Introduction to Computer Concepts

Dr.A.Rajagopal
Former Professor and HOD,
SBS, Sharda University, Greater Noida
Table of Contents:

1.0 Introduction to computers

1.1 Input, Processing, and Output
1.2 Computing System
1.2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
1.2.2 Computer Memory
1.2.2.1 Primary Memory
1.2.2.2 Secondary Memory
1.2.3 Input / Output Devices
1.2.3.1 Input Devices
1.3 Types of computers
1.3.1 Computers by working principle
1.3.2 Computer by Data Handling and Size
1.3.3 Computer classification by purpose / application
1.3.4 Workstations
1.3.5 Main characteristics of a computer

2.0 Information processing cycle and operating system

2.1 Information Processing Cycle
2.2 Operating system (OS)
2.3 Graphical user interface (GUI)
2.4 Command line Interface (CLI)
2.5 Modes of operation of computers
2.5.1 Single-user, single tasking
2.5.2 Single-user, multi-tasking
2.5.3 Multi user operating System

3.0 System Software and Application Software

3.1 Computer Software
3.2 System Software
3.2.1 Operating System
3.2.2 Network Operating System
3.2.3 Utilities
3.3 Application software
3.3.1 Word processing software
3.3.2 Database software
3.3.3 Spread sheet software
3.3.4 Presentation software
3.3.5 Multimedia software
3.4 Open source software

4.0 Computer Networks

4.1 Networks classification by geographical area covered
4.1.1 Local Area Network (LAN)
4.1.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
4.1.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)
4.2 Classifying Networks by Component Roles
4.2.1 Peer-to-Peer Networks
4.2.2 Server-based Networks
4.3 Network Cabling
4.3.1 Twisted-pair cables
4.3.2 Coaxial cables
4.3.3 Fibre optic cables
4.4 Microwave Communication
4.4.1 Terrestrial Microwave Link
4.4.2 Satellite Communication
4.5 Mobile Wireless Communication
4.5.1 Cellular Mobile technology

5.0 Word Processing with MS Word

5.1 Making tables in word document
5.2 Formatting in word
5.3 Finding the text
5.4 Editing the Text
5.5 Opening another document file

6.0 Microsoft Excel

6.1 Inserting Formula into a cell in worksheet
6.2 Graphical representation of data
6.3 Advanced formatting of the cell text in the worksheet
6.4 Filter by selection
6.5 Statistical formula insertion in excel worksheet
Chapter 01: Introduction to computes

Computer is advanced electronic equipment / machine which takes raw data as input from the
user(s), process the data as per a set of instructions called program, and provide the results as
output. In simple terms, computer could be considered as advanced programmable electronic
equipment. The computer not only produces results by processing data but also enables
saving the output results for future use. Computers are capable of carrying out arithmetic /
numerical as well as logical operations on a set of data.

Computers cannot run on its own, it requires a set of instructions called a program. The first
digital computer was developed by John Mauchly and Presper Eckert in 1946 at University of
Pennsylvania's and it was called ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer).
The advancement in the computing technology has been happening since then till date. The
computers of today are far more powerful than the computers of erstwhile years in terms of
their computing capabilities.

1.1 Input, Processing, and Output

Any computer in general carries out four functions and they are:
a. accept data --- Input
b. process data --- Processing
c. provide output/results --- Output
d. store output/results --- Storage

Input Data: Input is a set raw data entered into a computer through the input devices. Data
could comprise of numbers, alphabets, other character symbols, and images.

Process: Process is the execution of instructions or command lines called program on the
input data. Essentially the computer carries out numeric and logical operations on the input
data and produces output results / information.

Output: Output is the processed data / information or results provided by computer after data
processing. The output information or results could be saved for future use.

1.2 Computing System

The computing system comprises of hardware, software, and user, as shown in figure 1.1. All
physical parts of the computer or everything that we can touch and feel are known as
hardware. Software is a set of instructions / command lines and it is called program. Software
gives operational capability to the computer.

Computing System = Hardware + Software + User

Hardware = Internal Devices + Peripheral Devices.

 Figure 1.1 computing system

We should understand that computer on its own does not have any intelligence like human or
even other animals. The program, also called as codes, provide the capability to the computer
to process the data and provide useful information to the user. User is the person who
operates the computer.

Figure 1.2 Computer with peripherals

A computer system, as shown in figure 1.2, consists of mainly four basic units: input unit,
storage unit, central processing unit, and output unit. Central Processing unit includes Control
Unit, Arithmetic and logic Unit (ALU) and Memory Unit, as shown in figure 1.3.

The main functional units of a computer which are input unit, processing unit, output unit,
and storage unit have been explained below briefly.

a. Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer system by
the user. Input consists of raw data entered into a computer through the input devices and the
input is the collection of letters, numbers, images etc. The various input devices are:
keyboard, mouse, touchpad, touch screen, camera, webcam, barcode scanner, optic scanner,
MICR reader, joystick, etc.
Figure 1.3 Computer organization

b. Processing unit: Processing unit is responsible for making calculations or processing the
data and producing output or results. The calculations that the computer does, as mentioned
earlier, could be numeric as well as logical. The computer mainly comprises of the central
processing unit (CPU), memory devices, and I/O devices, and the bus which connects these
devices. The memory unit comprises of Read Only Memory (ROM), Random Access
Memory (RAM), as well as secondary memory devices like HDD (Hard Disk Drive), and in
the case of desktop and laptop computers it could include CD and DVD drives as well. The
I/O devices act as interface to the input unit and the output unit. The bus connects the various
devices inside the processing unit. Bus is a high speed cabling that is used for interconnecting
all the devices inside the processing unit.

c. Output Unit: The output unit provides the results or information to the user after
processing. The output is generally stored in secondary storage medium like HDD for future
use and could also be taken as a print out through the printer. The various output devices are
discussed in a later section.

1.2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit (memory
unit) and performs calculations as per the instructions or the program. The output is sent back
to the storage unit.

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is a microprocessor chip, located on the motherboard,
which performs mathematical calculations and logic functions. The CPU is often referred to
as the brain of the computer because it administers and controls the functions of the other
components in the computer. CPU includes Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and control unit
(CU) and the memory unit (MU).

