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Technology Roadmap
Energy storage
INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY
The International Energy Agency (IEA), an autonomous agency, was established in November 1974.
Its primary mandate was – and is – two-fold: to promote energy security amongst its member
countries through collective response to physical disruptions in oil supply, and provide authoritative
research and analysis on ways to ensure reliable, affordable and clean energy for its 28 member
countries and beyond. The IEA carries out a comprehensive programme of energy co-operation among
its member countries, each of which is obliged to hold oil stocks equivalent to 90 days of its net imports.
The Agency’s aims include the following objectives:
n Secure member countries’ access to reliable and ample supplies of all forms of energy; in particular,
through maintaining effective emergency response capabilities in case of oil supply disruptions.
n Promote sustainable energy policies that spur economic growth and environmental protection
in a global context – particularly in terms of reducing greenhouse-gas emissions that contribute
to climate change.
n Improve transparency of international markets through collection and analysis of
energy data.
n Support global collaboration on energy technology to secure future energy supplies
and mitigate their environmental impact, including through improved energy
efficiency and development and deployment of low-carbon technologies.
n Find solutions to global energy challenges through engagement and
dialogue with non-member countries, industry, international
organisations and other stakeholders.
IEA member countries:
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Canada
Czech Republic
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Secure Sustainable Together
Korea (Republic of)
Luxembourg
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Slovak Republic
© OECD/IEA, 2014 Spain
International Energy Agency Sweden
9 rue de la Fédération
75739 Paris Cedex 15, France Switzerland
Turkey
www.iea.org
United Kingdom
United States
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Energy storage technologies can support energy This publication is produced under my authority as
security and climate change goals by providing Executive Director of the IEA.
valuable services in developed and developing
energy systems. A systems approach to energy Maria van der Hoeven
system design will lead to more integrated Executive Director
International Energy Agency
This publication reflects the views of the International Energy Agency (IEA) Secretariat but does not necessarily reflect
those of individual IEA member countries. The IEA makes no representation or warranty, express or implied, in respect
to the publication’s contents (including its completeness or accuracy) and shall not be responsible for any use of, or
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Foreword 1
Table of contents
Foreword 1
Acknowledgements 4
Key findings and actions 5
Key findings 5
Key actions for the next ten years 5
Introduction 6
Rationale for energy storage 6
Purpose, process, and structure of the roadmap 7
Roadmap scope 7
Energy storage applications 9
Key application definitions 10
Benefits-stacking 12
Locations 15
Status of energy storage technologies today 16
Current installed capacity 16
Electricity storage 21
Thermal storage 22
Vision for deployment to 2050 26
The ETP 2014 scenarios for a clean energy transition 26
Three scenarios for electricity storage deployment 28
Regional factors for energy storage deployment 30
Energy storage technology development: actions and milestones 38
Actions spanning across technologies and applications 38
Short-term (seconds-minutes) storage applications for reserve services and frequency regulation 40
Distributed battery storage for renewables integration, frequency regulation 40
Long-term (hours-seasons) storage applications for arbitrage, load following, and other grid services 42
Thermal energy storage for low temperature (<10°C) applications 43
Thermal energy storage for medium temperature (10°C to 250°C) applications 44
Thermal energy storage for high temperature (>250°C) applications 45
Policy, finance, and international collaboration: actions and milestones 46
Policy and regulatory frameworks 49
Incentivising investment 50
Planning and permitting 50
Training and public engagement 51
International collaboration 52
Conclusion: near-term actions for stakeholders 53
Annexes 55
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Box 11. Energy storage to support variable renewable energy resources in China 36
Box 12. Rare earth elements 41
Table of contents 3
Acknowledgements
The International Energy Agency’s Energy Imre Gyuk (US DOE); Rao Konidena and Scott Baker
Technology Policy Division prepared this publication. (GO15); Gunter Siddiqi (Bundesamt für Energie);
Melissa C. Lott is the primary author of this roadmap Anthony Vassallo (The University of Sydney); Yo
together with contributions from Sang-Il Kim. Mishima, Eiko Nakayama, Tutsuya Tomida, Tatsuya
Cecilia Tam, co-ordinator of the Energy Technology Miyazaki, and Kelichi Onozawa (METI); Per-Olof
Roadmaps programme, was responsible for the Granstrom and Joris Knigge (EDSO).
development of this roadmap and provided valuable
leadership throughout. Didier Houssin, Director Finally, the IEA would like to thank the numerous
of the Directorate of Sustainable Energy Policy experts who provided the authors with information
and Technology and Jean-François Gagné, Head of and/or comments on drafts of the roadmap and
the Energy Technology Policy Division, provided Technology Annex: Jianhua Bai, Mark Barrett,
important guidance and input. David Elzinga, Steve Brahim Betraoui, Luisa F. Cabeza, John Cheng,
Heinen, Luis Munuera and Uwe Remme provided Benoit Decourt, Paul Denholm, Paul Dodds, Jean-
significant input and support. Michel Durand, Robert Fares, Jared Garrison,
Marco Gazzino, Frederik Geth, Logan Goldie-Scot,
Many other IEA colleagues provided thoughtful Naoki Hara, Jennifer Hiscock, Arne Höll, Mark
comments and support including Marco Baroni, Howells, Andreas Hauer, Sylvain Hercberg, Magnus
Doug Cooke, Alex Körner, Simone Landolina, Hindsberger, Takao Ikeda, Jens Kühne, Chuck
Simon Müller, Edoardo Patriarca, Cédric Philibert, Levitan, Francis Li, Liam Lidstone, Jun Liu, Vincent
Alvaro Portellano, Yuan Qin, Katrin Schaber, Tali Mazauric, Stephen Orita, Anthony Price, Peter
Trigg, Laszlo Varro and Dennis Volk. Hanneke van Schossig, Yoshiaki Shibata, Axel Strang, Peter Taylor,
Kleeff and Katerina Rus helped to prepare the Yuriko Terao, Manuel Welsch, Mike Wilks, Kendra
manuscript. Wong, Hendrik Wust, Shicong Zhang and Andreas
Zucker. The IEA would like to acknowledge the large
This work was developed in collaboration with number of participants and contributions made by
governments, industry, experts, and the IEA energy attendees of the three workshops held at the IEA
technology network. The roadmap was supported who are too numerous to be named individually.
by the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade, and
Industry (METI), Korea Power Exchange (KPX), US The authors would also like to thank Kristine
Department of Energy (US DOE), GO15 – Reliable Douaud for editing the manuscript a well as the
and Sustainable Power Grids, and the Implementing IEA publication unit, in particular Muriel Custodio,
Agreement for a Programme of Research and Astrid Dumond, Rebecca Gaghen, Cheryl Haines
Development on Energy Conservation through and Bertrand Sadin for their assistance in layout and
Energy Storage (ECES IA). graphical design support.
The volunteers of the energy storage roadmap For more information on this document, contact:
steering committee have provided guidance over TechnologyRoadmapsContact@iea.org
the course of its development: Halime Ö. Paksoy and
Christian Doetsch (ECES IA); Yeoungjin Chae (KPX);
© OECD/IEA, 2014
2. “
Locations” refers to the supply, transmission and distribution,
and demand portions of the energy system.
This energy storage roadmap aims to: This roadmap was compiled with the support of a
zz increase understanding among a range of wide range of interested parties and stakeholders,
stakeholders of the applications that electricity and including members of industry, academia, consumer
thermal energy storage technologies can be used advocacy groups, and government institutions. In
for at different locations in the energy system parallel with its analysis and modelling efforts, the
energy storage roadmap team hosted three expert
zz p
rovide a comprehensive discussion of the
workshops (Table 1).
nature, function, and costs of energy storage
technologies
zz identify the most important actions required in
the short and long terms to successfully develop
and deploy energy storage technologies to
support global energy and climate goals
Source: unless otherwise indicated, all material in tables and figures derives from IEA data and analysis.
Introduction 7
the smart grid, heating and cooling equipment for This roadmap responds to requests for deeper
buildings, hydropower, and concentrating solar analysis on the role that energy storage
power (solar thermal electricity generation). Existing technologies can play in the decarbonisation of
IEA projects, such as Grid Integration of Variable global energy systems. It should be considered
Renewables (GIVAR) 4, have focused on the flexibility a work in progress and a starting point for
needs of specific electricity grid systems around discussions. As global datasets and corresponding
the world. What’s more, the IEA Implementing analysis improve, scenarios and insights will evolve.
Agreement (IA) for a Programme of R&D on Energy Furthermore, as technology, market, and policy
Conservation through Energy Storage (ECES) and environments shift, additional requirements and
the IA for Programme of Energy Technology Systems areas for analysis and attention will come to light.
