DURBAN GIRLS’ HIGH SCHOOL

Grade 11 NAME: 2020

HUMAN NUTRITION

IMPORTANCE OF FOOD

A source of ENERGY Contains REGULATING

(mainly from lipids and substances (e.g. vitamins,
Provides material for
carbohydrates) – mineral salts, water) to
GROWTH and REPAIR
provides “fuel” for cell control various body
of tissues (mainly
respiration. functions.
proteins and minerals)

A. STAGES IN THE NUTRITION PROCESS

The process of taking in and using food is called nutrition. This involves many stages:

Part of Digestive system Process What happens to the food?

mouth
Ingestion The intake of large, complex foods into the body

mouth, stomach, small intestine

Digestion Breaking down food into soluble substances inside the body

small intestine Absorption Taking in of soluble substances into the blood system

body cells Assimilation Soluble substances taken into the cells from blood stream
to be used for various purposes.
anus The elimination of undigested food and indigestible
Egestion
materials from the body

KEY
alimentary canal
pathway of food
muscular contraction
oesophagus stomach small intestine large intestine
absorption of food /water
mouth into blood stream
anus absorption of vitamins,
minerals, water into blood
stream

body body cells

Simple diagram showing the various locations of each stage in the digestive process
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

B. STRUCTURE OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT & JUICES SECRETED

The digestive system is made up of the alimentary canal and associated organs:

 The alimentary canal is made up of the mouth cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine and the anus.
 The tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gall bladder are all associated
organs/structures of the digestive system.
.

11
1

12 2

13
3

14

15
5

16

17

18
7

19 9

10

Basic structure of the human digestive system

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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

1. ALIMENTARY CANAL

1.1 MOUTH

 First part of alimentary canal / digestive tract – where ingestion occurs.

 Lips, cheeks, tongue - keep food between the teeth, ensuring uniform chewing and proper
mastication.
 Teeth and tongue - associated with mechanical digestion.
 Teeth - 32 teeth in adult mouth: incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
- various ways of decreasing food size for swallowing. (See below)
 Tongue - muscular organ of taste; moves food around the mouth; this helps to
form a softened ball of food form a softened ball of food, known as a bolus. ………….
 .Salivary glands - 3 pairs, associated with chemical digestion.
- Saliva consists of water, mucin and an enzyme.

2 3

Diagram of the mouth region

1
for biting and cutting food

2 for gripping and tearing food

3
for crushing and chewing food

4 for crushing and chewing food

Diagram showing the different teeth in one jaw (and their functions)

1.2 PHARYNX

 Area at the back of the mouth cavity, leading to oesophagus and trachea (respiratory passage).
 It allows entry of food into oesophagus during swallowing.
 When food is swallowed, the epiglottis closes the entrance to the trachea so that food passes
into the oesophagus, not the trachea.
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1.3 OESOPHAGUS

 Narrow, muscular tube that links the pharynx to the stomach.

 Lies behind the trachea.
 Forces the bolus down into the stomach by a muscular, wave-like motion called peristalsis.
 Peristalsis is an involuntary action that also occurs along the rest of the alimentary canal.
 Peristalsis not only helps in moving the food along the alimentary canal, but also assists in mixing
the food with the various digestive juices.

 ____________ muscles above

the bolus contract, causing the
tube above the bolus to narrow.
 The ______________muscles
below the bolus relax.
 Thus the bolus is forced along,
towards the stomach.

Diagram showing peristalsis

1.4 STOMACH

 Muscular, bag-like organ.

 Lies in upper part of abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm.
 Inner surface is composed of many muscular folds called rugae which cause a churning action for
mechanical digestion.
 Secretes gastric juice which is composed of enzymes and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
 The hormone gastrin stimulates the release of gastric juice.
 Mucus lining the stomach prevents it from being damaged by HCl or digested by enzymes.
 The cardiac and pyloric sphincters (ring of muscle) control the entry and exit of food.
 Food remains in the stomach for 2-3 hours and forms chyme (through muscular action / churning).
 Chyme is periodically squirted through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum.
1
2

5
6
Diagram showing a section through the stomach
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

1.5 SMALL INTESTINE (approx. 6 m)

 The first part of the small intestine is called the duodenum.