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): All calculations and comparisons, based on the instructions
provided in the program are carried out within the ALU. The ALU performs arithmetic
functions like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and also logical operations like
greater than, less than and equal to etc.
Control Unit: The controlling functions of all operations like input, processing and output are
performed by control unit. The control unit takes care of the step by step processing of all
operations inside the computer.

1.2.2 Computer Memory

1.2.2.1 Primary Memory

Computer memory comprises of storage of data and processed information. The memory
storage available could be either temporary memory used for processing the data or
permanent memory used for storing data and information for future use. Computer’s memory
can be classified into two types and they are: primary memory and secondary memory. The
primary memory can be further classified as RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM
(Read Only Memory). The overall computer architecture clearly showing the various memory
types in a computer is shown in figure 1.7.

Random Access Memory (RAM): is the place in a computer where the operating system,
application programs and the data in current use are kept temporarily so that they can be
accessed by the computer’s processor quickly. It is said to be ‘volatile’ since its contents are
accessible only as long as the computer is on. The contents of RAM are no more available
once the computer is turned off. RAM is volatile memory and its storage capacity is limited.

Figure 1.4 Random Access Memory

A computer with more random access memory (RAM) will be capable of storing more data
and programs that are currently running in computer. If your computer runs out of memory,
the computer must swap unused data stored in memory to your hard disk drive until it is
needed again. The addition of this extra step and because the hard disk drive is the slowest
type of memory your computer can become much slower if it does not have enough memory.

Read Only Memory (ROM): is a special type of memory which can only be read and contents
of which are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It typically contains the most
essential manufacturer’s instructions for the computer. Among other things, ROM also stores
an initial program called the ‘bootstrap loader’ whose function is to start the operation of
computer system once the power is turned on. BIOS (basic input/output system) is also stored
in the ROM.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): is a computer memory chip that can be
programmed once, after it has been created. Once the PROM has been programmed, the
information written is permanent and cannot be erased or deleted. PROM was first developed
by Wen Tsing Chow in 1956 and a good example of a PROM is a computer BIOS in early
computers. PROM is also referred to as a FPROM (Field Programmable Read Only Memory)
or OTP (one-time programmable) chip. The figure 1.5 (b) shows a programmable read-only
memory (PROM). When the PROM is created it ships with all bits reading as "1" and during
the programming any bit that needs to be changed to a 0 is etched or burned into the chip
using a device known as a gang programmer. The figure 1.5 (a) shows a gang programmer
from Advin that programs multiple ROM chips at one time. Currently, the PROM in
computers has been replaced by EPROM. If a PROM has been programmed and has an error
or needs to be updated the chip is discarded, and a new PROM is created and replaces the old
chip. A variation of the PROM is an EPROM, which is a PROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed without being replaced.

Figure 1.5(a) Advin Gang Programmer Figure 1.5(b) PROM

Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM):

EPROM is a non-volatile memory chip that was invented by Dov Frohman in 1971 while at
Intel that can only be read. If exposed to ultraviolet light an EPROM can be reprogrammed if
needed, but otherwise does not accept or save any new data on to it. Hardware manufacturers
use EPROM when it may be needed that the data contained on the EPROM needs to be
changed. An EPROM chip is distinguishable by a small quartz crystal (not glass) circle
window that exposes the chip so that it can be reprogrammed. In Figure 1.6 shown below is
Intel 8048 made by NEC and is an example of an EPROM chip.

Figure 1.6 EPROM Figure 1.7 Computer Architecture

Cache:
Although today's computers can execute billions of instructions every second, the processor
is usually waiting for those instructions from the slower types of memory in the computer.
Because RAM and the hard drive are slower than the CPU, computer processors and
motherboards use cache to transfer data between the processor, memory, and components in
the computer. Cache is the fastest type of memory and a computer with more L2 cache or L3
cache is capable of storing more instructions and sends the instructions to the processor more
efficiently.

Level 1 (L1) Cache: is a memory bank built into the computer processor or CPU. L1 cache is
the fastest memory in the computer and is closest to the processor. It is also known as
primary cache memory.

Level 2 (L2) Cache: is a cache memory on a separate chip or possibly an expansion card that
could be accessed more quickly than the computer main memory (DRAM).

Front side bus speed:

The bus speed of the motherboard can increase or decrease the speed at which data is being
transferred between the various hardware components in the computer. For example, a Front
Side Bus (FSB) of 66 MHz is going to be much slower than a 400 MHz FSB. If the computer
has a slow bus, the processor has to wait longer for the instructions, which makes the
computer run slower.

1.2.2.2 Secondary Memory

Secondary / auxiliary memory is storage other than the RAM. These include devices that are
peripheral and are connected to and controlled by the computer to enable permanent storage
of programs and data. Secondary storage devices are of two types; magnetic and optical.
Magnetic devices include hard disks and optical storage devices are CDs, DVDs.
There is also a third category of storage devices called solid state drives (SSD) in which there
are no moving parts.

Hard Disk:
Hard disks are made up of rigid material and are usually a stack of metal disks sealed in a
box. The hard disk and the hard disk drive exist together as a unit and is a permanent part of
the computer where data and programs are saved. These disks have storage capacities ranging
from 1GB to 80 GB or more. Hard disks are rewritable and figure 1.8 clearly shows a HDD.

Figure 1.8 Hard Disk Drive (HDD) Figure 1.9 Solid State Drive
There are several components of a hard disk drive that can make it slower or faster, which
consequently makes your computer run slower or faster. For example, a hard drive can cause
a computer to be slower because of the moving parts inside the hard disk drive, which results
in slower read and write times from and to the hard drive. The RPM of the HDD is how fast
the platters inside the hard drive spin. A 5400 RPM hard drive will be much slower than a
7200 RPM drive. The rpm (revolutions per minute) of the hard disk drive is an indicator of its
performance.

Solid State Drive (SSD):

However, a technologically newer and faster solid state drive (SSD) has no moving parts.
This results in faster reading from and faster writing to the hard drive. A SSD drive, shown in
figure 1.9, has no movable parts, which makes it much faster than a traditional HDD.

Compact Disk (CD) Drive: is portable disk having data storage capacity between 650-700
MB. It can hold large amount of information such as music, full-motion videos, and text etc.
CDs can be either read only or read write type. An image of a ‘read write’ compact disc drive
is shown in figure 1.10.