Analysis (ETSAP) have recently published several
publications specifically discussing energy storage
technologies, and opportunities for implementation
as a part of their ongoing work in this area. 5
Table 2: K
ey characteristics of storage systems for particular
applications in the energy system
Application Output (electricity, Size (MW) Discharge Cycles Response time
thermal) duration (typical)
Seasonal storage e,t 500 to 2 000 Days to 1 to day
months 5 per year
Arbitrage e 100 to 2 000 8 hours to 0.25 to >1 hour
24 hours 1 per day
Frequency regulation e 1 to 2 000 1 minute to 15 20 to 1min
minutes 40 per day
Load following e,t 1 to 2 000 15 minutes to 1 to 29 per <15min
1 day day
Voltage support e 1 to 40 1 second to 10 to 100 millisecond
1 minute per day to second
Black start e 0.1 to 400 1 hour to < 1 per year <1 hour
4 hours
Transmission and e,t 10 to 500 2 hours to 0.14 to >1hour
Distribution (T&D) 4 hours 1.25 per day
congestion relief
T&D infrastructure e,t 1 to 500 2 hours to 0.75 to >1hour
investment deferral 5 hours 1.25 per day
Demand shifting and peak e,t 0.001 to 1 Minutes to 1 to <15 min
reduction hours 29 per day
Off-grid e,t 0.001 to 0.01 3 hours to 0.75 to 1.5 <1hour
5 hours per day
Variable supply resource e,t 1 to 400 1 minute to 0.5 to <15 min
integration hours 2 per day
Waste heat utilisation t 1 to 10 1 hour to 1 to < 10 min
1 day 20 per day
Combined heat and power t 1 to 5 Minutes to 1 to < 15 min
hours 10 per day
Spinning reserve e 10 to 2 000 15 minutes to 0.5 to <15 min
2 hours 2 per day
Non-spinning reserve e 10 to 2 000 15 minutes to 0.5 to <15 min
2 hours 2 per day
Sources: IEA (2014a), Energy Technology Perspectives, forthcoming, OECD/IEA, Paris, France. EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute)
(2010), “Electrical Energy Storage Technology Options”, Report, EPRI, Palo Alto, California. Black & Veatch (2012), “Cost and
performance data for power generation technologies”, Cost Report, Black & Veatch, February.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Applications for electricity storage technologies a relatively short period of time (e.g. seconds or
can be discussed in terms of power applications minutes). Energy applications require discharge
versus energy applications. Power applications of many minutes to several hours at or near the
refer to those requiring a high power output for storage system’s nominal power rating.
6. T
he term “arbitrage” is used for both arbitrage and storage 7. T
his is also the case for energy users who produce most of their
trades in this roadmap. own heat and electricity (i.e. self-generation).
Waste heat utilisation Reserve capacity for the electricity supply is used
to compensate for a rapid, unexpected loss in
Energy storage technology use for the temporal and generation resources in order to keep the system
geographic decoupling of heat supply (e.g. CHP balanced. This reserve capacity is classified
facilities, thermal power plants) and demand (e.g. according to response time as spinning (<15 minute
for heating/cooling buildings, supplying industrial response time) and non-spinning (>15 minute
process heat) in order to utilise previously wasted response time). Faster response times are generally
heat. more valuable to the system. In some regions,
reserve capacity is referred to as “frequency
containment reserve.”
8. W hen combined with other energy system infrastructure (e.g.
transmission lines).
Box 2: P
otential use of thermal storage in CHP plants to support
the integration of renewable energy resources
Thermal energy storage can increase Storage facilities that store energy at
operational flexibility in CHP plants by atmospheric pressure have comparatively
enabling the decoupling of the heat demand lower investment costs than pressurised ones.
of a connected district heating system and However, the pressurised storage technologies
the requirements of the electricity system. show a 30% to 40% higher specific storage
Furthermore, the increased flexibility afforded capacity per volume.
by both thermal and electricity storage in
CHP facilities could enable higher levels of Today’s thermal storage facilities focus on
participation in balancing power markets. reducing the operation of peak load boilers
and avoiding costly restarting processes.
Thermal storage, in the context of district Furthermore, in the presence of district
heating, stores heat in the form of hot water heating networks, heat price can have a
in tanks. In atmospheric storage systems, the significant impact on the choice of the CHP
water temperature lies just below the boiling plant’s business model. In the case of rapidly
point at around 95°C to 98°C. Pressurised increasing use of renewable energy resources,
tanks typically store water at temperatures CHP is poised to operate primarily in one of
of between 120°C and 130°C. The size of two strategies.
such storage tanks can range from 100 cubic (.../...)
metres (m3) up to 50 000 m3 in volume, which
corresponds to heat storage capacities from
approximately 10 megawatt hours (MWh) to
2 gigawatt hours (GWh) per load cycle.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Case A Case B
High electricity prices Low electricity prices
* Residual load is defined as the electricity demand minus the amount supplied by renewable energy.
Box 3: T
he impacts of US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Orders 755
(2011) and 784 (2013) on energy storage deployment
In the electricity system, energy storage market rules generally prohibit transmission
technologies have the ability to provide value assets from participating in wholesale energy
via multiple applications. For example, a system and ancillary service markets. This distinction
might be able to provide energy supply and between transmission and generation assets
demand management services (i.e. where peak results in unintended negative consequences
demand for electricity or heat is reduced to for energy storage technologies that can supply
relieve supply pressures, or supply availability services in both the transmission and generation
is time-shifted to better match demand profiles) portions of the energy system. As a result, the
and also be used in power applications US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
(e.g. fast response, frequency regulation, (FERC) has needed to approve the classification
voltage support). of certain storage assets on a case-by-case
basis (e.g. the 2010 installation of a sodium-
However, in order to maintain the independence sulphur (NaS) battery system owned by Electric
and neutrality of transmission grid operators Transmission Texas in Presidio, Texas)
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Recognising these challenges, the US FERC added value that these technologies bring
has recently made significant strides in to the energy system compared to slower-
amending market rules and tariff structures responding technologies. This pay-for-
to allow energy storage technologies to performance requirement was subsequently
receive compensation for supplying energy expanded upon in FERC Order 784, which
services across the energy system. Specifically, not only addresses speed and accuracy
FERC Order 890 and 719 asked the nation’s requirement questions, but also more broadly
independent system operators (ISOs) to allow opens ancillary service markets to energy
all non-generating resources – such as demand storage technology participation.
response and energy storage technologies – to
fully participate in established energy markets. Today, many organisations including the
Pennsylvania-New Jersey-Maryland (PJM)
Subsequently, under FERC order 755, the Interconnection, a regional transmission
Commission recognised the added value organisation (RTO) in the United States’
found in “fast” responding resources (e.g. eastern grid interconnection, have expanded
batteries, flywheels) for frequency regulation their activities in bringing new energy storage
applications. This order acknowledged the systems online (Table 3).
Table 3: E
nergy storage technologies and intended
applications in United States PJM market
Pumped-storage Up to 3.1 GW Muddy Run, Seneca Yards 7 hours to Energy and power
hydropower Creek, Bath County, Smith 13+ hours applications
Mountain
Batteries (flow, 0.5-20 MW Ironwood Project (20 MW, 1 hour to Energy and power
lead-acid, Li-ion, in queue), 1 MW Li-ion 6 hours applications
sodium-sulphur) (in service), 2 MW battery
storage (in queue)
Source: Pennsylvania-New Jersey-Maryland (PJM) Interconnection (2010), “Limited energy resources in capacity markets:
problem statement”, paper prepared for August 5 meeting, Audubon, PA, United States, www.pjm.com/~/media/
committees-groups/committees/mrc/20100805/20100805-item-10b-limited-energy-resources.ashx.
The suitability of a particular technology for an (Hauer, Quinnell and Lävemann, 2013). In Figure 1,
individual application can be broadly evaluated in power requirements are plotted in relationship with
terms of technical potential. For electricity storage, energy requirements to illustrate the combinations
discharge period, response time and power rating that are most suited to certain applications.
provide a good first indicator on suitability. For
thermal storage, storage output temperature Near-term suitability could also be broadly
© OECD/IEA, 2014
and capacity can be used as a starting point in determined by considering the characteristics of the
determining suitability for particular applications current energy system, as shown in Table 4.
Spinning and
non-spinning Seasonal storage
Frequency regulation
1 GW Arbitrage
reserve
(T&D)
Combined heat power
Capacity
1 MW
Black start
100 kW
Demand
shifting
10 kW and peak
reduction
Demand
Offgrid
1 kW
Sources: modified from IEA (2014), Energy Technology Perspectives, OECD/IEA, Paris, France. Battke, B., T.S. Schmidt, D. Grosspietsch
and V.H. Hoffmann (2013), “A review and probabilistic model of lifecycle costs of stationary batteries in multiple applications”,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Vol. 25, pp. 240-250. EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute) (2010), “Electrical Energy
Storage Technology Options”, Report, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, United States. Sandia National Laboratories (2010), Energy Storage for
the Electricity Grid: Benefits and Market Potential Assessment Guide, A Study for the DOE Energy Storage Systems, Albuquerque, NM
and Livermore, CA, United States. IEA-ETSAP (Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme) and IRENA (2013), “Thermal Energy
Storage”, Technology Brief E17, Bonn, Germany.
Table 4: N
ear-term suitability criteria for determining
prime energy storage technologies for deployment
Energy storage technology Technology examples Might provide the most near-term
benefits in areas with:
Large-scale electricity pumped-storage hydropower (PSH), developed electricity grids that can
compressed air energy storage (CAES), more easily accommodate centralised
flywheels energy supply resources
Large-scale thermal underground thermal energy storage significant waste heat resources,
(UTES), molten salts concentrated heating or cooling
demand, or large amounts of
concentrating solar power (CSP)
Small-scale thermal ice storage, hot and cold-water tanks higher demand variability (i.e. more
“peak-y” demand – lots of hot or cold
needed at one time or another)
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Figure 2: H
ypothetical deployment of storage assets
across an electric power system
Pumped storage
hydropower
Molten salt
Thermal storage
tanks
Supply
Demand
Source: modified from EIA (Energy Information Administration) (2012), “Electricity storage: Location, location, location…..and cost”,
Today in Energy, Washington, DC, United States, www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=6910.