 The liver, gall bladder and pancreas are closely associated with the duodenum.
 Two tubes, the bile duct (from the gall bladder) and the pancreatic duct (from the pancreas) open
into the duodenum.
 Two juices are released into the duodenum: bile and pancreatic juice.
 Enzymes are found on the surface of the columnar epithelial cells that cover the villi.
 FINAL DIGESTION of all food types takes place in the small intestine. (See pg. 12, last section)
 Numerous finger-like projections of the mucosa, called villi, increase the surface area for maximum
absorption of nutrients.
 The bulk of ABSORPTION of soluble food occurs in the small intestine.
 The absorptive surface is very large due to its long length, folded inner walls, villi and microvilli.
(see later)
 The muscles of the small intestine cause peristalsis, to move food along towards the large
intestine.

network

villi on inner folds

Small intestine wall showing L/S of columnar epithelium

L/S of villus
villi on inner folds forming surface of villi

Diagram showing the small intestine (from macrostructure to microstructure)

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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

1.6 LARGE INTESTINE (approx. 1.5 m)

 Extends from the last part of the small intestine to the anus.
 Divided into three parts:
o Caecum – digestion of cellulose (relatively small size in humans)
o Colon – has 3 parts: ascending, transverse and descending.
o Rectum – temporarily stores faeces before they are released through the anus.
 Absorption of water, vitamins and minerals from undigested remains, occurs here.
 Alkaline mucus is secreted from the walls of the colon to move the contents along slowly.
 Roughage (fibre) and water are important for efficient transport of material along the digestive
canal. Together, these two components help to increase the volume of the colon, stretching the
large intestine walls, which stimulates peristalsis and reduces the likelihood of constipation.
 The colon contains millions of useful bacteria which break down undigested carbohydrates. Gases
like methane and carbon dioxide are released by the bacteria during this process. This is the cause
of flatulence.

caecum
appendix

Diagram showing the regions of the large intestine

Although absorption of water takes place in the large intestine, water

still accounts for about 60% of the weight of the faeces.
Bacteria make up about 30 % of the dry weight.
The remainder of faeces consists of indigestible cellular material, dead
cells and mucus secreted from the intestinal lining.
Peristaltic movements in the large intestine occur only 3 or 4 times a
day, usually during or soon after a meal. Thus it is the entry of food
into the stomach that stimulates “mass movement” and ultimately forces
faeces into the rectum, causing defaecation.
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2. ASSOCIATED ORGANS

Note! The TONGUE and the TEETH were discussed in 1.1

The liver, gall bladder and pancreas are all important organs associated with the duodenum.

2.1 LIVER

 Largest gland in the body, lying in the upper right part of the abdomen, just below the diaphragm.
 FUNCTIONS of the liver:
1. Secretes /produces bile that is stored in the gall bladder. (see Pg. 12 for functions of bile)
2. With the help of insulin, converts excess glucose to glycogen (an insoluble carbohydrate)
that is stored in the liver and muscles.
3. Converts excess glucose to fat and stores it.
4. Deaminates excess amino acids into urea which is then excreted by the kidneys.
5. Detoxifies harmful substances e.g. alcohol and makes them harmless.
6. Stores vitamins e.g. Vitamin A, B12, D, E and K.
7. Stores minerals egg. iron, copper.

2.2 GALL BLADDER

 Pear-shaped pouch, found in a depression on the lower surface of the liver.

 FUNCTION: stores and releases bile into the duodenum. The hormone secretin stimulates the
release of bile.

2.3 PANCREAS

 A gland lying below the stomach, in the loop of the duodenum.

 It secretes:
 pancreatic juice (for digestion) stimulated by the release of the hormone secretin.
 hormones (to control blood sugar levels – see below and Homeostasis: page 22).
 Pancreatic juice consists of enzymes and bicarbonate ions. It is released into the duodenum via a
tiny tube called the pancreatic duct. (See pg. 12 for functions of pancreatic juice)
 The hormones insulin and glucagon are secreted by special groups of endocrine cells called the
islets of Langerhans directly into the blood stream.

1 3

2 4

Diagram of the organs associated with the duodenum

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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

EXERCISE 1

1.1 State 3 reasons why the body needs food.

1.2 Differentiate between the 3 nutritional processes in the table below:

Part/s of Alimentary Canal
where process occur?
What “happens” to the food?
INGESTION
DIGESTION
EGESTION

1.3 List all the organs / regions (in sequence) through which food passes, in the alimentary canal.

1.4 What other term is used for the alimentary canal?

1.5 With reference to the process of peristalsis:

a) Explain its function.

b) How it carries out its function.

c) All parts of the alimentary canal where it plays a role.

