadad, "Lamps from the third to the eighth century CE at Scythopolis Bet Shean", Dumbarton
Oaks Paper 51 (1997)
54
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 17. MU 4495 (Scale 3:4)
55
MU 4519
Date Acquired: March 2010, purchased from Gorny and Mosch, Auction: 184, Lot No. 535
Type: Hayes Type IIA
Description: Mould-made lamp with slightly depressed shoulder frame, depicting four lions in
either frame. Discus features running ibex with fill-holes located to the left and right of the
figure. Raised foot ring elongated to handle. Slight charring around nozzle. Two concentric
circles, impressed on base.
Clay Colour: Not visible
Slip Colour: 2.5YR 5/8 red, applied over entire vessel
Chronology: Fifth to sixth century AD
Comparanda: Similar shaped examples in Bailey (1988) pp. 199-200, pl. 25. Q 1814, same size
and shape also impressed with two concentric circles on base. Q 1817, fragment, depicts
smaller version of ibex. Similar ibex depiction also on 496 in Israeli and Avida (1988) p. 176.
Bailey suggests date and provenance.
56
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Figure 1 MU
Fig.4519
18. MU
Photographs
4519 (Scale
and2:3)
drawings (Scale 2:3)
57
MU 4615
Date Acquired: August 2011, purchased from Collector Antiquities, London
Type: Not defined
Description: Mould-made oval lamp with nozzle channel. Alpha in relief in nozzle channel.
Relief circle surrounds large fill-hole. Charring around nozzle. Greek text in relief, read anti-
clock wise.
Text transliterated as:
ΦΟΣΤΟΥΦΕΝΙΚΑ ΛΙΕΣΠΕΡΑΠΑΣΙΝ
φος (= φῶς) τὸ ὑφ’ ἑνὶ κα|λ<ῆ>ι ἑσπέρα<ι> πᾶσιν
Translated as:
‘The light for all on one fine evening’100
Text surrounded by a two lines in relief above and below, with small lines radiating from
bottom relief. Raised pointed oval base and conical shaped handle.
Clay Colour: 7.5YR 8/3 pink
Slip Colour: Not applied
Chronology: Seventh to eighth century AD
Comparanda: Type of lamp not defined, however bears close resemblance to Q 2328 (shares
similar Alpha in nozzle channel) and overall shape of Q 2327 and Q 2329 (different bases).
Refer to Bailey (1988) p. 287, pl. 60.
100
Transliteration and translation by Christopher Haddad. Note: All sigmas are lunate. The hasta of the tau in τό is
higher than the rest of the text and was perhaps a late addition (did the author perhaps think φῶς was masculine
and give it the article ὁ rather than τό?). All examples of pi are done in one curve, like an inverted ‘U’. The rho is
curved like a crook and the curve does not meet the vertical stroke. Note the retention of <φ> in ὑφ’ before ἑνί,
which is surely a reflection of the conservative nature of orthography rather than pronunciation of the period. φος
= φῶς – In the postclassical era <ο> and <ω> are both pronounced /o/. καλῖ = καλῇ – Postclassical <ηι> and <ι>
are pronounced /i/. ἑσπέρα = ἑσπέρᾳ – The iota in the dative ending (written subscript under the alpha here) was
not pronounced in the postclassical period and was therefore not always written (but cf. καλῖ not καλῆ for καλῇ),
so it may not have been completely forgotten, unless the author could not distinguish <ηι> and <ι> and never
knew it was καλῇ rather than καλῖ).
58
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Figure 2 MU
Fig.4519
19. MU
Photographs
4615 (Scale
and3:4)
drawings (Scale 3:4)
59
MU 4635
Date Acquired: September 2011, purchased from Noble Auction 1997, Lot No. 3519, ex Mark
and Susan Marshan collection
Type: Similar to Hayes Type 1
Description: Mould-made lamp with slightly depressed shoulders, decorated with chevron
wreath. Discus and channel to nozzle defined by relief with rim sloping at a sharp angle. Two
nude figures shown embraced in discus. Fill-hole pierced through couple’s torsos. Raised
circular base, elongated to meet unpierced handle. Handle slightly damaged.
Clay Colour: 7.5YR 6/3 light brown
Slip Colour: 2.5YR 5/6 red, applied to exterior only
Chronology: Fourth century AD
Comparanda: Very similar in shape to Q 1732 and Q 1733 (with foot ring instead of raised base)
in Bailey (1988) pp. 191-2, pl. 17.
60
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 20. MU 4635 (Scale 3:4)
61
MU 4664
Date Acquired: March 2012, purchased from Gorny and Mosch, Auction No. 202, Lot No. 409
Type: Similar to: Loeschcke Type VIII – Shoulder form VIII – Nozzle form Cn. E1
Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Unplaced Greek East
Description: Mould-made lamp with small rounded nozzle, which tilts slightly upwards. Sloping
shoulder with four concentric grooves defining discus. Fill-hole in centre of discus surrounded
by three concentric mouldings. In-between mouldings are impressed rays. Slightly raised
circular base. Slight charring around nozzle.
Potter’s stamp: APIΣTO

KΛ’EOΥΣ
Transliteration: Ἀριστο|κλέους
Translation: ‘of Aristokles’101
Clay Colour: 5YR 5/6 yellowish red
Slip Colour: 5YR 5/6 yellowish red, slip applied exterior only
Chronology: Second to third century AD
Comparanda: Body form similar to examples from Cnidus, such as Q 2815, p. 349, pl.88 (same
body shape but different nozzle form), and Q 2840-Q 2841, p. 351, pl. 89, (same nozzle shape
but different nozzle form) in Bailey (1988). No examples from Cnidus share same discus
pattern. Similar discus patterns found in Corinth Q 3241 p. 403, pl. 116 and 551 (220) in
Broneer (1930) p. 187, pl. XI. Similar discus pattern also found in Egypt, Q 2070 in Bailey (1988)
p. 252, pl. 44. Date range based upon these examples.
101
Transliteration and translation by Christopher Haddad. Note: Both sigmas and the epsilon are lunate.
62
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 21. MU 4664 (Scale 3:4)
63
MU 4665
Date Acquired: March 2012, purchased from Gorny and Mosch, Auction No. 202, Lot No.
414102
Type: Loeschcke Type I variant / Bailey Type A(ii)
Description: Mould-made lamp with voluted nozzle and angular tip, with prominent volute
spines. Extremely narrow rim with five concentric mouldings sloping down into a concave
discus. Motif depicts three-faced bearded god wearing headdress with tendrils of vines, most
likely Dionysus or Bacchus. Fill-hole pierced below motif, evidence first piercing failed. Short
foot ring.
Slip Colour: 5YR 4/3 reddish brown and 2.5Y 8/2 pale yellow, mottled slip applied over entire
vessel, finger marked
Chronology: Late first century BC to early first century AD.
Comparanda: Refer to Q 765 – Q 768 with similar voluted nozzles and concentric mouldings in
Bailey (1980) p. 133, pl. 2.
102
No presence of the potter’s stamp FAVSTI is visible on the base of this lamp as otherwise stated in Gorny and
Mosch Auction 202, Lot No. 414.
64
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 22. MU 4665 (Scale 3:4)
65
MU 4685
Date Acquired: May 2012, donated
Type: Standard African Loeschcke Type VIII, Shoulder form VIIa
Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Tunisia, Africa Proconsularis
Description: Mould-made lamp with wide shoulder and rounded nozzle. Discus defined by two
concentric mouldings. Portrait bust of a woman, wearing necklace with a repeated triangle and
a headdress with spike or horn at her crown. Fill-hole located to the right of the figure and
small air-hole pierce in the nape of the figures neck. Slightly raised base, defined by a single
groove. Unpierced handle. Charring on nozzle, metal lodged in fill-hole, rust across figure on
discus. Nearly entire lamp encrusted. Chip on top of handle with base and top separating along
joining edge underneath the handle.
Clay Colour: 10YR 6/4 light yellowish brown
Slip Colour: 2.5YR 3/1 dark reddish grey, slip applied to entire vessel
Chronology: Late second century to early third century AD
Comparanda: Many similar examples of this standard African form, Q 1680-91 and Q 1696-99
are in Bailey (1988) pp. 186-7, pls. 12-14. Later date given due to unpierced handle.
66
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 23. MU 4685 (Scale 3:4)

