Research and Statistical Methods

Give examples of data capturing techniques, related to occupational hygiene and discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of the different techniques

1. Observation
Observation is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching, listening,
reading, touching, and recording behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects, or
phenomena. The researchers, adopting this method, attempt to understand behavior and
societies by getting to know the persons involved and their values, rituals, symbols,
beliefs, and emotions.

Advantages of the Observation Method

Advantages of Observational Research

The biggest advantage of observational research has already been noted: it enables businesses
to observe potential customers in a natural setting, which can reveal penetrating insights
unavailable through other methods such as focus groups and surveys. This is especially the
case when research participants have a conscious or unconscious bias towards presenting their
“best self” to a researcher.

For example, focus group participants may claim (and even believe the claim when they make
it) that when they visit a car dealership, they are “immune” from any form of sales pressure and
start browsing floor models without paying any attention to sales people. However,
observational research may reveal that the majority of customers — even those who plan on
being “immune” — will nevertheless respond to a salesperson’s invitation to engage (i.e.
customers may truly want to be left alone, but they will not insist on this if it means breaching
the basic norms of social etiquette). Based on this insight, dealerships that want to minimize the
number of customers who walk in/out without engaging a salesperson may choose to place floor
models further away from the entrance or deploy staff close to the entrance.

Another key advantage of observational research is that researchers can modify their vantage
point based on real-time variables. For example, if their view is obstructed by crowds or other
barriers, they can simply move to a better location.

Directness

The main advantage of observation is its directness. We can collect data at the time they occur.
The observer does not have to ask people about their behavior and reports from others.

He or she can simply watch as individuals act and speak. While the survey respondents may
have a hazy or lapse memory about events that occurred in the distant past, the observer is
studying events as they occur.

Natural environment
Whereas other data collection techniques introduce artificiality into the research environment,
data collected in an observation study describe the observed phenomena as they occur in their
natural settings.

Observation is neither as restrictive nor as artificial as either the survey or the experiment.

Longitudinal analysis

Since the observation is possible to be conducted in a natural setting, the observer can conduct
his or her study over a much longer period than with either the survey or experiment.

Non-verbal behavior

Observation is decidedly superior to survey research, experimentation, or document study for

collecting data on nonverbal behavior. Some studies focus on individuals who are unable to give
verbal reports or to articulate themselves meaningfully.

For these subjects, the observational method is indispensable. These include children, crippled,
and mentally and physically handicraft people.

Disadvantages of the Observation Method

Disadvantages of Observational Research

Unlike structured focus groups (i.e. even “spontaneous and informal” focus groups are
structured, just in a different way!), the inherent organic nature of observational research means
that researchers have little control over the environment. As such, the insights that are
ultimately gleaned may not be justified by the time and cost investment.

Additionally, unless the research is designed and carried out by experts, there is a high potential
for subjective bias. For example, a researcher may unconsciously “want” to see that customers
are open and agreeable to being engaged by retail staff while they are shopping and may
therefore misinterpret smiles of politeness (or even nervousness) as signs of approval. As such,
using other qualitative data gathering methods to control and eliminate bias is essential.

Lack of control

Despite the advantage as achieved from the natural environment, the observation study,
however, has little control over extraneous variables that may affect the data.

The presence of a stranger (the observer) and the error involved in human observation and the
recording of data, which may remain out of control of the observer, are likely to bias the
observations to a great extent.

Difficulties in quantification
 Measurement in observational studies generally takes the form of observer’s un-quantified
perceptions rather than the quantitative measures often used in the survey and experimental
studies.

Smallness in sample size

Because observational studies are generally conducted in-depth, with data that are often
subjective and difficult to quantify, the sample size is usually kept at a minimum.

Also, the in-depth nature of the observation studies generally requires that they are conducted
over an extended period, then the survey method or experiments. This feature tends to limit the
size of the sample.

No opportunity to learn past

In an observational study, there is no way to know the past. It is also difficult to gather
information on such topics as intentions, opinions, attitudes, or preferences.

This technique can generate either quantitative or qualitative data but tends to be used more
for small-scale exploratory studies than for large-scale quantitative studies. This is because it
usually requires

 Relatively highly skilled observers and analysts

 Prolonged periods of observation

 High cost per unit of observation.