1.6 Define the following words:

a) bolus
b) chyme
c) incisor
d) lumen
e) defaecation
f) villi
g) duodenum
h) glycogen
j) glucagon
k) rectum
l) epiglottis
m) bile
n) gastrin
o) secretin
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1.7 State whether the statement in Column 1 applies to A only, B only, Both A and B or None of the
options in Column 2. Write your answer in the space provided.

Column 1 Column 2 Answer

A. Salivary glands
a. Associated with mechanical digestion.
B. Tongue
A. Incisors
b. For gripping and tearing food.
B. Molars
A. Hydrochloric acid
c. Gastric juice
B. Enzymes
A. Most of absorption
d. Associated with the small intestine.
B. Final digestion
A. Produces bile
e. Function of gall bladder.
B. Stores bile
A. Pharynx
f. Allows entry of food into oesophagus.
B. Trachea
A. Insulin
g. Hormone that converts excess glucose to glycogen.
B. Glucagon
A. Detoxifies alcohol
h. Function of the liver.
B. Stores iron, vitamins A, B12
i. Most important organ for absorbing water, vitamins and A. Small intestine
minerals from undigested remains. B. Large intestine
A. pancreatic juice
j. Associated with chemical digestion.
B. columnar cells of villi

1.8 Draw a simple diagram, like the one on the bottom of page 7, in the block below. Using colours and
key words, design a mind map of the different digestive juices (and their respective contents)
that applies to each organ.
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION
C. DIGESTION.
.1. THE NEED FOR DIGESTION

Food is required by the body for the release of energy by the cells. Most of the food taken in is made up of
large molecules which are insoluble in water. The food must be broken down into smaller soluble
molecules which can be easily absorbed and transported to the body cells. This is known as
digestion.

.2. TYPES OF DIGESTION

Food may be digested by MECHANICAL or by CHEMICAL processes.

jaw muscles

2.1 MECHANICAL DIGESTION

 Breaking large pieces of food into smaller pieces

 By a physical process involving the action of muscles
 To increase the surface area for enzyme action
chewing
 E.g. chewing, grinding, churning, peristalsis action of jaw
muscles churning action of stomach muscles

2.2 CHEMICAL DIGESTION

 Breaking insoluble particles of food into soluble molecules

 Using enzyme action from the various digestive juices
 e.g. breaking down polymers into monomers
 There are 5 digestive juices:
 Saliva – mouth
 Gastric juice – stomach (its release is stimulated by the hormone GASTRIN)
 Pancreatic juice (its release is stimulated by the hormone SECRETIN)
 Bile – from liver via the gall bladder (does not contain any enzymes)
 Intestinal juice – duodenum and small intestine

 There are 3 broad categories of enzymes based on the type of organic compound they digest:
 Carbohydrases : digest carbohydrates into simple sugars such as glucose.
 Proteases : digest proteins into amino acids.
 Lipases : digest lipids into glycerol and fatty acids.

carbohydrase
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

..3. ROLE OF WATER IN MOVEMENT OF FOOD ALONG THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

 It increases the fluidity of food thus enabling food to move freely along the alimentary canal.
 It keeps the tissues surrounding the alimentary canal soft and pliable, enabling free movement of
food within the canal.

..4. IMPORTANCE OF ROUGHAGE

 Consists of indigestible plant material such as cellulose, pectin and lignin.

 Sources: raw and cooked vegetables, nuts, whole wheat bread, dried and fresh fruit.
 Roughage increases the volume of the waste material in the colon.
 This in turn stretches the colon, stimulating peristalsis and movement of waste material toward
the rectum for defaecation.
 Roughage also enables faeces to retain water, preventing constipation and piles (haemorrhoids).

..5. DIGESTION IN EACH LOCATION OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

5.1 MOUTH

 Mechanical digestion:
 Chewing / Mastication - the grinding action of the teeth.
 Food is chewed into a fine pulp and mixed with saliva to aid swallowing.
 The tongue rolls the softened food into a bolus for swallowing.
 Functions of saliva:
o Contains water that softens food and facilitates chewing
o Contains mucus which lubricates food and protects digestive tract from enzyme
action.
o Provides a neutral pH for enzyme action in the mouth.
o Contains an enzyme (amylase) for chemical digestion of carbohydrates.

 Chemical digestion:
 Carbohydrase enzyme (amylase) breaks down starch into maltose.

5.2 STOMACH

 Mechanical digestion:
 Churning action of the muscle layers caused by strong peristaltic movements.
 Food is churned into fine particles in a fluid medium and is now called chyme.