Fig. 24. MU 4635 (Scale 3:4)
67
MU 4741
Date Acquired: November 2013, purchased from Artemission UK
Type: Loeschcke Type IB / Bailey Type A(iii)
Description: Mould-made lamp with voluted nozzle and angular tip. Air-hole located in-
between base of volutes. The narrow flat shoulder is separated from the discus by three
moulded grooves. Discus concave with two curved daggers on the left and right and two pairs
of greaves, each pair overlapping on top and bottom of discus. Fill-hole pierced in centre of
discus. Slightly raised moulded foot-ring. Base of lamp has been repaired.
Clay Colour: 7.5YR 8/3 pink
Slip Colour: 2.5YR 4/6 red and 2.5YR 2.5/1 reddish black, mottled slip
Chronology: Early to mid first century AD
Comparanda: Date and production given by two very similar examples with same motif in
Mlasowsky (1993) p. 188, pl. 6.1, 173 and 174. Another similar example with mottled light and
dark brown glaze, also a helmet and an uncertain object on discus in Broneer (1930) p. 173, pl.
25, 427(1450).
68
CATALOGUE OF LAMPS
Fig. 24. MU 4741 (Scale 3:4)
69
Provincial Groups
As determined by the typological analysis which has been documented in this catalogue, six
provenances have been determined. Tunisia, with a total of seven lamps includes: MU 446, MU 3211,
MU 3212, MU 4487, MU 4519, MU 4635 and MU 4685. These seven lamps can be further sub-divided
into two chronological divisions. The first are those determined as being from the province of Africa
Proconsularis (146 BC-AD 293) under the Roman Empire. They include: MU 446 and MU 4685. The
second division contains lamps from the time period of Byzacena (AD 293-698) during the Byzantine
Empire: MU 3211; MU 3212; MU 4487; MU 4519 and MU 4635. The Levant contains a total of six lamps:
MU 2696; MU 3711; MU 3949; MU 4275; MU 4495 and MU 4615. These can be further sub-divided into
two chronological divisions. For the period of the Early to Late Roman Empire (26 BC-AD 330), lamps
included are MU 3949 and MU 4275. Lamps residing from the beginning of the Byzantine Empire to the
eighth century AD (AD 330-799) are MU 2696, MU 3711, MU 4495 and MU 4615. Only one lamp has
been attributed to Cyprus, MU 4253, and one other to Egypt, MU 3386. MU 4664 has not been placed
within a provenance, and constitutes its own group, but it is assumed to be from the Greek East, sharing
similar decorative features with example from both Corinth and Cnidus. The largest grouping includes
those lamps determined as Italian, all dating between the Late Republic (75 BC) and Late Empire (200
AD). These include MU 1539, MU 3801, MU 3802, MU 3886, MU 4202, MU 4222, MU 4665 and MU
4741. The Italian lamps have not been sub-divided due to their similar chronologies. The provincial
groups determined here will be scrutinised in the following chapters through quantification with
archaeometric analysis.
70
CHAPTER 3: TECHNIQUES OF MANUFACTURE
The most common method used to identify minerals in ceramic fabrics of Roman and Late
Antique lamps is petrographic analysis. This low cost method of thin-section petrographic analysis
assists in determining different kinds of minerals, their size, location, abundance, orientation,
association and surface treatments resultant of firing. These attributes in turn have been used to
determine local, foreign and provincial productions. Though this technique has many benefits, it results
in damage to the ceramic being examined. Samples analysed by this method are typically taken from
the most inconspicuous part of the vessel, commonly the foot. Whilst the damage may be minor, such
analysis is not usually permitted when evaluating complete, invaluable museum pieces. Non-destructive
means of analysis for the determination of ceramic mineral characteristics have been explored within
Radiography as an alternative and complement to petrographic analysis.103
Radiographic methods of ceramic analysis
X-ray radiography and xeroradiography have both offered advantages when substituting
petrographic examination as a means of non-destructive analysis. There is also the potential of
examining a wider volume of material, compared to petrographic thin-section. Both X-ray radiography
and xeroradiography have been used to examine whole vessels and large numbers of pottery sherds for
the general characterisation and classification of fabrics, particularly in relation to the nature and
proportions of inclusions in the clay body. 104 These techniques have been used in previous ceramic
studies to determine: the orientation, size, quantity and distribution of inclusions; 105 techniques of
103
Refer to A.A. Moss, The application of X-rays, gamma rays, ultra-violet and infra-red methods to the study of
antiquities. Handbook for museum curators, Part B, Museum technique Section 4 (London, 1954) for early
experimentation with the benefits of Radiographic techniques for the analysis of Museum ceramics.
104
A. Middleton, "Ceramics", in J. Lang and A Middleton (ed) Radiography of cultural material (2005) p. 80.
105
See A. Middleton, "Integrated approaches to the understanding of early ceramics: the role of radiography", in
B. Fabbri (ed) The cultural ceramic heritage. Fourth Euro ceramics 14 (1995) pp. 63-74 for the examination of some
La Tène pottery from the Champayne region in France, in which xeroradiography was used to differentiate
between wheel-thrown and hand-built vessels. See also D.P. Braun, "Radiographic analysis of temper in ceramic
vessels: Goals and intial methods", Journal of Archaeological Science 9 (1982) pp. 183-92; G.V. Foster,
"Identification of inclusions in ceramic artifacts by xeroradiography", Journal of Field Archaeology 12 (1985) pp.
373-6 and G.V. Foster, "Assessment of microinclusions in ceramic ware by pattern recognition analysis of
microxeroradiographs", in J.S. Olin and K.J. Blackmann (ed) Proceedings of the 24th International Archaeometry
Symposium, Washington (1986) pp. 207-16
manufacture; 106 details of construction; 107 similarity and differences of fabrics within collections of
vessels108 and for identifying forgeries or areas of reconstruction. 109
The images produced by X-ray radiography and xeroradiography, and the subsequent
information that we can attain from them about classifications and characterisations of ceramic bodies,
can be duplicated by the use of CT images. Developed in the early 1970s for medical uses, CT has been
utilised in recent years within the field of Archaeology to research a wide range of material culture,
including but not limited to: cremation urns and metallic objects to mummies.110 CT scanners function
essentially by measuring the relative transmission of X-rays through an object at different angles,
computing this information and then constructing a cross-section of the object being examined. 111
Multiple projections, or slices, are taken of the object moving typically between 1-10mm after each
projection is completed. Once the process is finished, the data is stored on a computer, where it can be
used to display digital information and images for interpretation. 112 The images which are produced
contain 3D information based upon the linear attenuation coefficient of the materials being
examined.113 Each set of projections, or slices (including their thickness), can then be viewed as 2D
section images representing a 3D axial view of the object where a slice have been taken. The images
that are created look much like a conventional X-ray radiograph. The images can then be manipulated
to discern between different materials by adjusting the contrast. Slices can be viewed from left to right
and from top to bottom of each object. The images can then be saved and manipulated using other
software, such as Photoshop, to suit investigative needs. 3D models can also be created from the data
106
For related studies see; O.S. Rye, "Pottery manufacturing techniques: X-ray studies", Archaeometry 19 (1977)
pp. 205-11 and O.S. Rye, Pottery technology: Principles and reconstruction (Washington, 1981) pp. 68-70.
107
R.E. Alexander and R.H. Johnston, "Xeroradiography of Ancient objects: A new imaging modality", in J.S. Olin
and A.D. Franklin (ed) Archaeological Ceramics (1982) pp. 145-54.
108
See Middleton (1995) pp. 63-74, for the examination of some La Tène pottery from the Champayne region in
France, in which xeroradiography was used to differentiate between wheel-thrown and hand-built vessels. See
also: Y. Maniatis, R.E. Jones, J.K. Whitbread, A. Kostikas, A. Simopoulos, Ch. Karakalos and C.K. Willians II, "Punic
Amphoras Found in Corinth, Greece: An Investigation of Their Origin and Technology", Journal of Field Archaeology
11.(1984) pp. 205-222.
109
See S. Heinemann, "Xeroradiography: a new archaeological tool", American Antiquity 41 (1976) pp. 106-11 and
P. Meyers, "Applications of X-ray radiography in the study of archaeological objects", in G.F. Carter (ed)
Archaeological chemistry 2 (1978) pp. 79-96.
110
For analysis of Roman cremation urns investigated by CT, identifying bone, metallic objects and soil, eliminating
the need for invasive inquiry, refer to: T. Anderson and C. Fell, "Analysis of Roman cremation vessels by
computerized tomography", Journal of Archaeological Science 22 (1995) pp. 609-17. See S.D. Bonadies,
"Tomography of ancient objects", in D.A. Scott, J. Podany and B.B Considine (ed) Ancient and historic metals (1994)
pp. 75-83 and E.B. Avril and S.D. Bonadies, "Non-destructive analysis of ancient Chinese bronzes utilising industrial
computed tomography", Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings 185 (1991) pp. 49-63, for metallic
objects. For examples of research conducted on ancient humans see: D. Harwood-Nash, "Computed tomography
of ancient Egyptian mummies", Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 3 (1979) pp. 668-773 and R.H. Reznek,
M.G. Hallett and M. Charlesworth, "Computed tomography of Lindow Man", in I.M. Stead, J.B. Bourke and D.R.
Brothwell (ed) Lindow Man: The body in the bog (1986) pp. 63-5.
111
G.T. Herman, Image reconstructions from projections (London, 1980).
112
J. Lang, A. Middleton, J. Ambers and T. Higgins, "Radiographic Images", in J. Lang and A. Middleton (ed)
Radiography of Cultural Material (2005) p. 37.
113
Hounsfield (1973) pp. 1016-22.
72
TECHNIQUES OF MANUFACTURE
gathered and can be viewed from any angle by rotating on a computer monitor. The creation of these
3D models from CT scan data has the benefit of reconstructing elements of objects that previously
cannot be seen, such as enclosed vessels like lamps. Methods of creating and interpreting these 3D
models are discussed later in this chapter. CT images, much like X-ray radiographs, can be analysed to
investigate: techniques of manufacture and construction; the size, quantity and distribution of
inclusions and to identify areas of reconstruction in ceramic objects. As a completely non-destructive
methods of analysis, CT scanning has been used within this study to acquire information about each of
the lamps being reviewed.
Capturing CT images
A HD750, 128-slice fast switching, DECT scanner located at Macquarie University Hospital,
Sydney, Australia was used for this study to create CT scan images to analyse the clay bodies and
methods of manufacture of twenty-four lamps. Two scans were performed through each lamp. The first
using a conventional, single-energy, polychromatic technique and the second using Gemstone Spectral
Imaging (GSI – the GE term for their proprietary solution to DECT). 114 The images produced from the
first scan will be used within this chapter (see Table 1 for parameters), whilst the latter scans results will
be discussed in Chapter 4 for the chemical analysis of the lamps under examination. Data analysis was
performed using a GE Advantage Workstation. (GE Medical Systems, Milwaukee, WI).
Table 1. Scan parameters used for CT data acquisition
High-resolution conventional
Scan type Helical
Spectrum 120kVp
Pitch 0.531:1
SFOV (scan field of view) 32cm
Rotation time 0.8s
Beam coverage 40mm
Slice thickness 0.625mm
Tube current 80 mA
Recon algorithm HD Standard and HD Bone Plus
114
The same DECT scanner has been used for this study, using the same method of data acquisition as McKenzie-
Clark and Magnussen (2013) p. 579.
73
Clay forming and fabrication techniques are examined within the CT images through the analysis
of differing radiographic densities, arising in part from differences in size, but primarily due to difference
in composition. Six CT images which display the overall radiographic densities of each lamp have been
produced from two different viewing angles: one coronal and one axial view. These are displayed in
three colour schemes: linear grey; rainbow and inverse grey. These images are available for reference
in Appendix A (Figs. 62-85). The colour schemes were chosen for ease of interpretation as identification
of inclusions, breakages and differing densities can be more readily seen through cross-referencing each
of the images. Single axial slices, primarily from the middle of each lamp, are also examined to determine
the presence of voids, which cannot be easily identified by the images which capture the overall
radiographic density of each lamp.115 The general mineralogy of inclusions can be deduced from the
relative grey levels on each CT image, complemented with size and shape information of each
inclusions.116 Inclusions with gravities and elemental atomic numbers greater than the clay body appear