2. Questioning
We define a questionnaire as an instrument for collecting data, which almost always
involves asking a given subject to respond to a set of oral or written questions.
A survey is a process of gathering data that could involve a wide variety of data
collection methods, including a questionnaire.

Advantages:

1. Questionnaires are inexpensive

First of all, questionnaires are one of the most affordable ways to gather quantitative data.

Especially self-administered questionnaires, where you don’t have to hire surveyors to perform face-to-
face interviews, are a cost-efficient way to quickly collect massive amounts of information from a large
number of people in a relatively short period of time.
A questionnaire can be placed on your website or emailed to your customers. These methods have little to
no cost, though strong targeting is necessary if you want to have the highest possible response rate receive
the most accurate results.

Still, no matter what type of questionnaires you pick, it will be more affordable than outsourcing to a
market research company.

2. Questionnaires are practical

Apart from being inexpensive, questionnaires are also a practical way to gather data. They can be targeted
to groups of your choosing and managed in various ways. You can pick and choose the questions asked as
well as the format (open-ended or multiple choice). They offer a way to gather vast amounts of data on
any subject. They can be used in a wide variety of ways.

For example, KBC Group learned just how practical surveys are. They were able to spread their quizzes,
polls, and questionnaires during a three-day event. This made collecting real-time feedback almost
effortlessly.

3. Questionnaires offer a quick way to get results

It’s quick and easy to collect results with online and mobile tools. This means that you can gain insights
in as little as 24 hours (or less!), depending on the scale and reach of your questionnaire.

You don’t need to wait for another company to deliver the answers you need.

Dajo Associates needed quality feedback fast. The South African consulting firm needed a way to make
informed decisions quickly. An online questionnaire allowed them to collect the data they needed in the
shortest time frame possible.

4. Scalability

Questionnaires and surveys allow you to gather information from a large audience.

Online, you can literally distribute your questions to anyone, anywhere in the world (provided they have
an internet connection). All you have to do is send them a link to your survey page. And you don’t
even need to do this manually. This could be done through an automated email in your
customer onboarding or lead nurturing campaigns.

This means that for a relatively low cost, you can target a city or a country.

You can use multiple data collection points, for example via multiple tablets in kiosk mode.

Geography no longer stands in the way of market research either, thanks to the internet. But be aware of
cultural differences between people and countries when conducting worldwide research. Thanks to
Survey Anyplace’s multiple languages feature, you can easily create a single questionnaire available in
multiple languages.

5. Comparability
When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may be used to
measure change. This makes monthly or yearly questionnaire more and more valuable over time.

Improving comparability implies that errors due to translation have to be minimized. In terms of
questionnaire translation for multi-national, multi-cultural and multi-regional surveys the aim is to
achieve a level of comparability across all local versions.

6. Easy Analysis and visualization

Most survey- and questionnaire providers are quantitative in nature and allow easy analysis of results.
With built-in tools, it’s easy to analyze your results without a background in statistics or scientific
research.

You might think that questionnaires are not fun and getting respondents to actually complete
them can be tricky. However, you can use interactive forms that will give you visual data insights
to draw experienced user stories organized in dynamic timelines.

Tools like Survey Anyplace offer easy to interpret reports and visualizations, meaning that you’ll quickly
be turning your data into results. These results can be put in a wide variety of charts and tables to present
them to your boss, colleagues, clients or customers.

7. Questionnaires offer actionable data

Look at research as a blank canvas.

The more data you gather, the clearer the painting becomes. All this information gives marketers
the capability to create new strategies and to follow trends in your audience. Analyzing data and building
reports can be used to generate predictions and even create benchmarks for follow-up questions or
questionnaires.

The best part?

You don’t need any additional statistical software.

8. Respondent anonymity

Online and email surveys allow respondents to maintain their anonymity.

Mail-in questionnaires also allow for complete invisibility, which maximizes comfort for those
answering. Even phone interviews are not face-to-face, thereby making it a more private communication.
This concealment puts respondents at ease and encourages them to answer truthfully; however, there is
still a human touch to these phone interviews.