 Chemical digestion:
 Functions of gastric juice (it contains):
o Protease enzyme which breaks down proteins.
o Hydrochloric acid which:
 provides the optimum acid pH (± 2) for enzyme action in the stomach.
 acts as an antiseptic, destroying germs taken in with the food.
o A thick layer of mucin which protects the stomach lining from enzyme action.
o Water that softens food and facilitates easy movement of the food.
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5.3 DUODENUM / SMALL INTESTINE

 Mechanical digestion:
 Peristaltic movements similar to those which occur in the
oesophagus help force food along the small intestine until
it enters the large intestine.
 Peristalsis also ensures that food is thoroughly mixed with
pancreatic juice, intestinal juice and bile.
 Bile emulsifies fats i.e. breaks up the fats into droplets
thereby increasing the surface area for the enzyme lipase to chemically digest them further.

 Chemical digestion:
 The FINAL digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids takes place here, specifically on
the surface or within the columnar epithelial cells, lining the small intestine.
 Three different juices are secreted: bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice.
 Functions of bile:
o Provides an alkaline medium (± pH 8) which neutralises the acid chyme coming from
the stomach thus allowing the intestinal enzymes to function well / optimally.
o Acts as an antiseptic, destroying bacteria and preventing decomposition of food.
o Enables absorption of fat and fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.

 Functions of pancreatic juice:

o Contains the following enzymes:
 Proteases to digest proteins.
 Carbohydrases to digest carbohydrates.
 Lipases to digest fats.
o Contains bicarbonate ions which provide the alkaline pH to activate the enzymes.

 Function of intestinal juice:

o Contains alkaline mucus, secreted by the intestinal glands. This mucus lubricates the
intestinal lining and protects it from the acid chyme coming from the stomach.

 Enzymes (carbohydrases, proteases and lipases) DO NOT OCCUR in the intestinal juice.
They occur on the membranes of the columnar epithelial cells of the villi.
 FINAL digestion of food thus occurs on the cell membranes of (or inside) the columnar
epithelial cells lining the small intestine – not in the lumen of the small intestine. This is
known as intracellular digestion.
 These enzymes include the:
 Carbohydrases – cause the final digestion of carbohydrates into glucose
 Proteases - cause the final digestion of proteins into amino acids
 Lipases - cause the final digestion of lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
 Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020)
MOUTH:
HUMAN NUTRITION
13
MECHANICAL DIGESTION:
SUMMARY OF THE STAGES IN Chewing: _____________
Tongue: ______________
THE DIGESTION OF THE 3 Saliva: water: ____________
DIFFERENT FOOD GROUPS mucus: _____________________________
pH: ________
enzyme:

CHEMICAL DIGESTION:

STARCH MALTOSE

STOMACH:
MECHANICAL DIGESTION:
Churning: __________________
Food turned into _____________

CHEMICAL DIGESTION:
GASTRIC JUICE contains:
Enzyme Protease:

LARGE SHORTER
__________ ____________

Hydrochloric acid:
_____________________

____________________________
Mucin: ___________________________________
Water: ___________________________________

DUODENUM:
MECHANICAL DIGESTION: Peristalsis: __________________
Bile: ____________ fats (_________________________________)
CHEMICAL DIGESTION:
PANCREATIC JUICE contains:
Bicarbonate ions -
Enzymes - , ,

CARBOHYDRATES MONO_______________

FATS ____________ + _______________

FINAL DIGESTION (CHEMICAL):
- Enzymes:
- Protease / carbohydrase / lipase:
- Found on/in columnar epithelial
cells forming the surface of villi.
- Cause final digestion of proteins,
lipids and carbohydrates into
respective monomers.
SHORT AMINO ACIDS
BILE: ____________________ / __________________ / __________
INTESTINAL JUICE:
Alkaline mucus: ________________________________
________________________________
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EXERCISE 2

2.1 Complete the SUMMARY TABLE below of the main aspects of CHEMICAL DIGESTION.

BODY PART NAME OF DIGESTIVE CONTENTS FUNCTION

GLAND JUICE
MOUTH 1. Breaks down carbohydrates
1. 1.
STOMACH 2. 2.
Gastric pits

1. 1.
2. 2.

Pancreas 3. 3.
4. 4.