as light spots on the image (black for inverse grey scheme and red for rainbow), relative to the clay
body’s grey (for linear-grey and inverse-grey representations) or the clay’s ranging hues between blue,
green and yellow (for the rainbow spectrum display). Commonly, such inclusions are igneous or
metamorphic rock, however, different rocks display a wide range of compositions and thus vary in
brightness in relation to the clay and other inclusions. Inclusions which may also be present within the
lamps being studied may include but are not limited to: carbonate, mica, volcanic ash, quartz sand and
biosilica. Dark spots (white for inverse grey and black for rainbow) within the CT images are typically
either voids from air bubbles which had been formed during the clay processing before firing or from
where organic inclusions, such as shells, plant material or salt were present, but have since been burnt
away during the firing process. Pottery particles which have been deliberately added to the clay are only
inconsistently detected, due to similarities within their chemical composition. 117 Furthermore, clay
preparation can also be examined, if inconsistencies in composition of the overall clay body are
detectable through fluctuations in light and dark areas on the CT images. Such evidence may exemplify
whether the clay has not been sufficiently processed and worked before being placed into the lamp
moulds. It may also illustrate the plasticity of the clay before being fired.
115
Each of the axial views contained within this chapter contain images of samples point taken for the chemical
compositional analysis in Chapter 4.
116
The term ‘inclusion’ will be used in descriptions of particles which are either naturally occurring within the clay
body, or have been added during the clay forming process. Whilst the term ‘temper’ has been used
interchangeably within ancient ceramic scholarship, this paper will avoid this term of use. Instead, the study sides
with Rye’s definition which avoids how the material in question came to be in the clay. Rye (1981) pp. 31-2. As the
method used within this study is a means to identify the inclusions that are present within the clay body of each
lamp, it cannot assess, at a microscopic level, what minerals these inclusions are. Nor can it be determined if these
inclusions are naturally occurring or have been added to the clay body. The term ‘inclusion’ suits the purposes of
this study, due to its indeterminate nature. Rice (2005) pp. 412-3.
117
C. Carr, "Advances in ceramic radiography and analysis: applications and potentials", Journal of Archaeological
Science 17 (1990) p. 19.
74
The analysis of the CT images of each lamp are placed in order of MU number within the six
provincial groupings which were established in Chapter 2. Each lamp is examined for: homogeneity or
heterogeneity of the clay body (excluding inclusions); relative density; 118 presence of inclusions and
their size; presence of voids as indications of organic inclusions as well as identifying any repairs of
breakages. Following the identification of this information for each lamp, the provincial groupings will
be evaluated to ascertain if sub-groups can be formed by determining why similarities in the ceramic
fabrics are present. The sub-groups established within this chapter will be taken into consideration for
the cluster analysis in Chapter 4.
118
Each lamps density is determined as either low, medium or high. In the colour scheme linear grey: light grey is
indicative of low density; medium grey of medium density and dark grey/black for high density. Within the rainbow
colour scheme: blues and green are classified as low density, yellows as medium density and oranges and red as
high density. For inverse grey, the reverse order of linear greys is used.
75
CT image interpretation
Italy
MU 1539
Fairly homogenous clay body, with minor variance in density within a low range. Areas of higher
density evident: either side of nozzle, left hand-side wall close to the base of the lamp and small areas
on the right hand-side and rim. Very small amount of inclusions, largest located right hand-side on the
edge of the foot ring (~1mm3), presumably accidental. Inconsistencies in clay may indicate insufficient
preparation. No visible voids to indicate inclusions of organic matter. (Figs. 25 and 65)
MU 3801
Fairly homogenous clay body, with very minor variance in low density. Areas of higher density
located either side of nozzle, mainly within the bottom half of the vessel. Small areas of higher density
also located on the left and right hand-side of rim. Approximately eighteen inclusions all located in the
bottom half of vessel, ranging in size and density from ~1mm3-4mm3. Presumably accidental inclusions,
perhaps picked up from the bottom mould during construction. Evidence of some organic inclusions,
see Fig. 26, to the left of samples 1 and 3. (Fig. 66)
MU 3802
Homogenous clay body with very minimal variance in low density. Minor variation in top of
nozzle, very top of handle and base of handle. Some grain sized inclusions (less than 0.1mm3) scattered
throughout body, with one large inclusion in the base of the handle (~14mm3) and two ~0.3mm3
inclusions located mid-way on handle. No visible voids to indicate organic inclusions. (Figs. 27 and 67)
MU 3886
Heterogeneous clay body with fluctuating densities from low to high. May indicate little
plasticity in clay, or insufficient processing by wedging before lamp was formed in moulds. Base of
handle, when formed in mould, may have been made from slightly different clay to rest of body, as
indicated by higher density. May explain why the top of the handle has broken off, due to insufficient
adhesion between the two different clay bodies from the top and base moulds. Two high density spots
located on the base on the outside of vessel are not inclusions. (Figs. 28 and 68)
MU 4202
Heterogeneous clay body with fluctuating densities predominantly medium to high, maybe due
to same reasons as MU 3886. Greatest variation located in nozzle and left and right hand-side walls of
lamp. Variations in densities around rim and nozzle explained due to excess clay formed on inside seam
of lamp when moulds pushed together (Fig. 29). Very small grain sized inclusions scattered throughout
body (~0.1 mm3-0.2mm3). (Fig. 69)
76
Fig. 25. MU 1539 Axial slice Fig. 26. MU 3801 Axial slice
77
MU 4222
Homogenous clay body with only slight variance in low density around nozzle hole, ring handle
and right hand-side of base. Front right hand-side wall and base where potter’s stamp is impressed are
very thin, showing as voids the on CT images. Approximately fifteen inclusions, mainly located in the top
of vessel ranging in volume from ~ 0.15mm3-3.5mm3. Presumably unintended inclusions, perhaps
picked up from the top of mould during production. (Figs. 30 and 70)
MU 4665
Heterogeneous clay body ranging from low to medium density with high density areas around
nozzle, perhaps indicating Insufficient processing before lamp was formed in moulds. Includes various
sized inclusions with different densities. Highest density inclusions ranging from ~1mm3-10mm3 and
low density inclusions ranging from ~0.3mm3-1mm3 scattered throughout body both in top and bottom
halves of the lamp. No indication of voids from organic inclusions. (Figs. 31 and 71)
MU 4741
Homogenous clay body with very slight variance in low density top right hand-side of nozzle.
Clay has been extremely well worked before moulding lamp. Evidence of crack in middle of lamp,
traveling to the left and right of the air-hole. A few inclusions, the largest being ~5mm3 located on the
back wall of the vessel. No evidence of organic inclusions. (Fig. 32 and 72)
The Levant
MU 2696
Heterogeneous clay body with low density and many inclusions ranging in size and density
throughout vessel. Small medium density inclusions range in size from ~0.5 mm3-3mm3. High density
inclusions ranging in shape, from high roundness and sphericity to low round and sphericity, ~0.5mm3-
42mm3 are also distributed throughout the clay body. Many voids evident with CT axial slice, presumably
from organic inclusions. (Figs. 33 and 73)
MU 3711
Heterogeneous clay body with slight differences in low density throughout vessel. Handle
highest density, presumably due to excess clay. Some inclusions scattered throughout body ranging
between ~0.5mm3-6mm3. Voids evident in clay body, likely from organic inclusions. (Figs. 34 and 74)
MU 3949
Heterogeneous clay body with low to medium density. Small high density inclusions scattered
through top and base of lamp. Inclusions range from ~0.3mm3-1.5mm3. High density areas located in
top of handle and right hand-side of lamp. Vast difference in density of nozzle tip, likely to have been a
repair to the lamp. Some void evidence, likely from organic inclusions. (Figs. 35 and 75)
78
79
MU 4275
Heterogeneous clay body, with wide fluctuations in density from low to high throughout vessel.
Highest density areas located on rim, left and right hand-side and back of vessel. Appears that extra clay
was needed when pressing clay into the top mould as a clearly defined ring surrounds the fill-hole. Many
inclusions scattered throughout body, ranging in size from ~0.2mm3-6mm3. Voids distributed over
vessel, as evident in axial slice. (Figs. 36 and 76)
MU 4495
Heterogeneous clay body with medium density. Some high density inclusions scattered through
top and base of vessel, ranging in size from ~0.1mm3-3mm3. Voids present in axial slice, likely organic
inclusions. (Figs. 37 and 77)
MU 4615
Homogenous clay body with low density. Slightly higher density in small areas of the left hand-
side of base and left hand-side of nozzle channel. Approximately five visible inclusions ranging from
~0.2mm3-18mm3. No visible voids to indicate organic inclusions. (Figs. 38 and 78)
Tunisia
MU 446
Heterogeneous clay body with slight variation in low density, particularly around the top and
base of the nozzle, base of handle and left hand-side wall. High and medium density inclusions scattered
evenly throughout clay body ranging in size from ~0.1mm3-8mm3. Voids in axial view indicate organic
MU 3211
Heterogeneous medium to high density clay body with half of vessel consisting of inclusions.
High density inclusions compose a majority of clay the clay body, ranging between ~0.2mm3-22mm3.
Axial view demonstrates large usage of organic material, with voids as large as the high density
MU 3212
Heterogeneous low to medium density clay body with consistent inclusions scattered
throughout vessel. Medium density areas around nozzle and left and right hand-side wall and handle
tip. Inclusions range between ~0.1mm3-8mm3. Voids present in axial view distributed evenly across
vessel. (Figs. 41 and 81)
80
Fig. 39. MU 446 Axial view Fig. 40. MU 3211 Axial view
81
MU 4487
Fairly homogenous clay body with slight variations in low density. Lowest density in middle of
vessel, likely due to the thin walls of the base and top of the lamp within this area. Only a total of three
inclusions of medium to high density visible, ranging between ~0.1mm3-0.5mm3. A few voids visible in
axial view, indicative of organic inclusions. (Figs. 42 and 82)
MU 4519
Heterogeneous clay body varying from low to medium density. Medium to high density area to
the right of nozzle. Left hand-side of nozzle looks to have been cracked but repaired at some stage.
Some medium to high density inclusions located inconsistently through vessel, ranging in size between
~0.1mm3-4mm3. Minimal voids present throughout vessel, as indicated by axial view. (Figs. 43 and 83)
MU 4635
Heterogeneous clay body varying in low density. Highest density areas located on the nozzle,
left and right hand-side wall and back of the handle. High density inclusions do not seem to be present
within vessel however voids are visible within the axial view, indicating organic inclusions instead. Slight
crack on left hand-side shoulder. (Figs. 44 and 84)
MU 4685
Homogenous clay body of very low density. High density nail-like object visible in CT images
lodged inside the fill-hole of the vessel. Medium to high density inclusions primarily located in top half
of vessel, ranging between ~0.1mm3-2mm3. Evident from axial view many voids are present within clay
body, feasibly related to the overall low density of the entire vessel. (Figs. 45 and 85)
Egypt
MU 3386
Heterogeneous clay body ranging between low and medium density. Highest density on left
hand-side wall of vessel. Visible cracks can be seen running across the whole bottom of the lamp and
up the left hand-side. This crack is very clearly seen with the naked eye. Handle appears to have been
completely broken off and has been reattached. This cannot be seen by just looking at the vessel itself,
as a similar colour slip has also been applied over this area to disguise the reconstruction. A few medium
to high density inclusions are present within the vessel, ranging from ~0.1mm3-1mm3. A couple of voids
are present within the axial view, indication some organic inclusions. (Figs. 46 and 86)
82
83
Cyprus
MU 4253
Fairly homogenous clay body with varied low density. Higher density areas located around top
of nozzle, left and right hand-side of rim and back of handle. Ovoid shaped inconsistency visible on back
of lamp, which is visible to the naked eye on the physical specimen. Clay body contains inclusions of low
density, no larger than grain size, <1mm3. No visible voids, as can be seen in axial view. (Figs. 47 and 87)
Unplaced Greek East