Storage_2014_RM_Fig_02
© OECD/IEA, 2014
9. H
ydrogen storage is the subject of the forthcoming IEA 11. For the sake of concision, only a limited number of energy storage
technology roadmap on hydrogen storage and so will not be technologies are included in Figure 3. This list is not meant to
covered in detail here. be comprehensive, but to highlight some of the promising and
successfully deployed technologies in the energy system.
10. �������������������������������������������������������
This development spectrum is roughly equivalent to the
concepts of “Technology Readiness Levels” (TRLs) and
Manufacturing Readiness Levels (MRLs).
Flow batteries
Lithium-based batteries
Flywheel (high speed)
Molten salt
Flywheel (low speed)
Capital requirement x technology risk
Source: Decourt, B. and R. Debarre (2013), “Electricity storage”, Factbook, Schlumberger Business Consulting Energy Institute, Paris,
France and Paksoy, H. (2013), “Thermal Energy Storage Today” presented at the IEA Energy Storage Technology Roadmap Stakeholder
Engagement Workshop, Paris, France, 14 February.
Lithium-ion 100
Lead-acid 70
Nickel-cadmium 27
Sodium-sulphur Flywheel 25
PSH 140 000 Other 976 304
Redox-flow 10
CAES 440
Source: IEA analysis and EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute) (2010), “Electrical Energy Storage Technology Options”, Report, EPRI,
Palo Alto, California.
For thermal energy storage, one of the most reduce peak loads and consumers seek to lower
common technologies installed today is domestic their electricity bills. Underground thermal energy
hot water tanks. Other technologies, such as ice storage (UTES) systems are frequently found in
and chilled water storage, play an important role Canada, Germany, and many other European
in in several countries, including Australia, the countries (IEA, 2011).
United States, China and Japan, as utilities seek to
Table 5: Estimated thermal energy storage capacity in the United States in 2011
Source: O’Donnell, A. and K-A. Adamson (2012), “Thermal Storage for HVAC in Commercial buildings, District Cooling and Heating,
Utility and Grid Support Applications, and High-Temperature Storage at CSP Facilities”, Pike Research, New York.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Table 6: E
nergy storage technologies: current status
and typical locations in today’s energy system*
Initial
Efficiency Primary
Technology Location* Output investment cost Example projects
(%) application
(USD/kW)
Molten salts Supply Thermal 40 - 93 400 - 700 High- Gemasolar CSP Plant
temperature (Spain)
applications
Initial
Efficiency Primary
Technology Location* Output investment cost Example projects
(%) application
(USD/kW)
Thermochemical Supply, Thermal 80 - 99 1 000 - 3 000 Low, medium, TCS for Concentrated
demand and high- Solar Power Plants
temperature (R&D)
applications
Note: see IEA Energy Storage Technology Annex for more information. www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
name,36573,en.html.
* Typical locations in today’s energy system. These locations may change as the energy system evolves.
** Energy storage capabilities present in hot water storage tanks can be utilised for negligible additional cost.
Sources: IEA (2014a), Energy Technology Perspectives, forthcoming, OECD/IEA, Paris, France. IEA (2011), Technology Roadmap: Energy
Efficient Buildings: Heating and Cooling Equipment, OECD/IEA, Paris, France. Black & Veatch (2012), “Cost and performance data for
power generation technologies”, Cost Report, Black & Veatch, February. EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute) (2010), “Electrical
Energy Storage Technology Options”, Report, EPRI, Palo Alto, California. Eyer, J. and G. Corey, (2010), ”Energy Storage for the
Electricity Grid: Benefits and Market Potential Assessment Guide”, Sandia National Laboratory, Albuquerque, NM, United States. IEA-
ETSAP and IRENA (2013), “Thermal Energy Storage” Technology Brief E17, Bonn, Germnay. IEA-ETSAP (Energy Technology Systems
Analysis Programme) and IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency) (2012), “Electricity Storage”,Technology Policy Brief E18,
Bonn, Germany. “Power Tower Technology Roadmap and Cost Reduction Plan”, Sandia National Laboratories (2011), Albuquerque, NM
and Livermore, CA, United States.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
The city of Presidio, Texas, is located in the The Presidio battery system and additional
deserts of West Texas on the banks of the Rio transmission line were financed through
Grande River. Prior to 2010, the city suffered ERCOT as a “necessary transmission upgrade”
from a large number of power outages because for the residents of Presidio, even though the
the only transmission line bringing power cost to supply the city with reliable power
from neighbouring Marfa, Texas to Presidio was high compared to the number of people
was a 60 mile, 69 kilovolt (kV) line constructed served and the total amount of power sent to
in 1948. This aging transmission line crosses residents. As such, the cost was shared among
harsh terrain and its deteriorating condition all transmission and distribution providers and
and frequent lighting strikes have resulted in passed on to all rate-paying customers through
unreliable power for the residents of Presidio. a common ERCOT-wide “postage-stamp
transmission rate” fee. It has been and continues
Electric Transmission Texas proposed the to be ERCOT’s policy to use this approach to
construction of a NaS battery system, a second pay for all transmission upgrades necessary to
138/69kV autotransformer at Marfa’s Alamito ensure reliable service to all customers.
Creek Substation, and a new 69kV transmission
line connecting the Alamito Creek Substation to The primary purpose of the Presidio NaS
Presidio. Both the Public Utility Commission of battery is to provide backup power for an
Texas (PUCT) and the Electric Reliability Council aging transmission line and to reduce voltage
of Texas (ERCOT) approved the proposal. The fluctuations and momentary outages for the city
battery was energised in late March 2010 and and residents of Presidio. The battery system can
dedicated on 8 April 2010 (ETT, 2013). respond quickly to rapid disturbances as well
as supply uninterrupted power for up to eight
The energy storage system is a 4MW, 32MWh hours in the case of an extended transmission
NaS battery consisting of 80 modules, each outage. Between 2001 and 2006 there were
weighing 3 600 kg. The total cost of the battery 247 power outages, including nine long-term
system was USD 25 million and included outages with an average duration of 6.8 hours.
USD 10 million for construction of the building Additionally, between 8 July and 8 September
to house the batteries (built by Burns & 2007 there were 81 poor voltage quality events
McDonnell) and the new substation at Alamito (ERCOT, 2008). The NaS battery was designed
Creek. The proposed additional transmission to minimise these power disturbances and
line had an approximate cost of USD 45 million, fluctuations starting from its inception in 2010
yielding a total project cost of USD 70 million until the new 69kV line could be completed in
(Reske, 2010). The battery system is controlled 2012. After completion of the new transmission
by an energy management system with a line, the battery system remains a source of both
controller and power converter that facilitates voltage support and backup power in case fierce
the battery charging and discharging process storms (that are common in the West Texas
in response to real-time conditions of the grid region) disrupt Presidio’s main electricity
(S&C Electric, 2013). supply line.
technologies operate in the generation and end-use ETSAP, 2013). As heating and cooling requirements
steps of the energy system and can be grouped by
Borehole and aquifer UTES systems have been Perhaps the most well-known form of thermal
successfully deployed on a commercial scale to energy storage for high-temperature applications
provide heating capacity in the Netherlands, is currently found in molten salts. This material is
Norway and Canada. These systems utilise holes used to increase the dispatchability of power from
drilled deep into the ground to store and release CSP facilities by storing several hours of thermal
energy for heating. Pit storage – where hot water energy for use in electricity generation (IEA, 2010).
is stored in a covered pit – is used throughout Heat storage with PCMs, thermochemical energy
Denmark’s district heating networks. storage, and waste heat utilisation methods offer
many potential opportunities. However, these
Thermochemical storage systems can be designed to technologies will need to overcome containment
discharge thermal energy at different temperatures, vessel design and material stability challenges at
making them an appealing option for medium very high temperatures before they can achieve
temperature thermal energy storage applications. widespread deployment.
As with low-temperature applications, this storage
mechanism’s relatively high energy density potential
has prompted significant R&D efforts.
Box 7: Peak demand reduction using residential hot water heaters in France
In France, the thermal energy storage capacity responsible for reducing the nation’s winter peak
in existing electrical water heaters is currently electricity demand by an estimated 5 GW (5%).