Digital questionnaires give the best sense of anonymity and privacy. This type of questionnaire is great
for all sorts of businesses and subject matter and results in the most honest answers.

You can be sure your results will be much more accurate when you have the opportunity to complete it
anonymously.
9. Questionnaires don’t have time constraints

When using mail-in, online or email questionnaires, there’s no time limit and there is no one on the other
end waiting for an answer. Respondents can take their time to complete the questionnaire at their own
leisure.

As a bonus, they will often answer more truthfully, as research has shown that having a researcher present
can lead to less honest and more social desirable answers.

10. Questionnaires can cover every aspect of a topic

One of the biggest advantages is being able to ask as many questions as you like. Of course, it benefits the
marketer to keep each individual questionnaire short, since respondents may find a long questionnaire
frustrating. We suggest a limit of 10 questions for online surveys. 

However, since they are efficient, cost-effective in nature and have an easy mode of delivery, there is no
harm in creating multiple questionnaires, each covering a subtopic of the main subject, that build upon
one another.

 Accurate screening. Face-to-face interviews help with more accurate screening. Te

individual being interviewed is unable to provide false information during screening
questions such as gender, age, or race. It is possible to get around screening questions in
online and mobile surveys.Online and mobile surveys that offer incentives may actually
encourage answer falsification. Individuals may enter incorrect demographic information
so they are able to complete the survey and gain the incentive. The answers the
individual provides may all be truthful, but for the purpose of data analysis, the data will
be inaccurate and misleading.
 Capture verbal and non-verbal ques. A face-to-face interview is no doubt going to
capture verbal and non-verbal ques, but this method also affords the capture of non-
verbal ques including body language, which can indicate a level of discomfort with the
questions. Adversely, it can also indicate a level of enthusiasm for the topics being
discussed in the interview. Let’s discuss an employee job interview, for example.
Capturing non-verbal ques may make the difference between selecting an employee that
is less skilled, but displays a tremendous amount of enthusiasm for the position.
Capturing non-verbal ques is not possible in online or mobile surveys.
 Keep focus. The interviewer is the one that has control over the interview and can keep
the interviewee focused and on track to completion. Online and mobile surveys are often
completed during time convenient for the respondent, but are often in the midst of
other distractions such as texting, reading and answering emails, video streaming, web
surfing, social sharing, and more. Face-to-face interviews are in-the-moment, free from
technological distractions.
 Capture emotions and behaviors. Face-to-face interviews can no doubt capture an
interviewee’s emotions and behaviors. Similar to not being able to capture verbal and
non-verbal ques, online and mobile surveys can also not capture raw emotions and
behavior.
As with any data collection method, face-to-face interviews also provide some disadvantages
over other data collection methods. They include:

 Cost. Cost is a major disadvantage for face-to-face interviews. They require a staff of