MU 4664
Slightly heterogeneous clay body varying in low density. Higher density area around nozzle, left
and right hand-side walls and rim of vessel. Some medium to high density inclusions located sporadically
throughout clay body, ranging between ~0.2mm3-5.5mm3. A few voids visible in axial view. (Fig. 48 and
88)
Evaluation of CT images
In examining the CT images of each individual lamp, information on determining the following
characteristics can be gathered: low, medium or high density clay body; quantity and size of inclusions,
and homogeneity of the clay body. By comparing these characteristics of each lamp within their relative
provincial groupings, sub-groups may be established. These sub-groups may indicate different methods
of manufacture, from preparing the clay by adding inclusions to increase or decrease plasticity, or to
prevent cracking during the firing process.
Within the eight lamps designated as being Italian, two sub-groups may be formed based upon
the analysis undertaken. The first group, Italy Group 1, consists of MU 1539, MU 3801, MU 3802, MU
4222 and MU 4741, as all have homogenous clay bodies with very minimal inclusions. The homogeneity
of the clay suggests two things: initially the potters had access to a relativity pure clay source and that
the clay had been well processed to remove foreign material and wedged sufficiently before
manufacture begun. Inclusions that are apparent in each vessel are only present within either the top
or bottom half of each lamp. This may suggest that the inclusions may only have become attached to
the clay body when being placed into the moulds during production and were hence accidental
inclusions. On the other hand, the inclusions may have been naturally occurring in the clay and it only
serves as a coincidence that they are apparent within one half of the vessel. The second sub-group of
Italian lamps, Italy Group 2, containing MU 3886, MU 4202 and MU 4665, consists of heterogeneous
clay bodies with varying densities from low to high. The heterogeneity of the clay suggests both that the
84
clay being used for each of these lamps had either not been derived from relatively pure sources, or had
not been sufficiently processed to produce a more homogenous clay body. However, organic matter
appears to have been removed.
Within lamps from the Levant, three sub-groups can be established. The first group, Levant
Group 1, contains MU 3949, MU 4275 and MU 4495. All three lamps have heterogamous clay bodies
with densities ranging from low to high, much Italy Group 2. All lamps in the group contain relatively the
same amount of inclusions varying in size from ~ 0.1mm3-6mm3. There is evidence for organic
inclusions, due to the presence of voids. The second group, Levant Group 2, contains MU 2696 and MU
3711, both with heterogeneous clay bodies and varying low densities. Whilst MU 3711 does contain
more high density inclusions than MU 2696, the latter contains a similar amount of voids to MU 3711,
indicating the burning away of organic matter. The third group, Levant Group 3, contains MU 4615,
which is unlike any of the other Levantine lamps. Whilst being the latest in date, MU 4615 possesses
the only homogenous clay body, and contains relatively no inclusions in comparison to the other two
Levantine groups.
From the Tunisian lamps, three sub-groups can be derived. The first, Tunisia Group 1, includes
MU 3212, MU 4487 and MU 4519, all with ranging densities from low to medium. MU 3212 contains
the highest quantity and largest inclusions of this group, however, all three lamps differ in density in
relatively the same location: the centre of the lamp being the lowest and the extremities, such as the
nozzle, containing the highest. All possess voids with MU 3212 containing the most whilst MU 4487 and
MU 4519 contain relatively the same amount. These two lamps also both date between the fifth and
sixth centuries AD. The second group, Tunisia Group 2, contains MU 446, MU 4635 and MU 4685, all of
which have low densities and are mostly homogenous. MU 446 contains the most amount of medium
and high density inclusions, however all contain a relatively few amount of voids. The third group,
Tunisia Group 3, contains only MU 3211 with a heterogeneous clay body and varying densities between
medium and high. MU 3211 contains the most amount of inclusions and the highest density within the
Tunisian groups, and thus could not form part of the other two sub-groups thus determined.
Of the three remaining lamps from Egypt, Cyprus and the Unplaced Greek East example, all
share similar characteristics. All contain relatively few inclusions (MU 4253 appears to contain none at
all), and all are of low density. Both MU 4253 and MU 4664 bear the closest resemblance to Italy Group
1, whilst the Egyptian lamp, MU 3386, bears a close relation with Tunisia Group 2.
Beyond being able to aid in determining methods of manufacture and characteristics of clay
bodies, as well as their inclusion, the CT images produced were able to identify repairs and
reconstructions undertaken in three lamps; otherwise unobservable to the naked eye. MU 3949 has
clearly had the tip of the nozzle replaced from observing the CT images, due to the vast difference in
density to the rest of the vessel. Whilst a close examination of this lamp reveals this repair, the CT images
85
renders it clearly discernible. MU 3386 has clearly been poorly repaired around the nozzle and base of
the lamp, as can be observed in Fig. 6. However the break that is clear in the CT image, between the
handle and the rest of the lamp body, is completely hidden by a modern repair. MU 4519 appears to
have also had some reconstruction around the left hand-side of the nozzle, which cannot be detected
when viewing the physical vessel itself.
Even though the CT images analysed here do not provide us with a high magnification for the
identification of mineral groups, as petrographic thin-section analysis does, this method can still provide
the archaeologist with a simple method, given access to the relevant equipment, to observe different
kinds of minerals, their size, location, abundance and association with other ceramic fabrics. This would
then assist in determining preliminary groupings before quantifiable chemical compositional analysis.
When paired with chemical analysis, which will be undertaken in Chapter 4, DECT scanning can provide
benefits which cannot be attained by traditional analytical techniques. DECT scanning offers the benefits
of being able to: examine every single slice taken through an object every few millimetres; identify the
presence of inclusions; assess ceramic fabrics consistencies and visualise breakages and repairs. Most
importantly of all, no harm comes to any object observed using this method. Advances can be made by
using improved radiographic techniques which offer higher contrast and resolution, such as X-ray
Microtomography or Microfocus CT. 119 One other benefit of CT for the analysis of ceramics is the
possibility of creating 3D models
3D Modelling
Within the past fifteen years, methods of producing 3D models of material culture have
developed and changed markedly through a desire to document, research and conserve culturally rich
objects of antiquity. As has been outlined in Chapter 1, Lapp and Nicoli have thus far produced some of
the first 3D models of ceramic oil lamps using 3D laser scanning techniques.120 They were able to create
high fidelity 3D models to: produce highly accurate archaeological illustrations for excavation reports
and field work publications; document and preserve heritage artefacts; produce accurate reproductions
for documentary and education purposes and to extract fingerprints from the exterior and interior of
lamps.121
119
For studies which have used this technique for the characterisation of ceramics see: H. Dunsmuir, P.B. Vandiver,
R.R. Chlanell, H.W. Deckmann and J.H. Hardenbergh, "X-ray microtomography for ceramic artefacts", MRS
Proceedings 352 (1995) . See also Refer to Carr (1990) p. 19 and C. Carr and E.B. Riddick, "Advances in ceramic
radiography and analysis: laboratory methods", Journal of Archaeological Science 17 (1990) pp. 35-66.
120
Lapp and Nicoli (2013) pp. 1-11.
121
Ibid, p. 3.
86
Whilst the laser scanning technique which was employed in Lapp and Nicoli’s study created very
high fidelity 3D models, with a maximum point-to-point distance of 60μm, this type of laser scanning
can only create a model of the exterior surface of the lam being investigated. However, through the use
of CT scanning, both the exterior and interior can be virtually reconstructed. Thus CT can create whole
vessel visualisations enabling the interior and exterior surfaces of any enclosed object to be investigated
for signs of methods of manufacture.
As indicated by Lapp and Nicoli, archaeological illustrations of lamps should document both a
top, bottom and side cross-section of the vessel being studied.122 Whilst the top and base of lamps are
able to be drawn with relative accuracy, the cross-section views of lamps are notoriously difficult to
draw with certainty, due to the enclosed nature of mould-made lamps. Generally, cross section
illustrations of mould-made lamps are drawn by measuring the thickness of the walls with callipers
(usually this measurement is gathered from the nozzle or other openings in the vessels which will a
measurement of the ceramics thickness) and applying this measurement across the entirety of the
cross-section view.123 These sections drawings are thus, inaccurate if the lamp does not have uniform
consistency in its walls, top and base. However, through the use of CT, accurate 3D profiles can be
created, as exhibited in Chapter 2. (Figs. 1-24)
CT for the creation of 3D models
The data sets acquired through DECT scanning, which are saved as DICOM files, 124 contain
different layers of slices through each lamp. These files can be converted into 3D models by using a
number of programs. For this study, the free public medical imaging software Invesalius (version 3.0.0
Beta 5) was chosen for its ease of use and potential to perpetually save the 3D model in the most
common 3D file formats.125 Once the 3D file is created, it can be imported into other programs to be
manipulated and analysed. For this study Meshlab (version 1.3.3.), an open source, portable and
extensible system for the processing and editing 3D triangular meshes, was used to view the 3D models
of lamps under investigation. Isometric images of each of the 3D models are presented in Appendix B
(Figs. 86-109).126
122
Ibid, p. 7.
123
R. Jansen, H. Koens, C. Neeft and J. Stoker, "CT in the archaeologic study of ancient Greek ceramics",
Radiographics 21 (2001) pp. 315-321
124
Acronym for Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine, bitmap file.
125
Some common file types for 3D modelling include .stl, .ply and .obj. The first was chosen to be created for this
study due to smaller size files.
126
Due to the constraints of this thesis only a top and base isometric view has been provided of each lamps’ 3D
model. Furthermore, the images to follow in this chapter are but a small snapshot of observable methods of
manufacture and as such, the lamps have been investigated within their provincial groupings.
87
By examining the internal surfaces of each lamp, information about the methods of
manufacture used by the lamp-makers can be determined. The provincial sub-groups that have been
established earlier in this chapter are used here to identify trends in techniques of manufacture. For
brevity, the Cypriot lamp is analysed with Italy Group 1, and the Egyptian and Unplaced Greek East lamp
are examined with Italy Group 2, due to their sharing very similar ceramic fabric characteristics
88
Techniques of manufacture investigated through 3D models