Digital Video Disk (DVD) Drive: is similar to a CD but has larger storage capacity and offers
enormous clarity. Depending upon the disk type it can store several Gigabytes of data. DVDs
are primarily used to store music or movies and can be played back on your television or the
computer too. The DVDs are not rewritable and figure 1.11 shows a DVD drive.

Figure 1.10 Compact Disk Drive Figure 1.11 Digital Video Disk Drive

Magnetic tape drives:

The tapes are usually stored on cartridges or cassettes, but for drives that are used as data
storage tape backups, the tape is often wound on reels. Magnetic tape is not the most dense
data storage medium, but as of 2010 the record for the largest data capacity in magnetic tape
was 29.5GB per square inch and the Linear Tape-Open (LTO) supported continuous data
transfer rates up to 140 MB/s, which was comparable to most hard disks drives. The storage
capacity of magnetic tapes is pretty high and each of the LTO Ultrium 8 tape cartridge can
hold 12.8 TB (terabytes) of uncompressed data.
Figure 1.12 (a) Magnetic tape drive Figure 1.12 (b) Magnetic tape cartridge

Pen Drive:
A pen drive, or a USB flash drive, is a portable data-storage device. Pen drives have replaced
the floppy drives of old times and have become the most popular data-storage devices among
consumers.

Figure 1.13 Pen drive

Micro, lightweight and handy, a pen drive can be easily carried from place to place by
students, professionals, academicians and independent tech consultants. Currently available
pen drives with storage capacities ranging from 8GB and 128GB can be used to store
graphics-heavy documents, photos, music files and video clips.

1.2.3 Input / Output Devices

These devices are used to enter information and instructions into a computer for storage or
processing and to deliver the processed data to a user. Input / Output devices are required for
users to communicate with the computer. In simple terms, input devices bring information
INTO the computer and output devices bring information OUT of a computer system. These
input/output devices are also known as peripherals since they surround the CPU and memory
of a computer system.

1.2.3.1 Input Devices

An input device is any device that provides input to a computer. There are many input
devices, but the two most common ones are a keyboard and mouse. Every key you press on
the keyboard and every movement or click you make with the mouse sends a specific input
signal to the computer.
Figure 1.14 Key board Figure 1.15 Mouse

Keyboard: The keyboard is very much like a standard typewriter keyboard with a few
additional keys. The basic QWERTY layout of characters is maintained to make it easy to use
the system. The additional keys are included to perform certain special functions. These are
known as function keys that vary in number from keyboard to keyboard.

Mouse: A device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen. A
mouse is a small object you can roll along a hard and flat surface. Its name has been derived
from its shape, which looks a bit like a mouse. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the
display screen moves in the same direction. Mouse is input device which facilitates all the
operations that we do on our computer. Some users may find it difficult to work with the
computer without the mouse.

Trackball: A trackball is an input device used to enter motion data into computers or other
electronic devices. It serves the same purpose as a mouse, but is designed with a moveable
ball on the top, which can be rolled in any direction. The trackball consists of a ball held in a
socket containing sensors to detect the rotation of the ball with respect to two axes, and the
trackball is pictorially shown in Figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16 Trackball Figure 1.17 Touchpad

Touchpad: A touch pad is a device for pointing (controlling input positioning) on a computer
display screen. It is an alternative to the mouse. Originally incorporated in laptop computers,
touch pads are also being made for use with desktop computers. A touch pad works by
sensing the user’s finger movement and downward pressure. Products like Logitech K400
Plus Wireless Keyboard provides touchpad also as an additional feature.
Figure 1.18(a) Touch Screen Figure 1.18(b) Light Pen

Touch Screen: It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the display
screen. A display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus. Widely used on
ATM machines, retail point-of-sale terminals, car navigation systems, medical monitors and
industrial control panels. Touch screen is shown in Figure 1.18(a) for demonstration.

Light Pen: Light pen is an input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects
on a display screen. The Figure 1.18(b) shows how the light pen is used for working in a
tablet PC.

Figure 1.19(a) MICR Cheque Figure 1.19(b) MICR Scanner

Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR): MICR can identify character printed with a
special ink that contains particles of magnetic material. This device particularly finds
applications in banking industry. The Figure 1.19(a) and 1.19(b) depicts magnetic ink
character coding in a bank cheque leaf and MICR scanner respectively.

Optical mark recognition (OMR): Optical mark recognition, also called mark sense reader is
a technology where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil
mark. OMR is widely used in tests such as aptitude test. The Figure 1.20 shows how optical
mark recognition is done in a optical mark reader.
Figure 1.20 Optical Mark Reader

Bar code reader: Bar-code readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or
vertical zebra strip marks, printed on product containers. These devices are generally used in
super markets, bookshops etc. The Figure 1.21 shows barcode scanner pictorially.

Scanner: Scanner is an input device that can read text or illustration printed on paper and
translates the information into a form that the computer can use. A scanner works by
digitizing an image. The optical scanner is shown in Figure 1.22 for better understanding

Figure 1.21 Barcode reader Figure 1.22 Scanner

1.2.3.2 Output Devices:

Output device receives information from the CPU and presents it to the user in the desired
from. The processed data, stored in the memory of the computer is sent to the output unit,
which then converts it into a form that can be understood by the user. The output is usually
produced in one of the two ways – on the display device, or on paper (hard copy).

Monitor: is often used synonymously with “computer screen” or “display.” Monitor is an

output device that resembles the television screen (fig. 1.8). It may use a Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT) to display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual input of
characters and displays the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program or
application output. Like the television, monitors are also available in different sizes.
Nowadays, desktop computers come with LED screen, as shown in Figure 1.23.
Printer: Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on
the technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.

Figure 1.23 Computer Monitor Figure 1.24 Computer Printer

Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper
through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under this
category.

Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical, heat or
electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, DeskJet, Laser, Thermal printers fall
under this category of printers. The Figure 1.24 shows a typical computer printer.

Plotter: Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer commands
and makes line drawings on paper using multicolored automated pens. It is capable of
producing graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc. The Figure 1.25 shows a computer plotter in
action.