1.
SMALL 2.
INTESTINE bile bile salts
3.
4.
1.carbohydrases 1.
2. proteases 2.
Intestine wall
3. lipases 3.

2.2 The diagram below represents the process of chemical digestion in the alimentary canal.
Food not yet digested
KEY
Food digested into monomers

At the start of End result

alimentary canal CHEMICAL DIGESTION IN EACH REGION
DUODENUM/
FOOD TYPE MOUTH STOMACH MONOMER
SMALL INTES.

A D

B E

C F

2.2.1 Which food type/s (give the letter only) is/are chemically digested in the:

a. mouth: b. stomach: c. small intestine:

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2.2.2 Based on the above answers identify the different food types (A, B, C).

2.2.3 Explain why food type A shows the specific pattern of digestion in the three different areas of the
digestive tract.

2.2.4 Name the monomers (D, E, F).

2.2.5 Name one region that contains lipases and carbohydrases?

2.2.6 Name the region that contains proteases only.

2.3 The diagram below shows three frames taken at ten second intervals from an X-ray film of a patient
who had been given a meal.

2.3.1 Through which region of the alimentary canal was this X-ray taken?

2.3.2 What term is used to describe the pattern of muscular movement, shown in the diagram?

2.3.3 Give two functions which are carried out by the movements mentioned in 1.3.2.

2.3.4 Name one inorganic substance, other than water, which is normally present in the above organ and
state three of its functions.
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2.4 Study the diagram below.

3.
4.
5.

6.

12.

13. 15.

2.4.1 Name the labelled parts below:

1. 8.
2 9.
3. 10.
4. 11.
5. 13.
6/12. 15.
7/14.

2.4.2.1 Give the number/ s of ALL the parts in which each of the following processes takes place:

f. complex carbohydrates ..
a. ingestion
.....start being digested
b. mechanical digestion g. most proteins are .digested

c. chemical digestion h. the final digestion of food

d. absorption i. bile is stored

e. peristalsis j. defaecation

2.4.2.2 Where, specifically does the final digestion of food occur?

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2.4.3 Circle the letter of the correct alternative for each of the following statements.

a. A person has a disease that destroys the gastric gland cells. The person will be able to digest:

A carbohydrates and fats only

B proteins only
C proteins and fats only
D carbohydrates, fats and proteins
b. The human organs that produce a starch digesting enzyme are the...

A liver and salivary glands

B stomach, duodenum and pancreas
C salivary glands and pancreas
D pancreas, liver and stomach

c. Diarrhoea often leads to dehydration because:

A food passes through the small intestine too quickly

B too much bile is secreted
C too few nutrients are absorbed
D food passes through the colon too quickly

d. Which of the following is not a function of the liver?

A storage of iron
B deamination of excess amino acids
C storage of bile
D storage of glycogen

e. The correct sequence of the following parts / substances in the digestive tract is:

A chyme – caecum – stomach - bolus – small intestine - rectum

B bolus – oesophagus – chyme – duodenum - caecum - faeces
C saliva – oesophagus – pyloric sphincter – stomach – bile - colon
D chewing – pharynx – gastric juice – pancreatic juice – faeces – small intestine

2.4.4 Give the correct biological term for each of the following statements:

a. Ring of muscle between the stomach and duodenum.

b. Elimination of undigested food usually by defaecation.
c. Rhythmic muscular contractions of the alimentary canal that move food (in various stages of
digestion) along.
d. The physical breakdown of food by chewing or churning actions.
e. The partially digested food in the stomach.
f. The compound formed in the liver after deamination.
g. The monomers / final end products of fat digestion.
h. Teeth used for grinding and crushing food.
i. The small ball of food formed in the mouth and swallowed.
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

2.5 Table 1 compares the minimum daily requirements of infants (under 1 year old) and adults.
Table 2 summarises the main constituents of cow’s milk (per cup).

Energy
TABLE 1 Protein (g) Calcium (mg) Iron (mg) Vitamin D (g)
requirement (kJ)
INFANT 3300 15 600 6 10

ADULT 13200 45 500 10 2.5

Energy
TABLE 2 Protein (g) Calcium (mg) Iron (mg) Vitamin D (g)
requirement (kJ)
COW’S
0.3 (summer)
MILK (per 2720 33 1200 1
0.1 (winter)
cup)

2.5.1 Use the table to calculate the percentage of:

a. The adult’s energy requirement needed by the infant.

b. The adult’s protein requirement needed by the infant.