Italy Group 1 and Cyprus: MU 1539, MU 3801, MU 3802, MU 4222, 4253 and MU 4741.
All six lamps within this group exhibit smooth, relatively even inner walls, and a neat seam
where the two moulded halves of each lamp mould have met during construction, for example in Fig.
49. It is evident that all fill-holes, apart from MU 3801, have been pierced after the two moulds have
been joined (Figs. 50). 127 Of these six lamps, only MU 4222 possesses an uneven internal surface,
particularly on the underside of the discus. These inconsistencies undoubtedly contain many of the
inclusions identified in the CT images (Fig. 50 and 30). Ridges appear on the inside of each of these
lamps which is indicative of where the potter pressed and formed the clay into the mould. In Fig. 51,
ridges can clearly be seen along the interior wall of MU 3802.
Italy Group 2; Egypt and Unplaced Greek East: MU 3386, MU 3886, MU 4202, MU 4664 and MU
4665
The inner walls of all of these lamps do not possess the smoothness of the Italy Group 1 lamps.
As was deduced from the CT images earlier in this chapter, these vessels possess heterogeneous clay
bodies. The appearance of uneven ridges and pit holes may be representative of the heterogeneous
nature of the clay bodies (Fig. 52). Seams where the two halves of the moulds have met are fairly uneven
and bulging of the clay can be seen (Fig. 53). The fill-holes of MU 3386, MU 3886, MU 4664 and MU
4665 have been pierced after the two moulds have been joined (Fig. 54). MU 4665 still has the circle of
clay which was pushed through for the fill-hole attached to the inside of the lamp. The fill-hole of MU
4202 on the other hand seems to have been pierced prior to forming in the mould. (Fig. 52)
Levant Group 1: MU 3949, MU 4275 and MU 4495
Despite the CT images revealing heterogeneous clay bodies for this group of lamps, the interior
surfaces are relatively smooth. However, MU 3949 contains some large deposits of matter, which are
affixed to the underside of the discus and nozzle (Fig. 55). As was observed from analysing the CT images
of MU 4275, some extra clay had been pressed on the underside of the discus before firing, as can be
seen in (Fig. 56). The air-hole of MU 3949 and the nozzle hole of MU 4495 have both been pierced after
being formed in the mould.
Levant Group 2: MU 2696 and MU 3711
The interior of both of these lamps possess a slightly uneven surface texture, with some minor
pits and lumps (Fig. 57). This uneven texture is likely due to the inclusions within the clay bodies. Ridges
from pushing clay into the mould are barely distinguishable, compared to all other lamps groups.
127
It is evident to me through observing the 3D models that due to the excess clay being found on the underside
of the fill-holes. If these holes were pierced before the two halves of the lamp moulds were brought together, this
excess clay would presumably have been removed by the lamp maker before two halves were brought together.
89
Fig. 49. MU 3802 view of right hand-side seam Fig. 50. MU 4222, underside view of top
Fig. 51. MU 3802, view of left hand-side wall
Fig. 52. MU 4202, inside view
Fig. 53. MU 3386, inside view of pierced air and fill-hole
Fig. 54. MU 4665, inside view of uneven seam and pierced fill-hole
90
Fig. 55. MU 3949, view looking toward nozzle Fig. 56. MU 4275, view of underneath of top
Fig. 57. MU 2696 inside view looking toward nozzle Fig. 58. MU 4615, inside left hand-side view
Fig. 59. MU 3212, view of impressions and ridges from potter
Fig. 60. MU 4487, view of inside base, evidence of repair before firing
Fig. 61. MU 4685, inside right hand-side view, with metallic object visible through fill-hole
91
Levant Group 3: MU 4615
The inside of this lamp is fairly even, with some subtle impressions formed on the interiors. The
seam between the top and bottom halves of the lamp bulges slightly, perhaps an indication that the
lamp was formed by pressing the two halves of the mould together.128(Fig. 58).
Tunisia, Group 1: MU 3212, MU 4487 and MU 4519
All three lamps in this group have clearly been made by pressing fresh clay together whilst inside
the two halves of the mould, like MU 4615, as excess clay is built up around the entire inside seam of
each lamp (similar to Fig. 53). Ridges and impressions are present from where the potter has pushed
and smoothed the clay into the mould. (Fig. 59) The base of MU 4487 appears to have been repaired
by a plug of clay before being fired, as can be seen in Fig. 60, and has been sufficiently smoothed on the
outside of the lamp to avoid detection.
Tunisia Group 2/3: MU 446, MU 3211, MU 4635 and MU 4685
Both MU 446, MU 4635 and MU 3211 have relatively smooth inner surfaces and some slight
bulging around the inside seems. The air-holes and fill-holes of each lamp have all been pierced after
the lamp had been formed in the mould. The nail-like object which is lodged in MU 4685, has been
clearly reconstructed in the 3D model (Fig. 61).
Summary
By being able to view the interior of these Roman and Late Antique oil lamps, the way in which
the lamp-maker formed each individual vessel can be examined. Whilst the outside of a lamp can exhibit
a wealth of information about: how well the clay had been pressed into a mould; the condition and type
of mould being used (clay or plaster) and what slips or finishing techniques have been used, the interior
surface of mould-made lamps provide a unique depiction of the forming process, which cannot be
gathered though an examination of only the exterior surfaces. The impression lines that can be seen
within the inside of the majority of the lamps within this study show the direction that the potters’
fingers pushed to force the clay into the moulds and how much care was taken to create a smooth inside
surface. It is evident through these 3D models that different practices of: smoothing; joining the two
moulds together and piercing air-holes and fill-holes was adapted in each of the groups described. Italy
Group 1, The Cypriot lamp, Tunisia Group 2 and 3 and Levant Group 3 all possess relatively smooth inner
surfaces with little bulging appearing where the edges of the top and bottom moulds meet. Italy Group
2 and Tunisia Group 1 possess more grooves and impressions than the aforementioned groups, with
128
Refer to p. 11, for the explanation of the first technique of forming lamps by two moulds and Bailey (1975) p.
6.
92
substantial bulging of the seams inside the lamps. As observed from plaster moulds of lamps of similar
types as Tunisia Group 1 in Carthage, which have registration bosses on the top and bottom moulds, it
appears likely that lamps within this group were made by the first technique of manufacture as
described by Bailey.129 The force exerted to push the two moulds together appears to have pushed a
generous amount of clay to the inside seam. Levant Group 2 show the least amount of impressions
made by the potter, perhaps using a different technique to press the clay into the mould forms, such as
pressing directly down onto the clay, rather than smoothing the clay in long strokes as is apparent in
the rest of the provincial groups.
Whilst only some techniques of manufacture have been discussed here, the creation of
accurate 3D models of objects of antiquity through the use of CT scanning technology possesses
unlimited potential in archaeological research. The virtualisation of high fidelity 3D renderings of
enclosed ancient artefacts will be able to provide a wealth of information of manufacturing techniques,
evidence of breakage and repair, or even uncover objects or text which have not been seen for
thousands of years. The potential for future archaeological research utilising the 3D scanning
capabilities of DECT scanning will be explored further in Chapter 5.
129
Ibid, p. 6.
93
94
CHAPTER 4: COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSIS
Previous studies which have analysed the chemical compositions of Roman and Late Antique
period oil lamps have traditionally used methods including: ICP-MS, ICP-OES, XRF and NAA. Whilst these
methods have been able to ascertain: regions and workshops of production; local and foreign imported
lamps; differences in local clay resources and suggest types of geological environments that clay may
have been sourced from, all of these common chemical analyse techniques result in the damage or
destruction of the ceramics being analysed.
A new non-destructive technique, DECT, which has been employed by McKenzie-Clark and
Magnussen to analyse Black Gloss A and C (BGA and BGC) and Vesuvian Sigillata 1 and 2 (VS1 and VS2)
has proven to produce comparable results to ICP-MS and ICP-AES.130 DECT scanning was chosen for this
study as it allows the acquisition of two sets of projection data through one location with two different
X-ray spectra, allowing for the analysis of the dependency of attenuation on the energy spectra. 131
McKenzie-Clark and Magnussen were able to confirm through DECT that strong correlations between
BGA and VG1, and alike compositions of BGC and VS2, existed, which corresponded with earlier
compositional analysis undertaken using ICP-AES.132 DECT has been adopted for this investigation to
assess the chemical relationships between the twenty-four lamps under study. As the vessels being
examined are all irreplaceable museum pieces, it was essential that no harm come to them. By using
DECT, the only handling that is needed is to place these valuable artefacts on the scan bed.
Method
Twenty-four lamps were scanned using a GE HD750, 128-slice fast switching, DECT scanner
located at Macquarie University Hospital in Sydney, Australia. This scanner allows for a reduction of
beam-hardening effects and also allows for a wider choice in material decomposition (MD) pairs.133 Two
scans were performed through each lamp, the first using a conventional, single-energy, polychromatic
technique (the results of which have been analysed in Chapter 3) and the second scan using GSI with
the parameters shown in Table 2. Data analysis was performed using a GE Advantage Workstation, dual
energy analysis tool kit (version 2.00-2L). The parameters used yielded an isotropic voxel size of 0.268
mm (volume pixel).
130
For an explanation of the benefits of DECT over conventional Computed Tomography for the analysis of
ceramics, refer to McKenzie-Clark and Magnussen (2013) pp. 573-90.
131
Ibid, p. 5. and R.E. Alvarez and A. Macovski, "Energy-selective reconstructions in X-ray computerized
tomography", Physics in Medicine and Biology 21 (1976) pp. 733-44.
132
J. McKenzie-Clark, "The supply of Campanian-made Sigillata to Pompeii", Archaeometry 54 (2012) pp. 796-820.
133
Y.U. Zou and M.D. Silver, "Analysis of fast kV-switching in dual energy CT using a pre-reconstruction
decomposition technique", in J. Hsieh and E. Samei (ed) Proceedings of SPIE: medical imaging 6913 (2008)
Table 2. Scan parameters used for the CT data acquisition (GSI)
GSI (dual energy)