2010 Electricity use for water heating (TWh) Share of residential electricity use (%)
European Union 93 22
Germany 23 27
France 20 43
Italy 7.4 25
United Kingdom 6.1 9
Spain 5.8 11
Belgium 3.3 29
Czech Republic 2.9 31
Netherlands 2.1 13
Ireland 1.8 34
Austria 1.8 21
Sweden 1.8 20
Finland 1 19
Greece 1.3 38
United States in 2005 123 20
Source: Enerdata (2011), Odyssee, the Europe Energy Efficiency Project, (database), Grenoble, France, http://enerdata.net/
enerdatauk/solutions/data-management/odyssee.php and EIA (Energy Information Administration) (2013), Annual Energy
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Electrical water heating has been widely These meters also allow customers to respond
used in many countries and is responsible for to the country’s peak-pricing structures,
approximately one-fifth of total residential which were first implemented in the 1960s. In
water heating usage in EU countries and the 2013, EDF quoted off-peak electricity prices at
United States. In France, more than one-third of EUR 100/MWh versus EUR 130/MWh for peak
households use electrical water heaters equipped electricity.
with a “2-period meter,” which allows these
water heaters to be used as distributed thermal
storage resources (Enerdata, 2011; EIA, 2013).
100 GW
National
6 GW
Water heating
60 GW 0 GW
0h 12h 24h
This reduction was achieved in part thanks As a result of this peak reduction, French
to consumer information campaigns on utilities claim that thermal energy storage
electricity pricing structures (peak versus off- has helped the country optimise its use of the
peak pricing) and a remote start/stop function nation’s generation capacity. At the same time,
option that allows grid operators to remotely it has helped France reduce its energy-related
control these water heaters. CO2 emissions by limiting the use of expensive
fossil fuel-fired peak generation plants
(Hercberg, 2013).
© OECD/IEA, 2014
The IEA ETP 2DS describes how technologies as the availability of natural resources. The ETP
across all energy sectors may be transformed global 28-region model permits the analysis
by 2050 to give an 80% chance of limiting of fuel and technology choices throughout the
average global temperature increase to 2°C. energy system, including about 500 individual
It sets the target of cutting energy-related technologies. The model, which has been used
CO2 emissions by more than half by 2050 in many analyses of the global energy sector, is
(compared with 2009) and ensuring that supplemented by detailed demand-side models
they continue to fall thereafter. The 2DS for all major end uses in the industry, buildings
acknowledges that transforming the energy and transport sectors.
sector is vital but not the sole solution: the goal
can only be achieved if CO2 and GHG emissions Large regional variations exist – reflecting
in non-energy sectors are also reduced. The differences in renewable resource availability
2DS is broadly consistent with the World Energy and alternatives for decarbonisation elsewhere
Outlook 450 Scenario through to 2035. in the energy system – with respect to the level
of variable renewable electricity generation,
The model used for this analysis is a bottom-up which ranges from 20% to 55% worldwide.
TIMES (The Integrated MARKAL-EFOM System) Storage will compete with other options to
model that uses cost optimisation to identify provide the flexibility needed to accommodate
least-cost mixes of technologies and fuels to these resources, which sets the context for the
meet energy demand, given constraints such vision for storage technologies in this roadmap.
Figure 6: S
hare of electricity generated from variable renewables (%)
by region in the 2DS
50%
45%
40%
35%
Share of variable renewables in
30%
electricity generation (%)
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
2010 2030 2050 2010 2030 2050 2010 2030 2050 2010 2030 2050
China India European Union United States
The ETP 2014 publication explores the future role in this roadmap:
of daily electricity storage technologies under zz the 2°C Scenario (2DS)
a range of sensitivities regarding future costs
zz a
"breakthrough" scenario, with aggressive cost
and performance of storage and competing
reductions in storage technologies
technologies, including flexible thermal power
generation and to some extent, demand response zz a
n "EV" scenario, where demand response from
© OECD/IEA, 2014
(IEA, 2014b). Three of these variants are reproduced "smart" charging of the electric vehicle fleet in the
2DS provides additional flexibility to the system.
Figure 7: E
lectricity storage capacity for daily electricity storage
by region in 2011 and 2050 for ETP 2014 scenarios
180
2011
160
140 2DS
120
Gigawatts (GW)
Breakthrough
100
80
EV
60
40
20
0
China India European Union United States
Cost targets in (Figure 8). The LCOE includes the cost of the initial
a "breakthrough" scenario technology infrastructure investment, operation
and maintenance, and electricity used to charge the
The "breakthrough" scenario is designed as an storage facilities.
estimation of the highest penetration of daily
electricity storage in the 2DS scenario. This At this LCOE, electricity storage technologies
scenario assumes aggressive cost reductions in provide all the flexibility requirements in all
electricity storage technologies for arbitrage regions in the 2DS. These cost reductions,
applications, where these technologies become however, are highly ambitious – for PSH and CAES,
competitive with the least expensive option significant reductions in civil engineering costs
currently providing arbitrage services.15 This result have already reduced the overall cost of PSH. As
translates to a levellised cost of energy (LCOE) for these costs account for nearly half of the initial
daily bulk storage of approximately USD 90/MWh capital investment, improvements in the turbine
technology itself would have a relatively low overall
© OECD/IEA, 2014
1 000
800
600
400
200
0
PSH Hydrogen CAES Sodium-Sulphur Lead-Acid Vanadium Redox Lithium-ion
Figure 9: Investment needs for energy storage in different scenarios, 2010 to 2050
250
200
150
USD billion
100
50
0
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Figure 10: L
and and water footprint for electricity storage
and generation technologies
600 700
600
Land footprint, 2DS scenario (ha)
500
100 100
- 0
PSH Flow Other CAES Gas turbine PSH CCGT Coal Nuclear
Batteries battery
Land footprint Water footprint
Source: Decourt, B. and R. Debarre (2013), “Electricity storage”, Factbook, Schlumberger Business Consulting Energy Institute, Paris,
France. National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) (2010), “Life cycle analysis: supercritical pulverized coal (SCPC) power plant,
NETL, September, Pittsburgh. National Renewable Energy Laboratories (NREL) (2013), Renewable Electricity Futures Study (RE Futures)
Golden, CO, United States, www.nrel.gov/analysis/re_futures/.
Regional factors for energy the costs and benefits of energy storage are region-
specific, optimum scenarios need to be developed
storage deployment on smaller scales, with particular focus on regional
needs and future generation mixes.
The array of possible services that storage
technologies can provide makes it difficult to define Countries and regions adopt energy storage
detailed global development and deployment technologies in context with their economic,
scenarios. Furthermore, the operational feasibility environmental, and energy goals. Therefore,
© OECD/IEA, 2014
of benefits-stacking by a particular system is subject wherever possible, the costs and benefits of specific
to local regulations and market structures. Since technologies or technology classes should be
Box 9: A
vision for electricity storage in a high renewable electricity future in
the United States
In the United States, significant energy storage In 2012, the United States Department of
potential exists for both electricity and thermal Energy published a comprehensive study that
storage technologies. Today, there are over evaluated the potential for a national transition
2GW of installed thermal storage capacity in the to a predominately (up to 80%) renewable
country, not including the storage capabilities electricity supply. The broad goal of this analysis
found in existing infrastructure (e.g. residential was to determine the maximum proportion of
hot water heaters and commercial refrigeration renewable electricity generation that could be
systems can provide demand shifting incorporated into the Unied States electricity
capabilities to the energy system) (Ecofys and grid using currently available technologies.
Bonneville Power Administration, 2012). There Explicitly included in the resulting “Renewable
is also an estimated 23 GW of electricity storage Electricity Futures Study” report were three
capacity connected to the nation’s electricity electricity storage technologies – PSH, CAES,
grid, the vast majority of which is provided and a generalised battery storage system.
by existing pumped hydro systems along Furthermore, thermal storage for CSP systems
with limited amounts of CAES (one system was included to provide system flexibility.*
in Alabama), batteries, flywheels, and other
storage technologies.
* In this study, all CSP facilities included six hours of thermal storage.
Figure 11: G
eneration mix in 2050 in the United States
for a range of scenarios (low-demand)
Nuclear
90% RE
Coal
80% RE
Natural gas
70% RE
60% RE Biomass
50% RE Geothermal
40% RE Hydropower
30% RE CSP
Baseline PV
Wind
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent renewable electricity
Source: Modified from National Renewable Energy Laboratories (2013), “Renewable Electricity Futures Study” Colorado.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
(.../...)
Using cost inputs from an independent and energy storage deployed in conjunction with
external consultancy group, Black and Veatch, new CSP facilities. This capacity growth is
this study concluded that currently available primarily achieved through the addition of
renewable electricity technologies could reliably several new CAES facilities. This range is mostly
supply 80% of total electricity generation in due to assumptions related to transmission
the United States by 2050, in combination grid expansion, where the study observed
with a more flexible electric system. At this decreasing total storage capacity with
80% renewables level, almost 50% of total increasing new transmission investments.
generation in this United States study came
from variable renewable resources. It must be noted that this study did not take
into account FERC Orders 755 or 784, which
In this future scenario, system flexibility is were released after the RE Futures analysis
provided using a portfolio of supply- and was complete and would have likely impacted
demand-side options including flexible the cost-benefit analysis for energy storage
generation, grid storage, new transmission technologies. Considering the lack of analysis
lines, a more responsive demand side, and below the one-hour time resolution and the
operational changes (e.g. evolved business fact that only three large-scale options for
models and new market rules). Datasets were energy storage were considered in this study,
used with hourly resolution, and resource the total market potential for energy storage
adequacy had to be met on this basis over in the electricity grid is likely larger than the
a calendar year. Operational considerations amount deployed in this analysis. Conversely,
below the one-hour timescale were not new challenges with respect to the technical
comprehensively incorporated. feasibility of using saline aquifers for new CAES
systems have come to light since this study.