2.5.2 Suggest why the infant only needs a third of the adult’s energy and protein requirements.

2.5.3 Explain why the infant needs more calcium and vitamin D, but less iron than the adult.

2.5.4 Suggest a reason why cow’s milk contains more vitamin D in summer than in winter.

2.5.5 How much cow’s milk would the infant need per day to satisfy its protein requirements?

2.5.6 From the data, what would seem to be the disadvantage of feeding the infant cow’s milk?

2.5.7 What would be a better source of milk and why?

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D. ABSORPTION OF FOOD
 Most foods / nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine.
 The villi play an important role in the absorption of food.
 Glucose and amino acids are absorbed actively into the blood capillaries of the villi and are
then transported to the liver via the HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN.
 Fatty acids and glycerol enter the lymphatic system via the lacteal of the villi and later join the
blood system.

DO YOU UNDERSTAND HOW the HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM functions?

a. Where are the nutrients initially absorbed into the blood stream?

b. Name 2 different nutrients that are absorbed at the location you gave for (a).

c. Name the:
i) blood vessel that transports these nutrients (named in b.)
ii) the organ of destination.
d. Name the nutrient molecules that would definitely NOT be absorbed into the blood stream and give
a reason for this.

e. The liver changes the levels of some of the substances that have been absorbed into the blood
stream. List five of these substances and explain briefly what happens to each in the liver.
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION
 Suitability of the SMALL INTESTINE for ABSORPTION OF FOOD:
 Surface area is increased by:
 Very long length of the small intestine (approx. 6 m)
 The many circular or cross folds in the lining of the intestine
 The millions of finger-like projections called villi
 The microvilli on the surface of the villi
 Food passes slowly through the small intestine, allowing time for maximum absorption.

 STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS of the VILLUS FOR ABSORPTION OF FOOD:

 Elongated shape increases the surface area for maximum absorption of food.
 A single layer of columnar epithelium forms a thin layer thus ensuring rapid absorption.
 Columnar cells have microvilli thus increasing the surface area for maximum absorption.
 Many mitochondria in the columnar cells provide energy for active absorption of food.
 Goblet cells secrete mucus which keeps the surface moist for efficient absorption of food.
 A network of capillaries for the rapid transport of absorbed sugars /amino acids to the liver.
 A lacteal allows for the absorption and transport of absorbed fats.

ABSORPTION IN THE LARGE INTESTINE

 Note! There is NO FURTHER ABSORPTION of FOOD IN THE LARGE INTESTINE!
 The most important role of the large intestine is to reabsorb water. Too much water leaving the
body leads to dehydration e.g. in cases of diarrhoea and cholera.
 The colon secretes alkaline mucus which slows the passage of the colon contents, allowing
time for water to be absorbed.
 Vitamins and minerals are also absorbed into the blood vessels in the wall of the colon.
 Bacterial decay the remains / roughage and produce vitamin B.
 After about 12 -24 hours the faeces reach the rectum, finally leaving the body through the anus.
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

EXERCISE 3

3.1 Draw and label a schematic PLAN diagram to show the structure of a villus in longitudinal section.

3.2 PRACTICAL: Draw and label a PLAN diagram of the villi in the photomicrograph. Accuracy and
proportion are essential.

X 345 Y
3.3 Calculate the actual length of the villus using the line X-Y on the micrograph in question 3.2.
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

3.4 The micrograph shows part of a section through the small intestine wall magnified at 40x.

X (cavity)

W Y

3.4.1. Identify parts:

X- Y-

Z-

3.4.2 Label W represents involuntary muscle tissue. Based on its location, what role will it play
in this part of the small intestine?

3.4.3 Explain how the parts labelled Y and Z are visibly suited to their function in this part of
the digestive tract.

3.5 The diagram shows an unusual view of a particular structure in the alimentary canal.

3.5.1 Identify this structure, fully.

3.5.2 Give visible reasons for your identification.

3.5.3 State the function of the capillaries in this structure.

3.5.4 Give the alternative label name for the lymph vessel in this structure.
3.5.5 Describe (briefly) the structure of the outermost layer of tissue, forming the wall of this part.
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

E. FATE OF THE ABSORBED FOOD

Used by the body cells as an immediate ENERGY source for RESPIRATION.

Sugars
e.g. STORED in the liver and muscles as GLYCOGEN (a polysaccharide).
glucose

Amino Used to MAKE PROTEINS in cells and tissues e.g. myosin or haemoglobin.
acids Excess amino acids DEAMINATED (broken down) in the liver, then sent to
the kidneys to be excreted as UREA.

Used as a RESERVE source of ENERGY.