Scan type Helical
Spectrum High: 140kVp
Low: 80kVp
Pitch 0.531:1
SFOV 32cm
Rotation time 0.8s
Beam coverage 40mm
Slice thickness Modulated ~275mA
Recon algorithm Standard soft tissue
Within each lamp, regions of interest were drawn from three axial slices through areas of the
nozzle, middle and back of each lamp to ensure the majority of the clay bodies characteristics were
acquired for assessment.134 Regions of interest were positioned evenly throughout axial slices, with the
size and positions adjusted to avoid overlapping with either adjacent air, inclusions, voids or the surface
of the lamp, which could result in data acquisition errors.
For each voxel the following values were obtained: monochromatic HU equivalent (40-140KeV
at 10KeV intervals, nine data series); 135 material decomposition of water (mg/cm -3) and material
decomposition of iodine (100ug/cm-3).
Outliers within the regions of interests gathered for each lamp are detected based on local
outlier factors (LOF) using the data mining program Rapid Miner (version 5.3). The LOF is based on a
concept of a local density, where locality is given by the k-Nearest Neighbours algorithm (k-NN), whose
distance is used to estimate the density. By comparing the local density of an object to the local densities
of its neighbours, regions of similar density, and points that have a substantially lower density than their
neighbours, can be identified. These are considered to be outliers. Once these outlying regions of
interest have been detected, they are excluded from further analysis.
Following eliminating outliers, expectation maximization clustering is used within Rapid Miner
to place the lamps into clusters. Clustering is concerned with grouping objects together that are similar
134
Refer to Chapter 3, Figs. 25-48 for examples of axial slices taken through the middle of each lamp, with ROIs
shown as oval, each being numbered.
135
CT scanning systems are able to reconstruct an image based upon the linear attenuation coefficient of the
materials being examined and report an integer scale of values, typically from -1000 to 3000 as Hounsfield units
(HU). For further explanation refer first to McKenzie-Clark and Magnussen (2013) p. 576 and Hounsfield (1973)
pp. 1016-22.
96
COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSIS
to each other and dissimilar to the objects belonging to other clusters. The expectation maximization
algorithm extends this basic approach to clustering in some important ways by computing probabilities
of cluster memberships based on one or more probability distributions to maximise the overall
probability, or likelihood, of the data given the final clusters.
Results
For each lamp, regions of interest were obtained from the nozzle, middle, back and handle of
each lamp to cover each vessels range of fabrics, especially for those examples with many inclusions
and fluctuating density as established in Chapter 3. Before the removal of outliers, there was a total of
968 regions of interest (ROIs) and a total of 19,347 voxels. The total number of regions of interest and
voxels are summarised in Table 3.
Following acquisition of the data from the ROIs within each lamp, the data sets chosen for
examination were the 70 keV monochromatic data set and the material decomposition of iodine
(100ug/cm-3). As stated by Mckenzie-Clark and Magnussen, although they used the 120keV
monochromatic data set for the analysis of Black Gloss and Vesuvian Sigillata, a lower keV may show
improved sample characterisation.136 This method was tested for this study.
Sample consistency was tested by detecting outliers based on LOF for all ROIs for each lamp.
Each ROI is assigned a special real-valued LOF, generally ranging between 0.900 and 4.500 in this study.
Figures 62 and 63 display the scatterplots for the detections of outliers of MU 3211 and MU 4253 for
examples.137 Outliers range from green to red in colour in the scatterplots. Detected outliers were then
eliminated from the ROIs being examined.
Once outliers were removed, 850 ROIs with 17,089 voxels remaining for analysis. Expectation
maximization clustering was applied to the data, separating the lamps into eight distinct groups, as can
be seen in Figure 64. The following clusters were established: Cluster 0 representing MU 446, MU 3886,
MU 3711, MU 4635 and MU 4664; Cluster 1 consisting of MU 1539, MU 3801, MU 4253 and MU 4741;
Cluster 2 only contains MU 4615; Cluster 4 contains MU 3802, MU 4222 and MU 4685; Cluster 5
represents only MU 4495; Cluster 6 consists of MU 2696, MU 3886, MU 4202, MU 4275, MU 4665 and
MU 3949; Cluster 7 includes MU 3211 and Cluster 8 contains MU 3212, MU 4487 and MU 4519. The
average probability of cluster membership for each of the lamps was calculated, with percentage
probability recorded. This information is summarised in Table 4.
136
McKenzie-Clark and Magnussen (2013) p. 587.
137
In Appendix C, scatterplots of all sample consistency assessments can be found, ordered by MU number (Fig.
113-34).
97
MU # # ROIs Total voxels # ROIs after outliers Total voxels after outliers
MU 446 38 711 33 626
MU 1539 35 603 33 569
MU 2696 50 851 47 807
MU 3211 47 761 43 731
MU 3212 53 1095 47 983
MU 3386 51 1094 46 980
MU 3711 43 939 39 848
MU 3801 41 1088 36 968
MU 3802 32 654 27 560
MU 3886 23 295 20 262
MU 3949 38 639 32 534
MU 4202 29 378 24 306
MU 4222 37 670 32 612
MU 4253 33 644 30 594
MU 4275 42 729 39 675
MU 4487 44 1320 37 1100
MU 4495 38 769 33 668
MU 4519 61 1542 51 1294
MU 4615 42 821 29 579
MU 4635 38 1029 34 942
MU 4664 32 528 29 484
MU 4665 51 918 45 810
MU 4685 35 684 31 604
MU 4741 35 585 33 553
Total 968 19347 850 17089
Table 3. Summary of total number of ROIs and voxels analysed
98
Fig. 62. MU 3211, sample consistency assessment, HU at 70 keV and material decomposition of Iodine
99
100
Fig. 64. Scatterplot of clusters established through expectation maximisation clustering