The baseline scenario in the 2012 “Renewable
Electricity Futures Study” projects that the
nation’s total installed electricity storage
capacity would grow to between 103 GW
and 152 GW in 2050, exclusive of the thermal
Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratories (NREL) (2013), Renewable Electricity Futures Study (RE Futures) Golden, CO,
United States, www.nrel.gov/analysis/re_futures/.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Note: this section was prepared with support from the U.S. Department of Energy.
In September 2010, the German government Significant changes to the German electricity
announced its new national energy transition system have been underway since 1995. The
concept (“Energiewende”). Under this concept, installed capacity of renewable technologies has
Germany will strive to reduce primary energy risen from 10.2 GW (23.8 TWh) or 8% of total
demand by 50% in 2050 (compared to 2008 capacity (mostly hydro) in 1995 to over 70 GW
consumption levels) while simultaneously (119 TWh) or 40% of total capacity in 2011. This
decreasing its reliance on fossil fuels. At the compares to a maximum peak load of 90 GW
same time, the share of renewable energy in in the German grid. Moving forward, a further
the energy supply will increase to 60% in 2050, increase of wind and PV is expected, while
with renewable electricity contributing 80% nuclear power plants (2011 installed capacity
of total electricity production. In order to fulfil of 12.7 GW) are expected to be phased out by
these goals, the German energy system will 2022 (BMWI, 2013).
need to undergo a widespread transformation.
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Source: Eurelectric (2009), “Statistics and prospects for the European electricity sector (1980-2000, 2004, 2005, 2006,
2010-30)”, EURPROG 2008, Eurelectric, Brussels, Belgium and BMWI (2013) and BMU (Federal Ministry for the Environement,
Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety) (2012), “Langfristszenarien und trategien fur den Ausbau der erneuerbaren
Energien in Deutschland bei Berucksichtigung der Entwicklung in Europa und global”, BMU, Berlin.
Currently, thermal energy storage already While the imbalances in the electric grid in the
contributes to improved energy efficiency. In 1990s were addressed by using approximately
buildings, thermal energy storage can level 5 GW (32 GWh) of PSH, current capacity levels
out night and day temperature differences, have only increased slightly to 6 GW (40 GWh).
reducing energy demand for heating and air Today, many factors including geographic
conditioning. Used as seasonal storage, these mismatch of power supply and demand have
systems can store heat from summer for use in led to significant balancing issues from the
winter. Industrial waste heat can also be utilised northern suppliers and southern demand
by these storage systems. About 12% of the centres. This problem is exacerbated by
industrial final energy demand in Germany local grid imbalances resulting from a sharp
(720 terawatt hours [TWh] in 2010) is available increase in the supply of wind energy in the
as waste heat at temperatures above 140 °C. north of Germany and a lack of energy supply
The utilisation of this resource represents a in the south due to inadequate capacity on
potential of 86 TWh in equivalent heat. transmission lines. The improved integration
of the European grid allowing for electricity
© OECD/IEA, 2014
(.../...)
imports and exports has enabled Germany to decreases in interconnection capacity with
overcome these balancing issues. However, neighbouring countries, necessitates a more
current saturation of interconnectors, combined sustainable solution to maintain balance in both
with Europe’s ambitious plans to increase the transmission and distribution portions of
renewable generation and the potential the electricity grid (THEMA, 2013).
1 (surplus)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5 (balanced)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 (demand)
This map is without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries, and to the name of any territory, city or area.
Note: figure based on results of research project ‚Bedarfsanalyse Energiespeicher‘ realized by Fraunhofer UMSICHT, supported by
the German Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology.
Source: Beier, P. and P. Bretschneider (2013), "Modellbasierte, regional aufgelöste Analyse des Bedarfs an netzgekoppelten
elektrischen Energiespeichern zum Ausgleich fluktuierender Energien“, final report, Bedarfsanalyse Energiespeicher, Frauenhofer
Institute, Munich, Germany, http://www.iosb.fraunhofer.de/servlet/is/37913/04_IOSB_Jahresbericht-2012-2013_Standorte2.pdf.
Moving forward, the main challenge facing the alternating problems), electricity storage
German electric power system will be the local technologies, demand-side management
and temporal balancing of electricity supply and virtual power plants* could be adequate
and demand. While spatial imbalances can solutions. For longer periods or to create a
be managed or diminished by grid expansion permanent surplus of energy over the year
(although this solution faces significant NIMBY for system reliability purposes, only energy
[not-in-my-back yard] concerns), trans-regional conversion to gas (e.g. power-to-gas) or heat
temporal imbalances must be solved by other
(.../...)
means. For short periods and alternating
imbalances (excess and lack of energy are * A “virtual power plant” refers to a group of distributed energy
© OECD/IEA, 2014
(e.g. district heating with additional electric The creation of a dispatchable load by
heater or heat pumps) will be sufficient. These distributed storage devices – both on the
solutions require cross-sectoral approaches as low or medium voltage grid level – will gain
they connect the electric grid to heat, cold or importance in the future. Since about 60%
gas demand. of the final energy demand in Germany is for
heating and cooling, thermal energy storage
Because of the complexity of the problems in technologies are able to provide such a solution.
Germany (e.g. heterogeneous allocation of In this context, electricity might be converted
feed-in renewables; high and increasing shares into thermal energy (“power-to-heat”) to be
of renewable supplies), multiple solutions and used right away or stored as cold or heat for
various technologies will have to be applied later use. This approach could also be applied in
(Table 8). the buildings sector and in industry.
Due to power generation and electricity storage magnitude estimation based on an assumed
technologies, and the fact that all technologies average cost of roughly EUR 500 kilowatt electrical
compete with each other, the “electric-energy- capacity (kWel) to EUR 2 000/kWel would imply
storage mix” is not really predictable (Zucker total cumulative investment needs of between
et al, 2013). Limited and rough estimates on EUR 7.5 billion and EUR 60 billion (cumulative
the future energy balancing needs vary from costs) in 2030, and between EUR 15 billion and
15 gigawatt electrical capacity (GWel) to 30 GWel, EUR 90 billion in 2050. Additional analysis and
in 2030 and from 30 GWel and 45 GWel in 2050 information is needed to provide more reliable
(Droste-Franke, 2013). These figures have to be figures for both energy storage demand potentials
viewed with caution as they are often based on and investment costs.
different underlying assumptions and do not
include alternatives such as renewable energy
** T
he definitions of energy balancing demand and energy
supply curtailment and the use of fossil fuel plants storage demand are often not clarified, and the differences
for system balancing.** Furthermore, future between positive (discharging) and negative (charging)
cost estimates are unreliable. A rough order of energy balancing demand and between power and
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Note: this section was prepared by members of the IEA Energy Conservation through Energy Storage (ECES) Implementing Agreement.
As the world’s largest energy producer and Ningxia, southern Xinjiang, and the western
consumer, China considers renewable energy parts of Inner Mongolia. While the nation’s
resources to be important tools in facilitating large-scale renewable energy resources are
an energy transition that will ensure energy suitable for utility-scale generation, in general
security, protect the environment and reduce the areas with the most resource potential are
greenhouse gas emissions. China is experiencing remote from demand centres. As a result, long
rapid growth in renewable energy generation, distance transmission UHV (Ultra High Voltage)
and China State Grid’s Energy Research Institute transmission lines to bring the electricity to
(SGERI) is in the process of developing various demand centers in eastern and central China.
scenarios for renewable energy deployment
for 2050. In these studies, wind and solar Furthermore, high levels of renewable
capacity are predicted to both reach 1 000 GW energy in the Chinese power grids will bring
under SGERI’s 50% renewable grid scenario or significant challenges in the operation safety
respectively 1 500 GW and 1 300 GW under the and reliability of the power system given the
70% scenario. (SGERI, forthcoming) variability of these resources. In addition to
traditional coal-fired and gas-fired power
In China, the nation’s best renewable energy plants involved in regulating the power system,
resources are widely dispersed. Hydropower energy storage technologies are expected to
resources are primarily concentrated in China’s play an important role in improving system
Southwest, while wind power is distributed flexibility and supporting the accommodation
throughout the whole North of the country, of renewable energy resources. Under SGERI’s
as well as the east and southeast coastal areas. high renewable energy scenario studies, it
China’s best solar energy resources are mostly is expected that China’s demand for energy
found in the Tibetan Plateau, Gansu, northern storage could reach over 200 GW by 2050.
(.../...)
Northeast
China grid
Northwest North
China grid China grid
South
China grid
This map is for illustrative purposes and is without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries, and to the name of any territory, city or area.