Fats STORED under the skin and around delicate organs for insulation and
protection e.g. heart, kidneys.

F. HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL : BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS

 Homeostasis means
 Metabolism uses up chemical substances e.g. glucose or oxygen and causes wastes to be formed
e.g. carbon dioxide.
 Chemical substances must be replaced and wastes must be removed on an ongoing basis to
ENSURE THAT THE BODY’S INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT REMAINS CONSTANT i.e. maintain
homeostasis This is vital for the normal functioning of the body. We will focus on the
maintenance of the glucose levels in the blood.
 Glucose levels must be maintained because if it drops too low then cells would be starved of
energy.
 If the glucose level rises too high then the tissue fluid would be more concentrated than usual.
Water would be extracted from the cells by osmosis, causing dehydration and cell damage. (This
can lead to coma if brain cells are damaged)
 Blood glucose levels are controlled by two hormones: INSULIN and GLUCAGON.
 These hormones are secreted by the islets of Langerhans, which are found within the pancreas.
 Glucagon and insulin operate on a NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM – a corrective mechanism
that reverses a trend.
 This means that when the blood glucose levels fall, this causes glucagon to be released, which
raises the glucose levels again. When the glucose levels rise too high, this causes insulin to be
released which lowers the blood glucose levels.
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

 The pancreas is both an EXOCRINE gland and an ENDOCRINE gland:

EXOCRINE - Pancreas cells secrete:


 Into the duodenum via the

pancreas

bile duct

Islets of Langerhans

pancreatic
duodenum duct
ENDOCRINE - Islets of Langerhans cells
secrete:

The exocrine and endocrine functions of the  Directly into the
pancreas

On the diagram below, use TWO COLOURS to show the different pathways of controlling the blood
glucose levels followed by insulin and glucagon.

A High blood sugar

glycogen glucose

Liver
Insulin

Lowers blood sugar

B
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

A. WHEN BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS ARE TOO HIGH:

 Reason? Eating a large meal of carbohydrates.

 Islets of Langerhans in pancreas detect the high blood glucose levels and secrete the hormone
INSULIN into the blood stream.
 Insulin decreases the blood glucose levels by:
 Causing the liver to convert excess glucose into glycogen, which is stored in the liver and
muscles.
 Increasing the rate of absorption of glucose by the body cells for respiration.

B. WHEN BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS ARE TOO LOW:

 Reason? Long periods of intensive exercise or going without food.

 Islets of Langerhans in pancreas detect the low blood glucose levels and secrete the hormone
GLUCAGON into the blood stream.
 Glucagon increases the blood glucose levels by:
 Causing the liver to convert stored glycogen to glucose, which is released into the
bloodstream.

NB! Do not confuse GLYCOGEN (a polysaccharide) with GLUCAGON (a hormone)!

DIABETES
 Diabetes mellitus is a condition in humans that occurs when the pancreas cannot produce any /
enough insulin. This results in the blood glucose level being too high.
 SYMPTOMS:
o Glucose in the urine (confirmed with a urine test)
o Frequent urination
o Extreme thirst
o Blurred vision
o Wounds that do not heal
o Fatigue / lethargy
 There are two types of diabetes mellitus:

TYPE 1 DIABETES (insulin dependent) TYPE 2 DIABETES (non-insulin dependent)

o Occurs when pancreas does not secrete
insulin.
o Usually affects children or adults (to 30 yrs.)
o Sudden onset.
o Rely on insulin injections to survive.
o Insulin dosages are carefully balanced with
exercise and food intake programmes.
o Pancreas either secretes insufficient insulin
or the insulin does not work properly.
o Mostly affects people over 40 years who are
overweight and do not exercise.
o Can be treated without insulin – through
weight loss and exercising.
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

EXERCISE 4
4.1 Use this space to draw up a FLOW DIAGRAM to illustrate the NEGATIVE FEEDBACK in the control
of blood glucose levels.
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

4.2 State whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. If false, underline the incorrect word
and write down the correct word.

STATEMENT ANSWER
1 Type 1 diabetes is also known as insulin-dependent
diabetes.
2 The secretion of pancreatic juice into the duodenum is an
exocrine function of the pancreas.
3 Overweight, inactive people who are over forty years are
more likely to develop Type 1 diabetes.
4 Insulin stimulates the conversion of glucose to stored
glucagon in the liver and muscles.
5 Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a constant
external environment.
6 Eating a meal high in starch stimulates the release of the
hormone glucagon.
7 Insulin causes the levels of glucose in the blood to be
lowered.
8 The specific cells responsible for releasing the hormones
insulin and glucagon, are the pancreatic cells.
9
Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles.
10 The hormone gastrin stimulates the release of gastric juice
and bile.