Figure 1.25 Computer Plotter

Sound cards and Speaker(s): An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and
output sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become
commonplace on modern personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer to output
sound through speakers connected to the board, to record sound input from a microphone
connected to the computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk.
1.3 Types of computers

The computers can be classified based on the following:

1. Working principle
2. Data handling and size
3. Purpose / Application

1.3.1 Computers by working principle

In terms of working principle the computers could be grouped under three categories: analog
computer, digital computer, and hybrid computer.

Figure 1.26 Analog computer

Analog computer:
An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses
continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to
model the problem being solved. The Figure 1.26 shows an analog computer for
demonstration.

Figure 1.27 Digital computer

Digital computer:
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as
digits, usually in the binary number system. The digital desktop computers of today are far
more powerful than the large mainframe computers of erstwhile years. The Figure 1.27
shows a digital desktop computer.

Hybrid computer (Analog + Digital):

A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and
analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performing
complex simulations. Further, hybrid computing finds widespread applications in medical
treatment, monitoring and control of large process plants. The Figure 1.28 shows a hybrid
computing system used in medical treatment application.

Figure 1.28 Hybrid computer

1.3.2 Computer by Data Handling and Size

Super computer:
Super computers work at extremely high speeds making them suitable for highly complex
computing requirements like satellite launching and weather forecasting. Supercomputers are
very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts
of mathematical calculations. For example, as mentioned earlier, weather forecasting requires
a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration. The Figure 1.29 depicts a
super computer made by IBM.

The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer

channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe
uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.
Figure 1.29 Super computer

Mainframe computer:
Mainframe computers are very large expensive computers capable of supporting hundreds or
even thousands of users simultaneously. The mainframe computers are just next lower in the
hierarchy of classification of computers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than
supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can
execute a single program faster than a mainframe. In general, mainframe computers are
meant to take care of the computational requirements at the organizational level. The Figure
1.30 depicts a mainframe computer.

Figure 1.30 Mainframe computer

Mini Computer
Mini computers are mid-sized computers in size and capability between desktop computers
and mainframe computers or server computers. But in general, a minicomputer is a
multiprocessing system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously. The
Figure 1.31 shows a mini computer for demonstration purposes.
Figure 1.31 Mini computer

Micro Computer:
The category of micro computers comprises of desktop computers, laptop computers,
palmtops, digital diaries, and PDAs.

i. Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.

Nowadays, desktop computers come with enormous computing capability. The Figure 1.32
shows a desktop computer offered by Hewlett Packard.

Figure 1.32 Desktop computer Figure 1.33 Laptop computer

ii. Laptop computer:

Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. It is
generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer. The
Figure 1.33 shows a laptop computer.

iii. Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs:

Palmtop computer:
Palmtop computer is a small computer which can be held in the palm of the user. Palmtops
have no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device. The Figure
1.32(a) shows a palmtop computer.
 Figure 1.34(a) Palmtop computer Figure 1.34(b) Digital Diary

Digital diary:
An electronic organizer (or electric organizer) is a small calculator-sized computer, often
with an in-built diary application but few other functions such as an address book and
calendar. It normally has a small alphanumeric keypad and an LCD screen of one, two or
three lines. The Figure 1.32(b) clearly shows a digital diary.

Personal digital assistant (PDA): PDA is simply a palmtop computer that functions as a
personal organizer but also provides email and Internet access. The Figure 1.32(c) depicts
PDA in pictorial form for reference.

Figure 1.34(c) PDA

1.3.3 Computer classification by purpose / application

Computer Server:
Servers are often dedicated, meaning that they perform no other tasks besides their server
tasks. Different servers do different jobs, from serving email and video to protecting internal
networks and hosting Web sites. The Figure 1.35 shows a computer server offered by IBM.
 Figure 1.35 Computer server

Database server:
Database server is the term used to refer to the back-end system of a database application
using client/server architecture. The back-end, sometimes called a database server, performs
tasks such as data analysis, storage, data manipulation, archiving, and other non-user specific
tasks.

Application Server:
Sometimes referred to as a type of middleware, application servers occupy a large chunk of
computing territory between database servers and the end user, and they often connect the
two.

Network server:
A server is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other (client)
computers over a local network or the internet. Although any computer running special
software can function as a server, the most typical use of the word references the very large,
high-powered machines that function as the pumps pushing and pulling data across the
internet. Most computer networks support one or more servers that handle specialized tasks.

As a rule, the larger the network—in terms of clients that connect to it or the amount of data
that it moves—the more likely it is that several servers play a role, each dedicated to a
specific purpose.

Strictly speaking, the server is the software that handles a task. However, the powerful
hardware that supports this software is also usually called a server because server software
coordinating a network of hundreds or thousands of clients requires hardware much more
robust than what you'd buy for ordinary consumer use.

FTP Server:
It works on one of the oldest of the Internet services, the file transfer protocol. It provides a
secure file transfer between computers while ensuring file security and transfer control.

Mail Server:
It transfers and stores mails over corporate networks through LANs, WANs and across the
Internet.
Proxy Server:
It acts as a mediator between a client program and an external server to filter requests,
improve performance and share connections.

1.3.4 Workstations
Workstation is a terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is
just a generic term for a user's machine (client machine) in contrast to a "server" or
"mainframe". The client nodes or workstations would generally be computers with less
memory and other computing capabilities. The Figure 1.36 shows a computer workstation
along with the user.

Figure 1.36 Computer workstation

1.3.5 Main characteristics of a computer

The main characteristics of computers that have made them so powerful and universally
useful are speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility, and storage capacity. We shall discuss each
one of them separately.

Speed:
Computers work at an incredible speed and a powerful computer is capable of performing
about 3-4 million simple instructions per second. The term speed of a computer refers to the
clock speed of the computer. The clock speed of the computer is expressed as GHz (Giga
Hertz) and hertz stands for one cycle per second.

The central processing unit (CPU) is effectively the computer brain. The speed of CPU is
known as the clock speed of the computer and is number of cycles the CPU performs per
second. A CPU with a clock speed of 2.4 GHz can run 2.4 billion cycles each second. The
processors L1 cache is the onboard CPU memory. The more is the CPU memory size, higher
would be the amount of data it can store and the CPU can process the data much faster.