Source: Modified from IEA and Energy Research Institute (2011), Technology Roadmap: China Wind Energy Development
© OECD/IEA, 2014
By the end of 2012, the accumulated energy storage. In the long run, given resource
storage capacity in China was about 18 GW, limitations and economic constraints, China
of which 57.4 MW was not pumped storage is expected to introduce other mature energy
hydropower (PSH). In 2010 and 2011, the storage technologies into the energy system to
construction of demonstration projects meet increasing flexibility needs. It is expected
achieved great progress with cumulative that electrochemical storage technology
growth rates at 61% and 78%, respectively. performance could achieve significant
Today, there are nearly 50 storage breakthroughs by 2020, resulting in decreased
demonstration projects in the planning and investment costs. With decreasing costs, large
operation stages in China. In these projects, storage batteries can be integrated into the
major project applications include the support power grid for peak load management and
of wind power (53% of projects), distributed frequency regulation applications.
micro-grid projects (20%), and transmission
and distribution grid support projects Furthermore, user-side heat, cold and
represents (7%). electricity storage could be considered a
major tool for improving the energy storage
PSH plants are currently considered the most capacity of the power system. Recent analysis
mature and suitable energy storage technology by SGERI and the National Development and
for large-scale application in China’s power Reform Commission (NDRC) project that
system. Generally, it is expected that PSH will electric vehicles will become popular in China
maintain a dominant and important role in by 2050, potentially leading to a charging
China’s energy storage markets as a support shock to the power grids that will need to be
tool for an increasing proportion of renewable managed by policies or technical solutions
energy, ensuring the efficiency of conventional (e.g. vehicle-to-grid management systems).
energy and promoting the safety and economy Large-scale distributed energy storage devices
of power system. State Grid’s latest analysis installed on the demand side could also act as
expects that total PSH installed capacity will “virtual power plants” for meeting peak load.
reach 54 GW in 2020 and 100 GW by 2030. As China’s expected solar thermal power plant
the number of high quality sites decreases for development also introduces opportunities for
new PSH projects, development is expected to molten salt thermal storage systems to play a
grow more slowly after 2030, to between 110 significant role in the energy system.
and 130 GW by 2050 (SGERI, 2014).
Overall, in the short and medium term, it is
Electrochemical energy storage technologies more likely that new PSH plants and natural
have already been installed in Chinese wind gas stations will be used to improve the
farms for use in smoothing wind turbine flexibility of power system. If electrochemical
output. In the Zhangbei wind, solar, storage energy storage technologies quickly mature,
and transmission demonstration project a they could be used widely for large-scale
14 MW lithium iron phosphate battery system applications to effectively support increasing
has been fully constructed. When the project amounts of renewable energy resources in the
is fully completed, it will have 500 MW wind, power system.
100 MW photovoltaic and 110 MW of energy
Note: this section was prepared by the State Grid Energy Research Institute.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
18. In some regions, domestic electric water heaters are well deployed
and used as thermal storage for load leveling purposes, but total
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Reduce the energy cost of flywheel technologies through increasing overall efficiency, 2014-30
in particular through reducing frictional losses in the system.
2014-30
Improve cooling technologies for SMES systems.
Ongoing to 2050
For shorter-duration reserve services and frequency Current SMES systems and supercapacitor
regulations, flywheels, supercapacitors, and SMES technologies can be generally categorised as
systems could provide significant value in the having high cycle lives and power densities, but
electricity system. However, flywheel technologies much lower energy densities than other electricity
currently struggle from low energy densities and storage options. Both face the obstacle of large
the resulting high cost for use in applications in cooling requirements, which reduces overall
the electricity system. Today’s designs suffer, in efficiency. The high cycle lives and power densities
particular, from frictional losses (e.g. windage make these technologies prime candidates for
and bearing). Their modularity and distributed valuable power application needs, including
nature makes them suitable for some applications, frequency regulation. Given this significant
however, so emphasis should be placed on reducing potential role, future research should focus on
these losses. reducing system-cooling costs, increasing system
energy density, and proving performance through
documented demonstration projects.
Improve battery assembly design to improve system reliability and performance. 2014-30
Demonstrate system performance and safety through targeted demonstration projects 2014-24
in the context of multiple applications and share results with stakeholder community.
Support material research and efficiency gains via mass production for battery systems 2014-35
to improve energy density and reduce costs for sodium-sulphur, lithium-based, redox
flow, and other advanced batteries. Overall target of USD 1 000/kW for new on-grid
battery systems.
Support materials research to mitigate safety and environmental risks of battery systems 2014-30
in stationary and mobile applications.
Improve the operation management of battery systems, both centralised and distributed. 2014-20
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Rare earth elements (REEs) are widely used in China has tightened its REE supply and some
many energy storage technologies. Supply countries, including the United States, have
challenges for some of these materials (in instituted centralised efforts to recycle these
particular dysprosium, neodymium, terbium, materials (US DOE, 2012). Many countries
europium, and yttrium) result in a risk of supply already have successful battery recycling
interruptions in the short-term. In the longer programmes to recover usable REEs and to
term, efficient recycling of these materials reduce negative environmental impacts. For
can reduce the environmental impacts of REE example, 96% of lead-acid batteries are recycled
mining and processing, and reduce the risk of each year. Furthermore, new lead-acid batteries
supply disruptions from countries with large in the United States are made from 60% to 80%
reserves to those with high demand. Recently, recycled materials (US EPA, 2012).
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Assess and catalogue potential PSH and CAES sites and estimated costs. For PSH, this 2014-20
assessment should include pump-back, off-stream, and closed-loop, land-based and
marine potential.
Assess potential and costs of transforming existing constant-speed PSH into variable- 2014-20
speed, allowing these plants to provide additional ancillary services in both charging
and discharging modes.
2014-20 (assess
Investigate the potential to improve total efficiency and flexibility in existing PSH
potential), 2020-35
facilities. Complete retrofits on systems that provide significant opportunity.
(complete retrofits)
Improve the storage efficiency of CAES systems to approach 70%, particularly 2014-35
through improvements in compression (turbine) efficiency and adiabatic CAES
project development.
In addition to the battery technology In the case of PSH, with its current dominance
recommendations presented in the previous section, in global long-term electricity storage, the large
this roadmap recommends additional actions for number of existing constant-speed storage systems
technologies that can support long-term storage also provides the opportunity to increase storage
applications. PSH and CAES technologies have capabilities without the need for new facilities
significant potential as both bulk storage and to (IEA, 2012). This potential could be realised through
supply other services in the electricity grid. In the transformation of existing facilities into variable-
Europe, it is estimated that PSH capacity could be speed systems where significant opportunities exist.
increased by up to 10 times the current volume. These facilities could then better supply electricity
(Gimeno-Gutiérrez and Lacal-Arántegui, 2013) grid support services, shortening the payback period
Unfortunately, these technologies struggle from the for these large investments. The potential for these
high upfront investment costs due to large project retrofits and the associated estimated costs should
sizes and – in some cases – geographic requirements be identified and then completed as is seen fit.
that can further increase upfront costs.
For CAES technologies, new design proposals
Given the large potential role for these have the potential to reach efficiencies of up
technologies, it is crucial that assessments be to 70% primarily through reducing natural gas
completed to identify suitable sites for new use. However, these technologies have not been
installations. In these evaluations, emphasis should deployed at scale. 21
be placed on seawater PSH and underground PSH
in additional to conventional dam and run-of-river
designs (IEA, 2012). 20 Underground PSH refers to
systems where a well is drilled into underground
reservoirs, allowing water to be pumped up
into higher reservoirs (either other underground
reservoirs or surface-level, man-made holding
areas). This technology has shown promise in small 21. ������������������������������������������������������������
See technical annex for more detail on these energy storage
to medium sized storage systems. technologies. www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/
publication/name,36573,en.html.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
20. ������������������������������������������������������������������
Run-of-river designs for hydropower facilities function similarly
to conventional plants, except little or no water storage
(reservoir) is incorporated.
Document and more effectively communicate the cost and performance of ice storage 2014-20
systems for cooling applications and best practices for installation and operation.
Expand materials research and development activities related to PCMs for the 2014-30
transportation of temperature sensitive materials.
Evaluate the potential to use current commercial refrigeration centres to provide 2014-30
demand response services through thermal energy storage and then retrofit these
facilities as appropriate.
Support the evaluation of the use of thermochemical energy storage systems for low- 2020-30
temperature applications.
Demand for cooling will be a major global driver In the medium term, PCMs for the transportation
for increasing energy demand in the future, in of temperature sensitive materials could reduce
particular in developing economies. Thermal energy transportation fuel demand for refrigerated trucks.
storage can provide the means to temporally shift However, most technology options currently require
this increasing cooling demand, reducing the further research, development and deployment
stress on the energy system. In the short term, efforts before widespread commercial deployment
ice storage systems represent a viable technology can be achieved.
option for distributed thermal energy storage in
many markets. Commercial refrigeration systems In the long term, the energy density potential
may also provide significant demand response for thermochemical energy storage systems
services. The deployment of these technologies makes them an appealing option. However, it is
could be aided through transparent documentation still unclear what role they could play for low-
and communication of current system cost and temperature applications. This role should be
performance information, as well as the sharing of analysed in the short term and then expanded.
best practices for installation and operation.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Improve the thermal and economic efficiency, and reliability of UTES systems at 2014-20
medium temperatures, including pit heat storage systems.
Retrofit current electric water heaters and/or heat pumps – in particular in high 2014-25
concentration urban areas – to allow them to provide thermal energy storage demand
response services, e.g. peak reduction and flexibility.
Enhance the performance of sensible heat storage technologies by reducing heat losses 2014-25
and improving the stability of materials over time and in the presence of a high number
of charging and discharging cycles.