Table 4. Summary of average probability for cluster membership of each lamp
MU# Average probability of cluster membership (%) Cluster

MU 446 96.2 0
MU 1539 65.8 1
MU 2696 52.7 6
MU 3211 99.5 7
MU 3212 99.4 8
MU 3386 65.4 0
MU 3711 49.7 0
MU 3801 40.5 1
MU 3802 71 4
MU 3886 72.1 6
MU 3949 87.1 6
MU 4202 60.7 6
MU 4222 69 4
MU 4253 61.8 1
MU 4275 84.4 6
MU 4487 95.6 8
MU 4495 85.2 5
MU 4519 89.2 8
MU 4615 95 2
MU 4635 99 0
MU 4664 70.7 0
MU 4665 75.3 6
MU 4685 78 4
MU 4741 63.2 1
Discussion
In order to encompass of the majority of each lamps’ chemical composition, it was decided to
attain ROIs from three to four different positions within each vessel, namely from the nozzle, middle
and back of the lamp and handle (when the handle is present). It was hoped that this method of attaining
ROIs would maximise the potential to be able to find clusters within the lamps under study. Whilst more
ROIs could have been gathered from each lamp, as it is possible to take samples from any part of the
vessel, the number attained has still produced some promising results. A lower keV of 70 was chosen
101
for this examination to test if improved sample characterisation can be achieved from using values
below 120 keV.
From the results, eight clusters within the lamps were established. Whilst some of these clusters
form tight groupings, such as Clusters 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 and 8 the remaining two clusters, 0 and 6, encompass
a wide range of monochromatic HU at 70 keV and Iodine values. Of the clusters that did produce close
groupings, the results correlate with the provincial groups establish in Chapter 2, later reinforced in
Chapter 3. Cluster 1, contains four lamps, three come from Italy Group 1, MU 1539, MU 3801 and MU
4741 and the fourth was determined to be from Cyprus, MU 4253. As determined in Chapter 3, these
four lamps all shared homogenous clay bodies, with little to no inclusions or voids. Whilst the average
probability of cluster membership for each of these lamps ranges between 40.1-65.8%, which is
relatively low. This low value may have occurred due to interference with other vessels which possess
a wide range of HU at 70 keV and Iodine values, thus skewing the results. A resampling of regions of
interest for assessment within this group may deliver higher probability of cluster membership Despite
this, these four lamps appear to share similar compositions, and the designation of MU 4253 being
Cypriot, may have to be revisited.
Cluster 2, containing only MU 4615, confirms the assertion from Chapter 3, and the grouping of
Levant Group 3, that this lamp is unlike any of the other Levantine examples. Due to the uniformity in
the clay body and small amount of inclusions, it was presumed that this lamp would not form a cluster
with any other lamp within this study, a presumption which has been affirmed through cluster analysis.
Cluster 4 contains two Italy Group 1 lamps, MU 3802 and MU 4222 and one Tunisia Group 1 lamp, MU
4685. All three lamps were confirmed to have homogenous clay bodies with minimal inclusions and low
densities in Chapter 3 and these similar characteristics are reflected by the moderate average
probability of cluster membership varying between 69-78%. As MU 4685 had been designated as being
from Tunisia, the assessment of this provenance may also have to be re-examined as a result of the
close correlation with the two other Italian examples.
Cluster 5, contains only MU 4495, despite some overlap of values with cluster 6, which contains
two of the other Levantine lamps. As the designation of ‘The Levant’ as a geographical area
incorporating Palestine, Judea and Syria, it is not surprising that the Levantine examples possess
distinctly different ceramic fabrics. Cluster 7, contains only the Tunisian lamp MU 3211, from Tunisia
Group 3, which was shown to contain the highest density and largest amount of inclusions in Chapter 3.
From observable characteristics, such as the distinctive reddish-brown slip which is applied to the entire
vessel, MU 3211 possesses obvious differences to the other lamps of the same period, predicted to be
from Tunisia. Cluster 8, includes three of the Tunisian lamps, from Tunisia Group 2, MU 3212, MU 4487
and MU 4519. The average probability of cluster membership for the three of these lamps is significantly
102
high, ranging between 89.2-99.4%. Coupled with the date range of the fourth to sixth century AD, these
three lamps may have been produced within the same locality, perhaps even using the same clay source.
The remaining two clusters contain disparate groups of lamps attributed to being from different
provenances. Cluster 0 contains two Tunisian lamps, both from Tunisia Group 1, MU 446 and MU 4635,
the Egyptian lamp, MU 3386, and the Unplaced Greek East lamp, MU 4664 and one Levantine lamp,
MU3711. Despite including a variety of provinces within this cluster, the two Tunisian lamps have a high
average probability of cluster membership, between 96.2% and 99%, whilst the Egyptian, Unplaced
Greek East and Levantine lamp only possess 65.4%, 49.7% and 49.7% of probability respectively. Both
the Tunisian lamps share similar homogeneity of clay body and relatively few voids as determined in
Chapter 3. Even though the Egyptian, Unplaced Greek East and Levantine lamp share similar
compositions to the other two lamps within this cluster, the low probability of either of these lamps
being made from the same clay body is presumed to be relatively low.
Cluster 6 contains both Italian and Levantine lamps. Lamps from the Levant include MU 2696,
from Levant Group 2, and from Levant Group 1, MU 4275 and MU 3949. From the Italian lamp groups
MU 3886, MU 4202 and MU 4665 are featured, all from Italy Group 2. All six lamps, not including MU
2696, date to the Early to Late Roman Empire. As determined in chapter 3, all six lamps also have very
heterogeneous clay bodes, ranging in the amount of inclusions and voids. Due to the fluctuations in the
clay bodies of each of these lamps, it may explain why such a large cluster has been made with wide
ranging values for each ROI. The closest correlation exists between the two early Levantine lamps, MU
3949 and MU 4275, which possess a high probability of cluster membership, 87.1% and 84.4%
respectively. The Italian lamps range a little lower, between 60.7-75.3%, whilst the MU 2696, only has
a 52.7% probability of cluster membership. In order to distinguish further between the lamps within this
cluster, it may be needed to either acquire more ROI’s from more sections of each lamp, or to further
eliminate more outliers to consolidate the range of HU at 70 keV and Iodine values.
Further analysis of the problematic Clusters 0 and 6 may be worth undertaking by analysing the
values of other MD pairs in order to differentiate between the lamps. Other compounds that could be
assessed through the data sets already acquired include silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminium oxide (Al2O3),
ferric oxide (Fe2O3) and calcium oxide (CaO). Despite these problems with Clusters 0 and 6, the other six
cluster groups moderately reflect both the provincial groups established from Chapter 2 and the groups
established in Chapter 3.
Even though these lamps have all been either purchased, or donated to the Museum of Ancient
Cultures, it has proven possible to be able to distinguish between the probable provinces which these
lamps are from. Even though the initial typological examination from Chapter 2 is a subjective means of
analysing lamps, the well-established method placed the subsequent research on firm grounds for
exploring the potentials of these new methods of archaeometric analysis.
103
104
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
As studies into Roman and Late Antique ceramic oil lamps have adopted and changed over time
with the advent of improved technologies adopted from other fields, so too has this study sought to
augment and improve on current methods of analysing these common material cultural artefacts. Out
of the multitude of studies seeking to archaeometrically analyse the mineralogical and chemical
compositions of Roman and Late Antique ceramic oil lamps, the use of DECT serves as one of the only
methods of archaeometric analysis which does not result in any harm coming to the artefacts.
Through the use of non-destructive methods during the entirety of this research, provincial
groupings and methods of manufacture were able to be explored. From the initial typological
investigation in the form of a catalogue of lamps, six provinces were established: Italy, Tunisia, the
Levant, Cyprus, Egypt and one lamp presumed to be from the Greek East. Subsequent analysis in
Chapter 3 by comparing and contrasting the radiographic densities evident within CT images gathered
from DECT scanning exposed further divisions amongst the provincial groupings. Inclusions of possible
rock, carbonate, mica, volcanic ash, quartz sand and biosilica were able to be detected by observing the
differing densities within the CT images. Voids, presumed to be the result of organic matter burnt away
during the firing process, were evident in axial slices taken through each of the lamps. Further coupled
with the overall fluctuating densities of the clay bodies, divisions were easily made within each of the
established provincial groupings, through a comparison of each lamps general mineralogical
characteristics. Breakages and reconstructions were also easily able to be seen in the CT images, despite
these repairs being extremely different to see on the physical specimen.
Methods of manufactures were explored through 3D models which enabled the visualisation of
internal and external surfaces, used to determine some of the techniques the lamp-maker utilised in
the production of each lamp. The different techniques utilised amongst the provincial groupings was
also remarkable to see, with the Italian lamps laying testament to notable care being taken to smooth
and even the internal surfaces of each lamp; whilst some of the Tunisian lamps appeared to adopt a
different approach to pressing the clay into the moulds. Most interestingly, the evidence of where lamp-
makers had added extra clay to fill holes, as well as the ridges impressed into the inside of each lamp,
served as direct evidence of the direction of the lamp-makers’ finger-strokes in pressing the clay into
the mould. Cross-section drawings also produced by way of slicing each 3D model in half virtually, offers
a method of creating accurate archaeological drawings.
The creation of 3D models of ancient artefacts, such as Roman and Late Antique oil lamps,
possess great potential for people all over the world to be able to interact with ancient material culture.
Not only does no harm come to the vessel in the creation of the 3D model, but more information can
be gained by being able to see the inside of enclosed vessels. As valuable pieces of our cultural heritage,
these lamps are rarely handled by the wider public as a means of avoiding any damage or breakages
occurring. As 3D models have been produced, the potential to 3D print each of these lamps and bring
exact replicas to the hands of students and the wider public will enable an interaction with the past. As
3D technologies have become more widely used with the fields of archaeology and heritage
conservation, Lapp and Nicoli’s vision for a complete 3D digitised library of Mediterranean ceramic
lamps, may not be too far from fruition.138
Using DECT for the non-destructive compositional analysis of the ceramic oil lamps has been
proven to establish quantifiable results for a comparison of ceramics fabric compositions. Whilst this
analysis was only brief, the amount of ROIs and the MD pairs analysed can be vastly increased to improve
cluster characterisation and differentiate between lamps of similar compositions more effectively. 139
may prove more effective in (due This brief study has been able to validate the conclusions drawn by
McKenzie-Clark and Magnussen, that DECT can provide overall results comparable to optical
microscopy, thin-section analysis, ICP-MS and ICP-AES. 140 Non-destructive methods of analysis offer
many benefits, especially for research into museum collection pieces and artefacts from archaeological
sites where restrictions are typically placed upon any form of destructive analysis. By applying DECT to
provenanced Roman and Late Antique period ceramic oil lamps, the potential to be able to use this
compositional technique as a basis to explore the role of ceramic lamp trade industry and its wider
significance in the Roman economy could be explored.
The new methods of archaeometric analysis explored within this research offer additional
benefits to traditional archaeometric techniques utilised for the study of ancient ceramic oil lamps. With
the addition of being able to create high fidelity 3D models to examine internal surfaces of enclosed
ceramics, promises to be a valuable tool for archaeological studies. Undeniably, these non-destructive
strategies serve as a beacon for the preservation and illumination of artefacts undergoing archaeological
study for decades to come.
138
For recent publications in the digitisation of artefacts see: and L.W. MacDonald, "Visualising an Egyptian
artefact in 3D: comparing RTI with laser scanning", Proceedings of the 2011 International conference of Electronic
Visualisation and the Arts (2011) pp. 155-162.
139
Alternative MD pairs such as Si02, AL2O3, Fe2O3 and CaO all paired with either water or iodine may prove more
effective for differentiation between different clay bodies (these four compounds are the most prevalent within
the common ceramics). These MD pairs would especially be useful for analysing provenanced ceramics, where it
could even be possible to determine multiple clay bodies being used within individual workshops.
140
McKenzie-Clark and Magnussen (2013) p. 588.
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Italy
Fig. 65. MU 1539