Front side bus:

The front side bus connects the RAM (random access memory) to the CPU. The speed of
data transfer between CPU and RAM is generally indicated as a ratio. For example, in a
computer with a 2.4 GHz CPU with a 400 MHz FSB, the FSB speed is expressed as 6:1 ratio.
Hence, lower the FSB transfer rate ratio, higher would be the data transfered from RAM
through the FSB to the CPU. A 2 GHz CPU with a 1 GHz FSB, would have a ratio of 2:1 and
the data transfer in this case would be much faster than the previous case where the ratio is
6:1.
RAM speed and size:
Random access memory is a temporary storage space for the data in a computer. The higher
is the size of RAM and higher is the data transfer from RAM to CPU, the more will be
amount of data processed by the computer. A typical RAM specification of 4GB DDR3L-
1600 SDRAM means that the RAM size is 4GB and the memory data transfer rate is
indicated by the number 1600 (i.e the number of data transfer the chip can handle).

Hard disk drive (HDD):

The CPU accesses data from CPU L1 cache, L2 cache, and RAM in that order. Then, the
CPU accesses that data from the hard disk drive. The hard disk drive speed is indicated by the
revolutions per minute (rpm) of the magnetic disk in the drive. A hard disk drive with a speed
of 7200 rpm would read / write data much faster than a drive with a speed of 5400 rpm. The
more cluttered the data storage in the hard disk drive, more will be the time taken to access
the data i.e read write data.

We should know that no one component in the computer system solely determines the
performance speed of the computer. In fact, the speed of the computer is the outcome of
many factors like the CPU clock speed, CPU cache, Cache memory size, FSB data transfer,
RAM size and transfer rate, and the secondary memory (hard disk drive) data transfer rate.

Accuracy:
Computers are fast in making calculations and are also accurate. Errors that could happen in
computer operation are attributable to human error or poorly designed programs or codes
written by the programmer. The errors could also come from inaccurate data.

Diligence:
The computers are very diligent in carrying out all the instructions. They do not suffer from
human limitations like tiredness and fatigue. When a million calculations are to be
performed, let us say, the computer will perform the millionth calculation with the same
speed and accuracy as it did with the first one. Computers are capable of carrying out
repetitive calculations. Computers do not commit any error when the same operation is done
again and again.

Versatility:
Computers are versatile machines and are capable of carrying out any complex calculation as
long as it can be broken down into a series of logical steps. The computers have wide role in
today’s business and individual life. The presence of computer could be felt in many spheres
of activity like railway / air reservation, banking, weather forecasting, and in services like
hotels and retail malls. We could also understand the usefulness of computers in enabling the
scientists make the series of successful satellite launches that ISRO (Indian Space Research
Organization) has made.

Today’s computers are capable of carrying out multiple operations in parallel and large
computers called mainframes and servers could serve many client nodes or users at the same
time. The versatility of computers has been further enhanced by today’s computer
architecture design like CPU with duo core and quad core. Further capabilities of very high
computing are available in today’s connected (Internet) world in the form of cloud
computing.
Storage Capacity:
The computers have large amount of storage capacity. For example, the computer
specification given in box 1.1 indicates that the desktop computer has a 4GB RAM and 500
GB hard disk drive memory.

Box 1.1 Specification of a typical desktop computer (for reference only)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hypothetical Products (HP): Hypothetical Products is a hypothetical company taken for
demonstration but the desktop computer specification given below is that of an actual
product. A typical desktop computer specification could look like the one given below. This
computer specification is only for reference and at various stages all the aspects given in it
will be explained.

Intel® Pentium® J3710 Processor (1.6 GHz, up to 2.64 GHz, 2 MB cache, 4 cores)
Windows 10 Home 64
500 GB 7200 rpm SATA
4 GB DDR3L-1600 SDRAM (1 x 4 GB)
49.53 cm (19.5) diagonal FHD UWVA anti-glare

The CPU microprocessor is Intel Pentium J3710 and the computer processor is capable of
running at a base speed of 1.6 GHz and a turbo speed of 2.64 GHz. The base speed is the
speed at which the computer operates when you are doing normal calculations. In cases when
you assign intense processing activities to the computer, the computer kicks in the turbo and
operates the turbo speed or high speed to meet the intense calculation or processing. The
turbo speed for the J3710 processor given above is 2.64 GHz.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Reference:
Introduction to Computers by Peter Norton, McGraw Hill, New delhi.
Chapter 2: Information processing cycle and operating system

2.1 Information Processing Cycle

The phases of information processing or the information processing cycle (IPC) are the steps
that data must follow or undergo in order to become useful information. The general steps
involved in the information processing cycle are: input, processing, output, storage, and
communication. The information processing cycle has been pictorially depicted in figure 1.1

Figure 2.1 Information processing cycle

2.2 Operating system (OS)

The operating system gives instructions to the computer as to how it should use its own
components like the input and output peripheral units as well as the main processing unit or
central processing unit. The operating system acts as an interface between the hardware,
application programs, and the user. For example, when the application program wants the
computer hardware to do something, it communicates with the computer through the
operating system. Similarly, when you as the user want the computer to do some activity like
copy a file or print a document, then again your request is handled by the operating system.
The operating system manages all the hardware, software, files, devices, memory, and the
data processing done by the computer. Operating system also manages users in terms of who
can use the computing resources and how or in what manner. The operating system enables
the system administrator to define user rights and privileges in operating the computer.

MS DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System), Microsoft Windows, UNIX are examples of
operating system software.

2.3 Graphical user interface (GUI)

A graphical user interface (GUI) allows users to interact with a program visually. A GUI
gives a program a distinctive "look" and "feel". Further, GUI provides different applications
with a consistent and intuitive set of user-interface components. GUI allows users to spend
less time trying to remember which key stroke sequences perform what functions. This would
enable the user to spend more time in using the program in a productive manner.

As an example of GUI, figure 1.2 contains an Internet Explorer window with some of its GUI
components labeled. In the window, there is a menu bar containing menus including File,
Edit, View, Favorites, Tools, and Help. Below the menu bar is a set of buttons, each has a
defined task in the Internet Explorer. Below the buttons is the text box, in which the user can
type the location of a World Wide Web site to visit. To the left of the text box is a label that
indicates the purpose of the text box. On the far right and bottom, there are scroll bars. Scroll
bars are used when there is more information in a window that can be displayed at once. By
moving the scroll bar back and forth, the user can see different portions of the web page. The
menus, buttons, text boxes, labels, and scroll bars are part of the Internet Explorer's GUI.
They form a user-friendly interface through which the user interacts with the Internet
Explorer web browser.