people to conduct the interviews, which means there will be personnel costs. Personnel
are the highest cost a business can incur. It’s difficult to keep costs low when personnel
are needed.
 Quality of data by interviewer. The quality of data you receive will often depend on the
ability of the interviewer. Some people have the natural ability to conduct an interview
and gather data well. The likelihood of the entire interviewing staff having those skills is
low. Some interviewers may also have their own biases that could impact the way they
input responses. This is likely to happen in hot-topic opinion polls.
 Manual data entry. If the interview is administered on paper, the data collected will
need to be entered manually, or scanned, if a scannable interview questionnaire is
created. Data entry and scanning of paper questionnaires can significantly increase the
cost of the project. A staff of data entry personnel will need to be hired. Additionally,
data entry can prolong the analysis process. Mobile surveys on iPads, tablets, or other
mobile devices can cut-down on manual data entry costs and information is ready for
analysis.
 Limit sample size. The size of the sample is limited to the size of your interviewing staff,
the area in which the interviews are conducted, and the number of qualified respondents
within that area. It may be necessary to conduct several interviews over multiple areas,
which again can increase costs.
 1. Dishonest answers
 While there are many positives to questionnaires, dishonesty can be an issue.
 Respondents may not be 100% truthful with their answers.
 This can happen for a variety of reasons, including social desirability bias and attempting to
protect privacy. Stop dishonesty in its tracks by assuring respondents that their privacy is valued
and that the process prevents personal identification.
 2. Unanswered questions
 When using questionnaires, there is a chance that some questions will be ignored or left
unanswered.
 If questions are not required, there is always that risk they won’t be answered. Online
questionnaires offer a simple solution to this issue: make answering the question required.
 Otherwise, make your survey short and your questions uncomplicated and you will avoid
question skipping and get better completion rates.
 3. Differences in understanding and interpretation
 The trouble with not presenting questions to users face-to-face is that each may have different
interpretations of your questions.
 Without someone to explain the questionnaire fully and ensure each individual has the same
understanding, results can be subjective.
 Respondents may have trouble grasping the meaning of some questions that may seem clear to
the creator.
 This miscommunication can lead to skewed results. The best way to combat this situation is to
create simple questions that are easy to answer.
 4. Hard to convey feelings and emotions
 A survey or questionnaire cannot fully capture emotional responses or feelings of respondents.
Without administering the questionnaire face-to-face, there is no way to observe facial
expression, reactions or body language.
 Without these subtleties, useful data can go unnoticed.
 Don’t get stuck trying to interpret emotion in data, instead go for a Likert scale, the response
scale that often uses a rating scale from “slightly agree” to “strongly disagree.” This allows for
strength and assertion in responses rather than multiple choice.
 5. Some questions are difficult to analyze
 Questionnaires produce a lot of data. Multiple choice questions can be tabulated and graphed, but
open-ended questions are different.
 Open-ended questions allow for individualized answers which cannot be quantified and must be
reviewed by a human.
 Too many open-ended questions can produce a flood of data, that can take forever to analyze. Fix
this pitfall but choosing your question types carefully. If you have ten questions, you probably
don’t want more than one to be open-ended since these have no way to be quantified.
 That’s why it’s important to select the right type of question as a questionnaire is only as effective
as its questions.
 The survey questions need to be evaluated quickly and they need to produce data that can be
acted upon.
 If you make questions too difficult or confusing to answer, you may end up with meaningless
data.
 Choosing the wrong type of question can also lead to incomplete results or data that is hard to
interpret.
 The main question types are open-ended, closed-ended and semi-closed ended questions. Within
these types, there is an abundance of ways to present your query from ratings to yes/no question.
 Learn how to select the right types of survey questions for your needs in our essential guide.
 6. Respondents may have a hidden agenda
 As with any sort of research, respondent bias can be an issue.
 Participants in your survey may have an interest in your product, idea or service. Others may be
influenced to participate based on the subject of your questionnaire. These proclivities can lead to
inaccuracies in your data, generated from an imbalance of respondents who see your topic in an
overly positive or negative light.
 Filter out a hidden agenda with a pre-screening. Come up with a few indirect questions that will
remove those results wreckers.
 7. Lack of personalization
 Customization is the prevailing marketing theme.
 Any piece of marketing material is at risk of seeming impersonal unless time and care are taken
to personalize it. If you’re unable to add touches of personalization, some potential
respondents may be put off and ignore it.
 This can be particularly difficult when the questionnaire or survey is taken voluntarily on a
website, regardless of purchase or email.
 Fix this by always sending emails containing respondents names. Use dynamic content on
websites, and strive to use names, personal data and personalized content in all communication.
 8. Unconscientious responses
 Every administrator hopes for conscientious responses, but there’s no way to know if the
respondent has really understood the question or read it thoroughly before answering.
 At times, answers will be chosen before fully reading the question or the potential answers.
Sometimes respondents will skip through questions, or split-second choices may be made,
affecting the validity of your data.
 This drawback is tough to defeat, but if you make your survey short and your questions simple
you’re likely to get the most accurate responses.
  9. Accessibility issues
 No matter what form of delivery is used, lack of accessibility is a threat. Surveys may be
unsuitable for users with a visual or hearing impairment, or other impediments such as illiteracy.
This should be considered when choosing to do research in this manner.
 Always choose a questionnaire platform that has accessibility options built in.
 10. Questionnaire or survey fatigue
 We’ve all received survey invitations and the trend of companies using customer feedback
surveys is up. This means that some level of survey fatigue is setting in with respondents.
 In general, we can identify two types of survey fatigue:
 Survey Response Fatigue: This occurs before the survey begins. Overwhelmed by the growing
number of surveys, respondents will be less inclined to take part in your survey. As a result,
you’ll suffer from a low response rate.
 Survey Taking Fatigue: This type of respondent fatigue happens during the survey. It’s the result
of surveys that are perceived as too long and include questions irrelevant to the respondent. An
indicator of survey taking fatigue can be found in a low completion rate.
 How much survey fatigue affects your questionnaire depends on you. If you make it easy for
respondents to answer and you actually do something with the information then fatigue will be
lower.