Fig. 66. MU 3801
116
Fig. 67. MU 3802
117
Fig. 68. MU 3886
118
Fig. 69. MU 4202
119
Fig. 70. MU 4222
120
Fig. 71. MU 4665
121
Fig. 72. MU 4741
122
The Levant
Fig. 73. MU 2696
123
Fig. 74. MU 3711
124
Fig. 75. MU 3949
125
Fig. 76. MU 4275
126
Fig. 77. MU 4495
127
Fig. 78. MU 4615
128
Tunisia
Fig. 79. MU 446
129
Fig. 80. MU 3211
130
Fig. 81. MU 3212
131
Fig. 82. MU 4487
132
Fig. 83. MU 4519
133
Fig. 84. MU 4635
134
Fig. 85. MU 4685
135
Egypt
Fig. 86. MU 3386
136
Cyprus
Fig. 87. MU 4253
137
Unplaced Greek East
Fig. 88. MU 4664
138
APPENDIX B: 3D MODELS
Fig. 89. MU 446 3D Model, top and base isometric views.
Fig. 90. MU 1539 3D Model, top and base isometric views

140
Fig. 97. MU 3802, top and base isometric views
141
142
143
Fig. 106. MU 4519 3D Models, top and base isometric views
144
145
146
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157

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ROMAN AND LATE ANTIQUE CERAMIC OIL LAMPS IN THE

MUSEUM OF ANCIENT CULTURES:

A TYPOLOGICAL AND COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSIS

Keira De Rosa, BA (Macquarie University)

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Research

Department of Ancient History, Faculty of Arts

Macquarie University, Sydney

10th October 2014

A Brief Survey of the Development and Use of Ceramic Lamps ................................................. 1

Thesis Outline .................................................................................................................................. 4

Thesis Structure .............................................................................................................................. 4

A History of Research into Roman and Late Antique Lamps ....................................................... 6

Art-history to Typologies ......................................................................................................... 7

Production and Technology .................................................................................................... 9

Archaeometry, trade and economics ...................................................................................13

Chapter 2: Catalogue of Lamps .......................................................................................................19

Provincial Groups ..........................................................................................................................70

Chapter 3: Techniques of Manufacture ..........................................................................................71

Radiographic methods of ceramic analysis .................................................................................71

Capturing CT images .....................................................................................................................73

CT image interpretation ...............................................................................................................76

The Levant ..............................................................................................................................78

Unplaced Greek East..............................................................................................................84

Evaluation of CT images ...............................................................................................................84

CT for the creation of 3D models ................................................................................................87

Chapter 4: Compositional Analysis.................................................................................................. 95

Chapter 5: Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 105

The Levant ............................................................................................................................123

Unplaced Greek East ...........................................................................................................138

Appendix B: 3D Models ..................................................................................................................139

Appendix C: Outlier Scatterplots ...................................................................................................147

A Brief Survey of the Development and Use of Ceramic Lamps

A History of Research into Roman and Late Antique Lamps

Production and Technology

Archaeometry, trade and economics

emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). 67 Whilst studying ceramics mineralogically or compositionally in

Type: Deneauve VIIIb - Loeschcke Shoulder form VIIIb

Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Tunisia, Africa Proconsularis

Translation: ‘of the famous/renowned’ (cf. Gr. κλυτός ‘renowned’)93

Clay Colour: 7.5YR 7/6 reddish yellow

Chronology: Late second or early third century AD.

Fig. 1. MU 446 (Scale: 3:4)

Measurements: L, 97; W, 68; H, 28

Type: Loeschcke Type IV - Shoulder form VIIb

Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Italian

Potter’s stamp: planta pedis, impressed

Clay Colour: 5YR 5/6 yellowish red

Chronology: Late first century AD

Fig. 2. MU 1539 (Scale 3:4)

Measurements: L, 103; W, 63; H, 32; HH, 48

Date Acquired: Late 1987, donated by Mrs J. Williams

Type: Dobbins Type 21

Probable Provenance of Manufacture: The Levant

Potter’s stamp: five ring and dot stamp made, in mould

Clay Colour: 7.5YR 7/6 reddish yellow

Slip Colour: No visible slip applied

Chronology: Sixth to seventh century AD

Fig. 3. MU 2696 (Scale 3:4)

Measurements: L, 106, W, 72; H, 32; HH, 47

Type: Hayes Type I variant

Probable Provenance of Manufacture: Tunisia, Byzacena

Clay Colour: Not visible, unable to determine

Slip Colour: 5YR 4/4 reddish brown, applied to entire vessel

Chronology: Late fourth to sixth century AD.