Figure 2.2 Internet Explorer

2.4 Command line Interface (CLI)

A CLI is an interface provided to a computer operating system through which a user interacts
with the computer. The user types a command line on the visual prompt, receives response
from the computer system and then types another command line and so on.

Microsoft DOS (Disk Operating System) is a CLI based computer interface for the user. We
can open the DOS operating system interface by executing the 'run' command (cmd) from the
Start menu. The following pictures demonstrate as to how we can execute some command
through the DOS prompt.

The Figure 2.3 shows as to how we can use ‘Run’ option through the startup menu. The
execution of this ‘Run’ option and by typing ‘cmd’ takes us to the DOS (Disk Operating
System) command prompt.
Figure 2.3 Use of ‘Run’ in the startup menu

The Figure 2.4 shows how the ‘Run’ option in the Startup menu runs the ‘cmd’ to invigorate
and bring into action the DOS command line interface through the Windows operating
system. This step will open up the DOS interface for command line interface (CLI) for the
user through which the user can give a single command at a time for execution.

Figure 2.4 Executing ‘cmd’ through ‘Run’ option

The DOS prompt opens at the user’s directory and in this case, it is: "c:\Documents and
Settings\raja>", as shown below in Figure 2.5. The folders and files in this directory could be
displayed by giving a simple command ‘dir’ standing for directory.

Figure 2.5 DOS prompt at the users ‘My Documents’ directory

We should note that the computer hard disk drive is generally divided into 2 or 3 partitions or
drives (as they are called). The drive E: could be opened through ‘My Computer’ in the
Windows GUI mode, as shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 ‘My Computer’ shown in the Windows GUI

Let us see the E: drive with its folders and files in the windows graphical user interface (GUI)
mode, as shown below in Figure 2.7. The different folders and files stored in the E: drive has
been clearly displayed in the GUI window for the computer user.

Figure 2.7 Drive E with its folders, and files

You may type "\e:" at the DOS prompt, which will take you to the root of drive "E:", as
shown in Figure 2.8. Now, you are working in the command line interface provided by the
windows operating system.

Figure 2.8 DOS prompt command for going to drive E:

We have seen the drive E: with its folders and files through Figure 2.7 in the Windows GUI
mode. The picture below gives the E: drive with a DOS prompt (Figure 2.9). Now, you are at
the root of drive "E:".

Figure 2.9 DOS prompt at drive E:

You give a command line instruction to list the files and folders at the E: drive by typing
"dir" at the DOS prompt "E:>" and this action has been shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10 Giving ‘dir’ command at DOS prompt at root of drive E:

The ‘dir’ command displays the folders and files in the drive E: at the drive root directory
level, as shown in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11 Displaying the folders and files in drive E:

You can get the IP number of your computer through DOS CLI by typing "ipconfig" at the
DOS prompt, as shown in Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12 Executing IP Configuration command through DOS prompt CLI

The Figure 2.13 gives the IP address of the computer at which this IP configuration command
has been given, the IP address of the proxy server, and the class of the network has been
indicated through the subnet mask.
Figure 2.13 IP details of the computer and the network

Another example of CLI (command line interface) has been demonstrated with R software
for doing simple addition of two numbers and the figures 2.14 and 2.15 demonstrate how it is
done. R is open source software for data analysis. It should also be noted that any open
source software does require you to pay a license fee and free to download and use.

Figure 2.14 R interface

It may be noted that each command line in red color, as shown in Figure 2.15, are simple R
command which are executed one by one in the CLI mode of operation.
Figure 2.15 R interface executing simple CLI commands

Incidentally, we may note that there are many versions of open source operating system
software. Linux which is an open source operating system offers a robust command line
interface.

2.5 Modes of operation of computers

2.5.1 Single-user, single tasking

As the name implies, this operating system is designed to manage the computer so that one
user can effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm OS for Palm handheld computers is a
good example of a modern single-user, single-task operating system.

Microsoft DOS (Disk Operating System) is a single user single tasking operating system in
which a user could handle only one activity at a time in the computer. In the Windows XP
and other later versions of operating systems offered by Microsoft, DOS operates in the
background of the operating system. A slightly more detailed discussion on DOS has already
been provided..

2.5.2 Single-user, multi-tasking

A single-user multitasking operating system is an operating system that allows a single user
to simultaneously run multiple applications on a computer. This type of operating system is
found in personal desktop and laptop computers. The most popular single-user multitasking
operating systems include Microsoft Windows and Macintosh.
Microsoft's Windows and Apple's MacOS platforms are both examples of operating systems
that will let a single user have several programs in operation at the same time. Computer
multitasking is a method by which multiple tasks or processes share common processing
resources such as the central processing unit. For example, it's entirely possible for a
Windows user to be writing a note in a word processor while downloading a file from the
Internet and also could be printing the text of an e-mail message.
2.5.3 Multi user operating System
A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take advantage of the
computer's resources simultaneously. The operating system must make sure that the
requirements of the various users are balanced, and that each of the programs they are using
has sufficient and separate resources so that a problem with one user doesn't affect the entire
community of users. Unix, VMS and mainframe operating systems, such as MVS, are
examples of multi-user operating systems. These systems operate in the Multi-user /
Multitasking environment.

Reference:
Introduction to Computers by Peter Norton, McGraw Hill, New delhi.
Chapter 3: System Software and Application Software

3.1 Computer Software

Computing system consists of both hardware and software. Both are equally important for
proper operation of the computing system. The computer software comprises of a set of
instructions or codes which enables proper functioning of the computing system. The
software could be classified into two broad categories and they are:
1. System software
2. Application software

3.2 System Software

System software is a set of programs that has been designed to run the hardware and the
application programs in an efficient manner. There are three basic types of system software
and they are: operating systems, network operating systems, and utilities.