Reduce system costs and improve the performance of PCMs for solar installation 2014-30
temperature regulation (i.e. temperature regulation of PV to improve PV efficiency/
performance).
Focus R&D to improve control technologies for use in advanced storage systems, 2020-35
including thermochemical storage technologies for medium temperature applications.
Heating demand in buildings is a major peak For large-scale thermal storage systems, UTES
energy driver in regions with a high number of technologies benefit from naturally occurring cold
heating degree days (IEA, 2011). In addition to and hot temperature resources. Today’s systems,
cataloguing waste heat resources and potential however, struggle with system efficiency and
applications, this roadmap recommends several reliability at elevated temperatures. While some
technology-specific actions related to these types of this inefficiency is due to the thermodynamic
of medium temperature applications. In the short constraints (i.e. the smaller temperature gradient
term, in addition to quantifying the energy storage over which the system might be operating), other
potential in existing infrastructure, this roadmap inefficiencies lie in reliability decreases in the UTES
recommends the rapid retrofit of current electric system, which can be addressed.
water heaters with water storage tanks to allow for
their effective use in demand management (e.g. In the longer term, thermochemical energy
through timers and remote control). This action storage – with its high energy densities – should be
is likely to be most beneficial in urban areas that developed for medium temperature applications.
already have high concentrations of these systems. Some demonstration projects have already been
completed in Germany and other countries, but
The inclusion of PCMs for heat collection in solar development is still needed in these systems’
installations could have the two-fold benefit control technologies (IEA ECES, 2011).
of improving PV system efficiencies while also
collecting usable energy for local storage and
use. Key considerations for this and other building
applications include storage density, containment
vessel and system component designs and
performance.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Improve system concepts and operational characteristics of UTES systems in different 2014-25
geological conditions.
Develop molten salts (or similar thermal energy storage materials) with lower melting 2014-30
temperatures, while maintaining their stability at higher temperatures for CSP applications
to improve system efficiency.
Focus R&D to improve the material stability and associated control technology of 2014-30
thermochemical storage systems for high-temperature applications (e.g. develop new
containment vessels that perform well under significant temperature changes with peak
temperatures exceeding 250°C).
Improve the containment vessels and associated equipment used in PCM storage systems. 2014-35
Identify the potential environmental impacts of high-temperature UTES systems (e.g. 2020-30
impacts on geology, water quality) and ways to mitigate these impacts.
In thermal energy storage, one prominent The high long-term potential for thermochemical
opportunity lies in improving the storage materials energy storage to provide high-density, low-
used in CSP applications. Today’s molten salt cost, and high-cycle energy storage makes it an
mixtures remain stable at temperatures above attractive area for R&D. Currently, major challenges
400°C, providing an advantage compared to to thermochemical storage systems include
oils used for similar applications. However, these material stability and containment, as well as the
mixtures typically solidify at temperatures below development of effective control technology. Once
the 200°C to 250 °C range, resulting in significant these issues are resolved, it will be easier to identify
energy requirements during the night-time to the ideal applications for these technologies;
prevent damage from solidification when heat is not over the next decade, emphasis should be placed
being collected. If these salts are allowed to solidify, on materials research. Subsequently, emphasis
serious mechanical problems will result. Therefore, should shift to rapidly applying these designs in
preventing solidification at temperatures below demonstration projects (IEA ECES, 2011).
200°C represents a prime efficiency opportunity
and could significantly reduce the costs of thermal Advances in geothermal R&D activities could lead
storage in CSP facilities. to improvements in system concepts and operation
of UTES to overcome hydrogeological constraints
and to prevent scaling and corrosion at high
temperatures (EC, 2013).
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Germany Federal Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation, and Direct subsidy for
Nuclear Safety distributed storage
zz S
ubsidy for small-scale energy storage projects to encourage
distributed energy storage deployment to complement high
small-scale PV penetration (2013).
Department of Energy
zz Global Energy Storage Database.
In supporting energy storage, this roadmap In addition to high-level policies that support
recommends that policies avoid a primary focus low-carbon transitions, policies should allow for
on targeted storage technology mandates. Within the compensation of services provided by energy
these policies, regional dynamics such as variable storage technologies throughout the energy
renewable energy and waste heat resource system. This should include the identification and
availability, policy and social development goals, elimination of price distortions in energy markets
and energy demand profiles should be taken into that create an artificial negative cost impact on
consideration, including the current energy system energy storage technologies. It is recommended
technology profile and resources. that compensation be given directly for individual
services, which is already the case in some markets.
The ability of storage deployment to be purely
market-driven is greatly inhibited by a lack of price Furthermore, policies should also enable benefits-
transparency, high upfront investment costs (at stacking by energy storage operators, which has
times), and significant price distortions in energy been shown in multiple studies to significantly
markets. Some potential mechanisms for addressing improve the business case for energy storage
this problem include real-time pricing, pricing projects (ESA, 2011 and BNEF, 2013). These
by service, and taxation being applied to final studies could be recognised in markets and also
products (versus on supply of energy into storage in business cases, based on the documented cost
units). Furthermore, governments should support and benefit value that can be presented to utility
the inclusion of energy storage technologies as regulators. For example, in the United Kingdom
tools for supplying energy and power services in the annual cost of storage systems is expected to
environments that are less market-driven, and fund be lower than the total benefit of the short-term
R&D programmes to develop these technologies for and fast reserve services they supply (BNEF, 2013).
their region’s specific needs.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Eliminate price distortions and increase price transparency for power generation and 2020
heat production, e.g. time-of-use pricing schemes, pay-for-services (heating, cooling,
quick response, etc.) models.
Government support of energy storage use in off-grid and remote communities. 2025
Support of the rapid retrofit of existing energy storage facilities to increase efficiency 2030
and flexibility, where these retrofits appear warranted.
Inclusion of energy storage technologies as options for supplying energy and power 2030
services, and support for their continued development through government-funded
R&D programmes.
These studies can also be used for the benefit of should support the inventorying and utilisation of
systems that are less market-driven, quantitatively existing – primarily thermal – distributed storage
justifying policies allowing for the addition of capacity. A common drawback of these systems is
energy storage technologies. the currently limited feedback to users regarding
the system’s performance. Improved statistics and
Recent action in the United States, under FERC efficiency labelling schemes for energy storage
Orders 755 and 784, provide evidence of how access could increase storage deployment and use. For
to ancillary service markets can positively influence example, in the use of residential hot water heaters
storage project proposal economics. However, it is and commercial refrigeration centres for demand
yet to be seen if these efforts will be sufficient to response, better matching of supply and demand
support the entire suite of electricity and thermal curves could result in significant efficiency (and
storage technologies currently available to provide carbon emissions reduction) gains.
energy system support services.
In the longer term, policies should be geared
In the shorter term, policies should encourage toward incentivising storage technologies based
energy storage deployment in off-grid and on the applications they are used for in the energy
remote communities where energy storage system. The development of breakthrough energy
technologies are already broadly competitive storage technologies should also be supported
or near-competitive. In these cases, third- by policies that endorse financing of innovative
party verification of energy storage project research, development, and demonstration projects.
performance could become prime case studies While specific technology actions were previously
for later implementation in other geographies. discussed, it is noted here that governments can
Furthermore, off-grid areas in developing play a key role in the collection and dissemination of
economies provide an additional opportunity for lessons learned from demonstration projects. These
energy storage demonstration projects and case efforts may expand upon those already initiated by
study development. These locations also introduce other government organisations.22
the opportunity for incremental gains through
increased production values.
Facilitate entry into, and exit from, energy markets from the supply through demand 2015
portions of the energy system: e.g. through ancillary service markets and tariff
structures to support distributed energy storage systems.
Clarify energy storage’s role in the energy system, e.g. through defining ownership 2018
structures and ownership eligibility.
Streamline the financing process for new large-scale storage systems, with clear 2018
guidelines on documentation requirements.
Incentivise the co-financing of distributed electricity generation technologies with 2020
integrated storage after assessing the risks and benefits of this approach.
Targeted support for energy storage demonstration projects and financial support of 2025
early movers for new commercial-scale projects (e.g. through risk guarantee schemes).
While policy and regulatory reform can create a services in the market. This ease will allow for
more attractive environment for energy storage new technologies to progress more rapidly across
investments, further action is needed to incentivise development “valleys of death” – to move from the
widespread investment. Efforts should especially be lab bench to commercial markets. On the demand
made to clarify ownership structures in ways that side of the energy system, the adoption of tariff
enable energy storage technologies to be used for a structures or programmes capable of revealing
wide array of applications over time. the value of particular services might help support
distributed energy storage systems (e.g. in homes
Furthermore, both large- and small-scale storage and office buildings) and help catalyse customer
systems would benefit from more transparent adoption and use of these technologies.
means for securing financing. For large-scale
projects, the process of securing financing Another key component in moving suitable
should be streamlined, with requirements for technologies more quickly from laboratory to
the information needed to successfully support widespread commercial deployment lies in targeted
financing attempts. For small-scale (distributed) financial support in demonstration projects, as
storage resources, there would be many benefits well as risk guarantee schemes (in particular for
from co-financing opportunities for new generation large-scale storage projects). By supporting key
resources with integrated storage (e.g. residential demonstration projects, governments can not only
PV systems with onsite battery storage, or wall help move technologies along the development
heaters with thermal storage). path but also gain useful data and knowledge of
best practices that can be applied in widespread
Easy entry into, and exit from, energy markets is deployment efforts.
also a key to incentivising investment, allowing
new companies to supply energy and power
2020 (existing),
Develop a widely accessible clearinghouse for energy storage project information and
ongoing to 2050
other data needed to support project proposal evaluations.