4.3 Differentiate between:

4.3.1 glucagon and glycogen.

4.3.2 homeostasis and negative feedback mechanism.

4.3.3 the physiological reason for type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

4.4 List 4 symptoms of diabetes.

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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

4.5 The graph below shows the results of a glucose tolerance test on a diabetic and on a healthy
person. After fasting for 10 hours, each patient drank a glucose solution containing 45g of glucose.
The amount of glucose in their blood was then measured every 30 minutes for the next three hours.
(mg / 100 cm3)

4.5.1 What is the highest concentration of glucose in the diabetic’s blood?

3.5.2 Predict from the graph, how long it would take for the glucose concentration of:
a. The healthy person to return to the level when the glucose solution was ingested.
b. The diabetic to return to the level when the glucose solution was ingested.
4.5.3 What would the effect on the results of the test be if insulin was injected into the diabetic?

4.5.4 Briefly explain why insulin, which is a protein, is injected into a diabetic rather than given orally.

G. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH NUTRITION

1. A BALANCED DIET

 Contains all the essential food components in

sufficient quantities and in the correct proportion
eg. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins and
minerals.
 On average, approximate daily food intake should be:
o 55% carbohydrates – (mostly complex), less
than 30% fats and 15% proteins.
o More whole food than processed food
o Two litres water – depending on activity levels.
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION
2. MALNUTRITION:

2.1 UNDERNUTRITION – inadequate food intake, imbalance of nutrients.

Cause:
High carbohydrate and low protein diet
KWASHIORKOR especially in children
Symptoms:
swollen abdomen; stick-like arms;
slow brain development
puffy face – swollen with fluid (oedema)
skin covered in sores

Cause:
General shortage of food, especially high energy
MARASMUS foods.
Symptoms:
Deep set eyes
Tightly-stretched skin
Thin muscles
Very little fatty tissue

Cause:
ANOREXIA Refusal to eat
NERVOSA Psychological reasons
Symptoms:
Excessive weight loss
Could lead to death
Lower resistance to diseases

Cause:
Psychological reasons
BULIMIA
Symptoms:
Binge-eating of high energy foods followed by
guilt-induced vomiting or laxative use.
Frequent weighing
Secretive behaviour

2.2 OVERNUTRITION - OBESITY

 Cause:
o Eating too much of the high-energy foods
(carbohydrates and fats).
o Results in too much fat / adipose tissue
 Symptoms:
o Overweight.
o More susceptible to diabetes, hypertension, strokes
and cardiovascular diseases.
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Grade 11 (CAPS Updated 2020) HUMAN NUTRITION

3. DIFFERERENT DIETS

Humans have different diets for different reasons. These include health reasons, requirements for
competitive sport, cultural practices, religious reasons and personal reasons. Four different diets will be
mentioned here.

VEGAN VEGETARIAN KOSHER HALAAL

Do not eat or use Do not eat meat or Jewish people only Muslims only eat
any animal fish. eat foods that meet meat that is Halaal.
products. all criteria laid down The animal must be
Some also do not eat by Jewish law. slaughtered according
This includes fish, eggs and/ or dairy. to Muslim principles
eggs, dairy Foods have a and techniques.
Some eat only symbol indicating
products, even
vegetables on certain this. A symbol is found on
honey.
days (religious beliefs) purchased foods.

EXERCISE 5

5. Give the correct biological term for each of the following statements:

5. 1 Nutritional disorder caused by a general lack of food, not by choice.

5..2 The result of a diet that is unbalanced.

5.3 A psychological condition characterised by binge–eating and guilt-

induced vomiting and laxative use
5.4 A diet where Jewish law dictates which foods may or may not be
eaten.
5.5 A nutritional disorder characterised by thin muscles, minimal fatty
tissue and deep-set eyes.
5.6 A nutritional disorder characterised by an increase in fatty tissue,
narrowing of the arteries and type 2 diabetes.
5.7 A diet which excludes the eating or use of any animal products.

5.8 A diet which requires the correct slaughtering of meat according to

Muslim principles.
5.9 A nutritional disorder which has symptoms of stick-like arms, sores
on the skin, swollen liver/belly and oedema in the face.
5.10 A nutritional disorder caused by a lack of protein in the diet.