3.2.1 Operating System

The operating system is an interface between the application programs and the computer. The
operating system manages all the hardware, software, files, devices, memory, and the data
processing done by a computing system. The operating system also manages users in terms of
who can use the computing resources and how or in what manner. MS DOS (Microsoft’s
Disk Operating System), Microsoft Windows, UNIX are examples of system software.

3.2.2 Network Operating System

A network operating system permits computers to communicate and share data across a
network while controlling network operations and network security.

3.2.3 Utilities
These are software programs which makes the computer system easier to use or perform
highly specialized functions. Utilities manage disks, troubleshoot hardware problems, etc.

3.3 Application software

Software that can perform a specific task for the user such as word processing, making a
presentation, database management, accounting, and payroll are all computer programs that
could be grouped under the category application software.

The Word processors, spreadsheets, database management systems are all examples of
general purpose application software.

Types of application software are:

3.3.1 Word processing software

The main purpose of this software is to produce a document, and also edit, modify, and print
it. Word processing software is very suitable for making an executive summary, project
reports, etc. A closer look at the MS Word for word processing has been provided in a later
chapter.

MS-Word, Word Pad, Notepad are examples of word processing software.

3.3.2 Database software
Database can be defined as a collection of related data. The purpose of database software is to
organize and manage data for either business purposes or individual user. The database
software enables the user to store data, make queries, create reports of the data. The
advantage of database software is that you can change the way data is stored and displayed.
MS access, dBase, FoxPro, and Oracle are examples of database software.

3.3.3 Spread sheet software

The spreadsheet could be used for maintaining students list with their marks obtained for
grading, sales records, and other data. Spreadsheet software is very suitable for making
statistical analysis of the data, tabulating the data, and for making graphical presentations. A
more useful discussion on spreadsheet has been provided in a later chapter.

MS-Excel, Apache OpenOffice Calc are examples of spreadsheet software.

3.3.4 Presentation software

Presentation software is useful making a slide show presentation on a particular agenda like
strategy for a new product development, marketing strategy to be followed for rural
marketing, or a lecture presentation on computer networks. The presentation software enables
preparation of presentation by inserting images or pictures, and also makes it possible to
insert a video in the presentation slide. The presentation software offer editing, and
formatting of the text. Presentation software like ‘Power Point’ make the presentation more
attractive and convey the message to the viewer very effectively.

MS PowerPoint, Apache OpenOffice Impress are examples of presentation software.

3.3.5 Multimedia software

Multimedia software enables including apart from text contents like pictures, animation,
audio, and video, and other interactive content in the the web. Multimedia content also
includes animation movies on concept demonstration, documentaries, and movies.

Multimedia software enables making audio, video, and animated content. There are many
multimedia software like media players, converters, etc.

3.4 Open source software

Open source software are programs for which the source code is available to anyone in the
public domain. The open source software could be downloaded and used for free. The open
source software is governed by the General Public License (GPL) through which the user can
edit, modify, and / or redistribute the source code. The open source software is generally
developed by community or foundations with interest in particular application software.

Examples of open source software are:

Operating system: Redhat Linux, Ubuntu
Application software: Appache OpenOffice, R, MySQL
Web browser: Firefox

Reference:
Introduction to Computers by Peter Norton, McGraw Hill, New delhi.
Chapter 4: Computer Networks

4.1 Networks classification by geographical area covered

The computer networks could be broadly classified into the following categories based on the
geographical distribution of the computer network:

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

4.1.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

Local Area Network (LAN) is provided mostly within the same building or amongst
buildings that very close by as in educational institutions. LAN based computer connectivity
is made available to generally employees of a company or an organization like educational
institutions wherein the teachers and staff could be connected in a LAN environment.
Ethernet is one type of local area network (LAN) topology and is as per the IEEE 802.3
standard. A typical local area network is shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

4.1.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

As the computers get further apart, a LAN becomes more difficult to install. Computer
network that span the distance of a typical metropolitan city, as shown in Figure 4.2, can be
referred to as a metropolitan area network (MAN). The speeds achieved in a MAN are
typically as high as in a LAN. MAN requires high-speed connections, such as fiber optic
cabling of the network since the network connects buildings and offices located in a relatively
larger area than a local area network.
 Figure 4.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

4.1.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

The WAN is a technology that spreads over many metropolitan cities and essentially it is
larger than a simple LAN or MAN. In the case of WAN, the computer network may have to
deploy long distance communication technologies such as terrestrial microwave link or even
satellite communication. The Figure 4.3 clearly depicts a wide area network (WAN). The
Internet could be viewed as a giant WAN.

Figure 4.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

4.2 Classifying Networks by Component Roles

Another type of classification of computer networks is with respect to type of operation and
more specifically with respect to which computer controls the operations in the network.
There are mainly two types of classifications based on computer roles in the network and
they are:
1. peer-to-peer computer networks
2. Server based computer networks
The difference between the two types revolves around which computer is in charge of the
network. A third classification, client-based networks, has come into existence because of the
increased capabilities of the typical client computer.

4.2.1 Peer-to-Peer Networks

A peer is considered an equal and all computers on a peer-to-peer network can be considered
equals, as shown in Figure 1.x. In a peer-to-peer network, no one computer is in charge of the
network’s operation. Each computer controls its own information and is capable of
functioning as either a client or a server depending on which is needed at the time. Peer-to-
peer networks are popular as home networks and for use in small companies. Peer-to-peer
networks are inexpensive and easy to install. Most operating systems, the software that runs
the basic computer functionality, come with peer-to-peer networking capability built in. The
only other cost involved with setting up a peer-to-peer network comes into play if a computer
does not have a network interface card (NIC). NIC is the device that physically connects your
computer to your network’s cabling.

A peer-to-peer network involves no security measures as it is started. Any person could share
his resources like a folder, or file and others in the network would be able to access them.

Figure 4.4 Peer-to-Peer Network

Each of the resources shared could be password protected as a security measure. But, as the
number of resources which are password protected increases in the network, the network
becomes complex. This is because each person trying to access the various resources should
remember many passwords. Security on a peer-to-peer network can quickly become complex
and confusing as it becomes large enough. While peer-to-peer networks are inexpensive to set
up, they are extremely limited in scope. The accepted maximum number of peers that can
operate on a peer-to-peer network is ten. They are, therefore, not appropriate for larger, more
secure networks.