3. Measurement
Advantages and disadvantages of Quantitative research Advantages of Quantitative
Research Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
4. It is objective and can be measured so that comparisons can be made.

5. Findings can be biased by researchers’ perspective. Researchers must therefore try to

keep a ‘distance’ from their subjects – they can use subjects unknown to them and
should make no attempt to get to know their subjects other than to collect data from
them.

6. Methods, if explained in detail are generally very easy to replicate and so have a high
reliability.

7. Research often takes place in an unnatural setting – the researchers create an artificial
environment in an attempt to control all relevant variables. So, how sure can they be that
the results which they obtain in the laboratory will also apply in the real world?

8. Results can be reduced to a few numerical statistics and interpreted in a few short
statements.

9. Provides narrow, unrealistic information using measures which capture only a tiny
proportion of the concept originally under study. This provokes a question of whether
the research actually measures what the researcher claims it does. Hence, quantitative
research has a low validity.

10. It can provide information about program stakeholders who were overlooked initially.
 11. The results of quantitative research may be statistically significant but are often humanly
insignificant. ‘Some things which are numerically precise are not true; and some things which are
not numerical are true.’

12. The use of a survey instrument that collects data from all program stakeholders in the study may
serve to correct the qualitative research problem of collecting data only from an elite group
within the system being studies.

13. Uses a static and rigid approach and so employs an inflexible process.

14. Using quantitative assessment can correct for the “holistic fallacy” (the perception by the
researcher that all aspects of a given situation are congruent, when in fact only those persons
interviewed by the researcher may have held that particular view). Also the use of quantitative
instruments can verify observations collected during informal field observations.

15. Quantitative methods are simplifications of the qualitative methods and can only be meaningfully
employed when qualitative methods have shown that a simplification of identified relations is
possible.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

The use of statistical analysis and hard numbers found in quantitative research has distinct advantages in
the research process.

1. Can be tested and checked. Quantitative research requires careful experimental design and the
ability for anyone to replicate both the test and the results. This makes the data you gather more
reliable and less open to argument.
2. Straightforward analysis. When you collect quantitative data, the type of results will tell you
which statistical tests are appropriate to use. As a result, interpreting your data and presenting
those findings is straightforward and less open to error and subjectivity.
3. Prestige. Research that involves complex statistics and data analysis is considered valuable and
impressive because many people don't understand the mathematics involved. Quantitative
research is associated with technical advancements like computer modeling, stock selection,
portfolio evaluation, and other data-based business decisions. The association of prestige and
value with quantitative research can reflect well on your small business.

Disadvantages of Quantitative Research

However, the focus on numbers found in quantitative research can also be limiting, leading to several
disadvantages.

1. False focus on numbers. Quantitative research can be limited in its pursuit of concrete,

statistical relationships, which can lead to researchers overlooking broader themes and
relationships. By focusing solely on numbers, you run the risk of missing surprising or big-picture
information that can benefit your business.
2. Difficulty setting up a research model. When you conduct quantitative research, you need to
carefully develop a hypothesis and set up a model for collecting and analyzing data. Any errors in
your set up, bias on the part of the researcher, or mistakes in execution can invalidate all your
results. Even coming up with a hypothesis can be subjective, especially if you have a specific
question that you already know you want to prove or disprove.
3. Can be misleading. Many people assume that because quantitative research is based on
statistics it is more credible or scientific than observational, qualitative research. However, both kinds
of research can be subjective and misleading. The opinions and biases of a researcher are just as
likely to impact quantitative approaches to information gathering. In fact, the impact of this bias occurs
earlier in the process of quantitative research than it does in qualitative research.