(new projects)
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Streamline the siting and permitting process for new centralised energy storage 2025
projects, in particular for UTES systems.
Develop improved workforce training programmes with customised course content 2018
pertaining to energy storage technologies.
Further develop international standards and testing programmes to document safety 2018
and performance of energy storage technologies.
Develop and implement programmes to increase the utilisation of distributed demand- 2020
side energy storage capacity (i.e. residential water heaters with timers and remote
control capabilities to shift demand from peak to off-peak periods).
Some energy storage technologies are covered by storage technologies with high levels of deployment
recognised international standards, which simplify potential, any safety risks that are identified in these
system procurement, installation and operation. testing procedures should lead directly to targeted
Other technologies (e.g. batteries) may be subject R&D efforts.
to inappropriate standards, because the standard-
making process has not kept up with the rate of For distributed demand-side energy storage capacity
technical development. For technologies that are in existing infrastructure (e.g. residential hot water
on the brink of commercial viability, this roadmap heaters), experiences in France (among other
recommends widespread support through the countries) have shown how consumer awareness
development of standards and operation protocols, 23 programmes can significantly improve adoption
workforce training programmes, performance rates. Combined with the previous recommendation
and safety testing, and consumer awareness to eliminate energy market price distortions,
programmes. Combined, these actions will help consumer awareness campaigns will help increase
to overcome NIMBYism and other consumer utilisation factors for these storage assets.
acceptance hurdles. These international standards
should be established in a manner that allows for
easy updating with technology advancements.
Designate innovation “free” zones to facilitate the testing of storage technologies in the 2020
absence of complex markets and policy structures.
In a global transition to a decarbonised energy analysis for new storage technology proposals,
system, many opportunities exist for international and if continually updated over time, opportunities
collaboration. Countries and regions with for research and future development will present
significant experience evaluating energy storage themselves. The US Department of Energy has
technologies can provide guidance for new market made significant progress in establishing such
participants. Developing economies could provide a database with their “Global Energy Storage
opportunities for the development of innovation Database” website, but more input from other
“free” zones (i.e. “free” of non-technical barriers), countries is needed.
where new technologies may be tested in the
absence of distorting policies and other energy In addition, several multilateral initiatives have
system complexities. However, market exposure is emerged in recent years to facilitate collaboration
highly needed for energy storage technologies to on storage technology, including the ECES IA. In
achieve widespread deployment. Demonstration the European Union, the EASE and the European
projects should therefore not be limited to these Technology Platform on Renewable Heating and
“free” zones, as described in the previous section. Cooling are examples of collaborative initiatives
that are striving to encourage accelerated energy
Perhaps most significant is the opportunity for storage technology development and deployment.
knowledge sharing through the development of
an international energy storage project database
and production databases for energy supply and
demand curves. This type of collaborative effort
would greatly enhance technical and market
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Governments zz C
reate an accessible global dataset of energy storage technology project
overviews, including information on system specifications, cost and
performance. Establish international and national data co-operation to foster
energy storage research, monitor progress, and assess the R&D bottlenecks.
zz C
ompile a comprehensive dataset of renewable generation production
behaviour with high levels of granularity to allow for assessment across a wide
range of energy storage technology applications through the year.
zz S
upport materials research and efficiency gains via mass production for
battery systems to improve energy density and reduce costs.
zz D
evelop improved workforce training programmes with customised course
content pertaining to energy storage technologies.
zz Streamline the siting and permitting process for new energy storage projects.
zz Implement testing programmes to document the safety and performance of
energy storage technologies, based on published standards and protocols.
zz E liminate price distortions and increase price transparency for power
generation and heat production, including time-of-use pricing and pay-for-
services models.
Industry zz Q
uantify waste heat availability and opportunities, including details on waste
heat quantity, quality and location for both resources and potential demand.
zz Quantify distributed energy storage potential in existing infrastructure.
zz A
ssess global energy storage potential by region for capital-intensive projects,
including PSH, CAES and UTES.
zz D
ocument and more effectively communicate the cost and performance of ice
storage systems for cooling applications and best practices for installation and
operation.
zz Improve battery assembly design to improve system reliability and
performance.
zz D
emonstrate energy storage system performance in the context of multiple
applications and share results with stakeholder community.
zz Improve operation management of battery systems, both centralised and
distributed.
zz Retrofit existing energy storage facilities to increase efficiency and flexibility.
zz E xplore new business models to overcome the barrier of high upfront costs of
innovative and efficient energy storage solutions.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Financial institutions zz S
treamline the financing process for new large-scale storage systems, with
clear guidelines on documentation requirements.
zz Incentivise the co-financing of distributed electricity generation technologies
with integrated storage after assessing the risks and benefits of this approach.
zz W
ork with standard–setting organisations and governments to develop
performance-based labelling of energy storage.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
Annexes 55
Acronyms, abbreviations and units of measure
Acronyms and abbreviations Units of measure
2DS 2°C Scenario in Energy Technology °C degree Celsius
Perspectives 2014 GW gigawatt
ATES aquifer thermal energy storage GWel gigawatt electrical capacity
BTES borehole thermal energy storage GWh gigawatt hour (10 9 watt hour)
CAES compressed air energy storage kcal kilocalories (103 calories)
CCS carbon capture and storage kg kilogramme (103 grammes)
CHP combined heat and power kV kilovolt
CO2 carbon dioxide kWel kilowatt electrical capacity
CSP concentrating solar power kWh kilowatt hour (103 watt hour)
EASE European Association for Storage of Energy m3 cubic metre
ETP 2014 Energy Technology Perspectives 2014 MWh megawatt hour (106 watt hour)
FERC US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission MW megawatt (106 watt)
GHG greenhouse gas s second
KEPCO Korea Electric Power Corporation TWh terawatt-hour
Li-ion lithium-ion
NaS sodium-sulphur
NDRD National Development
and Reform Commission
NIMBY not in my backyard
PCM phase-change material
PJM Pennsylvania-New Jersey-Maryland
Interconnection
PSH pumped-storage hydropower
PUCT Public Utility Commission of Texas
PV photovoltaic
R&D research and development
RD&D research, development and demonstration
REE rare earth elements
RTO regional transmission organisation
SGERI State Grid Energy Research Institute
SMES superconducting magnetic energy storage
TES thermal energy storage
UHV ultra high voltage
UTES underground thermal energy storage
© OECD/IEA, 2014
BMWI (Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and ETT (Electricity Transmission Texas) (2013), “Electric
Energy) (2013), “Gesamtausgabe der Energiedaten transmission Texas brings largest utility-scale
- Datensammlung des BMWi”, Sheet 22, (database) battery in the United States to one of oldest cities in
August 20 update, Berlin, Germany, Texas”, PR Newswire, 8 April, New York.
www.bmwi.de/BMWi/Redaktion/Binaer/energie-
EIA (Energy Information Administration) (2013),
daten-gesamt,property=blob,bereich=bmwi2012,
Annual Energy Outlook, Washington, DC
sprache=de,rwb=true.xls.
Enerdata (2011), Odyssee, the Europe Energy
BNEF (Bloomberg New Energy Finance) (2013),
Efficiency Project, (database), Grenoble, France,
“Views on the Role of Energy Storage” presented
http://enerdata.net/enerdatauk/solutions/data-
at the IEA (International Energy Agency) Energy
management/odyssee.php.
Storage Technology Roadmap Stakeholder
Engagement Workshop, Paris, France, 13 February. ERCOT (Electric Reliability Council of Texas) (2008),
ERCOT Board of Directors Meeting, 15 July, Taylor, TX,
Decourt, B. and R. Debarre (2013), “Electricity
United States.
storage”, Factbook, Schlumberger Business
Consulting Energy Institute, Paris, France. ESA (Electricity Storage Association) (2011),
“Energy storage benefits: benefits stacking”, ESA,
Denholm, P. (2013), personal communication,
Washington, DC, United States,
25 September.
www.electricitystorage.org/technology/energy_
Droste-Franke, B. (2013), “Future storage and storage_benefits/benefits_stacking.
balancing demand: ranges, significance and potential
Eurelectric (2009), “Statistics and prospects for the
improvements of estimations”, presented at the 8th
European electricity sector (1980-2000, 2004, 2005,
International Renewable Energy Storage Conference
2006, 2010-2030)”, EURPROG 2008, Eurelectric,
and Exhibition (IRES 2013), Berlin, 18 November.
Brussels, Belgium.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
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References 59
This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status
of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers
and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
Front cover photo (large): Thermal storage tanks at Naval Submarine Base Kinds Bay:
waste treatment center, by Quentin Bowen, © Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC), used under a Creative Commons Attribution-
NoDerivs 2.0 Generic License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/2.0/legalcode
Front cover photo (small): © ZenSchui
Back cover photo (large): San Luis Reservoir, pumped storage hydropower facility, © Jitze, used under a Creative Commons Attribution-
© OECD/IEA, 2014
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