4.2.2 Server-based Networks

The server-based network is controlled by a central computer server and such a network is
designed for secured operation. In large networks, there could be more than one servers
present on the network. The network could comprise systems like database server, application
server, mail server, etc. However, there will be one dedicated server in the network which
will control the entire network in terms services provide to clients as storing data,
applications, and other resources. When a client requests a resource such as a document, the
server sends the whole resource (the document) over the network to the client, where it is
processed and later returned to the server for continued storage.
 Figure 4.5 Server based networks

4.3 Network Cabling

The computer network cabling could be classified as: i. Twisted-pair cables, ii. Coaxial
cables, and iii. Fiber optic cables.

4.3.1 Twisted-pair cables

Twisted-pair wiring is widely used cabling method in telephone connections. These twisted-
pair lines are used in almost all communications networks throughout the world for both
voice and data transmission. Twisted-pair wiring is wrapped or shielded in a variety of forms.
These cables are used extensively in home and office telephone systems, local area networks,
and wide area networks. The transmission speeds could range from 2 million bits per second
(unshielded) to 100 million bits per second (shielded).

Figure 4.6 Network cabling

4.3.2 Coaxial cables
The coaxial cable consists of a sturdy copper or aluminum wire wrapped with spacers to
insulate and protect it, as shown in figure 1.x. The cable’s cover and insulation minimize
interference and distortion of the signals the cable carries. Groups of coaxial cables may be
bundled together in a big cable for ease of installation. These high-quality lines can be placed
underground and laid on the floors of lakes and oceans. They allow high-speed data
transmission (from 200 million to more than 500 million bits per second i.e 200 to 500
Mbps). The coaxial cables are used instead of twisted-pair wire lines in high-service
metropolitan areas, for cable television systems, and for short-distance connections of
computers and peripheral devices. The coaxial cables are also used in many office buildings
and other worksites for local area networks.

4.3.3 Fibre optic cables

Fiber optics uses cables consists of one or more hair-thin filaments of glass fiber wrapped in a
protective jacket. They can conduct pulses of visible light elements (photons) generated by
lasers at transmission rates as high as trillions of bits per second (terabits per second, or
Tbps). This speed is hundreds of times faster than coaxial cable and thousands of times better
than twisted-pair wire lines. Fiber-optic cables provide substantial size and weight reductions
as well as increased speed and greater carrying capacity. A half-inch-diameter fiber-optic
cable can carry more than 500,000 channels, compared with about 5,500 channels for a
standard coaxial cable. Moreover, Fiber-optic cables are not affected by and do not generate
electromagnetic radiation and therefore multiple fibers can be placed in the same cable.
Fiber-optic cables have less need for repeaters for signal retransmissions than copper wire
media. Fibre optic cables are being used extensively as the information highway for long
distance data transmission.

4.4 Microwave Communication

A microwave link is a communications system that uses a beam of radio waves in the
microwave frequency range to transmit video, audio, or data between two locations, which
can be from just a few meters to several miles or kilometers apart.

Figure 4.7 Terrestrial microwave link

4.4.1 Terrestrial Microwave Link

A microwave link frequently is used to transmit signals in instances in which it would be
impractical to run cables. Terrestrial microwave link or communication could be established
between a transmitter and receiver by line of sight relay stations for communication. The
relay stations could be spaced 25-30 kilometers depending upon the microwave tower height.
Microwave antennas are usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain
peaks. The Terrestrial microwave systems operate in the low-gigahertz range, typically at 4-6
GHz and 21-23 GHz.

4.4.2 Satellite Communication

A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio
telecommunications signals via a transponder. The satellite creates a communication channel
between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth. Satellite
communication is established through geosynchronous orbiting satellites which are
positioned at around 22,000 miles away from the equator into the space. The satellites are
powered by solar panels and can transmit microwave signals at a rate of several hundred
million bits per second. The satellites serve as relay stations for communications signals
transmitted from earth stations. Earth stations use dish antennas to beam microwave signals
to the satellites that amplify and retransmit the signals to other earth stations thousands of
miles away.

The satellite communication could be used for telephone, television, radio, internet, and
military applications. However, the satellite communication may not be suitable for real-time
interactive processing because of the time delay involved due to large distance over which the
data is to be transmitted. India uses INSAT and GSAT series of satellites for communication
purposes.

Figure 4.8 Satellite Communication System

4.5 Mobile Wireless Communication

The more mobile your employees, the more you should consider a wireless network. The
various types of wireless communications are:
1. Mobile (GSM/CDMA2000)
2. WiFi (Wireless Fidelity): as per IEEE 802.11b standard
3. Fixed wireless: as per IEEE 802.16 (WirelessMAN)
4.5.1 Cellular Mobile technology
The geographical region wherein the mobile wireless communication service is intended to
be provided is divided into cells, as shown in figure 4.9, by the mobile communications
service provider. When a wireless communication user crosses and travels to the other
geographical region (i.e from one cell to the other cell), the mobile device is seamlessly
handed over from first cellular tower to the second cellular tower.

Figure 4.9 Cellular mobile communication systems

There are various generations of mobile wireless communication technology. The following
paragraphs discuss the various generations of mobile technology very briefly.

First Generation mobile communication (1G):

The first generation (1G) mobile telephone was using the analog signals for communication.
The main difference between the first and the second generation wireless telephones was that
the first generation (1G) wireless telephones used the analog radio signals whereas the second
generation (2G) wireless telephones were using digital signals for communication.

Second Generation mobile communication (2G):

2G technologies enabled the various mobile phone networks to provide the services such as
text messages, picture messages and MMS (multimedia messages). All text messages sent
over 2G are digitally encrypted, allowing for the transfer of data in such a way that only the
intended receiver can receive and read it.

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data service and provide
data rates of 56-114 kbit/second. This technology is also sometimes known as 2.5G, as its
capabilities in terms wireless communication data rate lies between 2G and 3G technologies.

Third Generation Mobile communication (3G):

The 3G telecommunication networks support services that provide an information transfer
rate of at least 200 kbit/s. The 3G mobile technology finds application in wireless voice
telephony, mobile Internet access, fixed wireless Internet access, video calls, and mobile TV.
Global system for mobile communications (GSM) is the standard that governs the 3G mobile
services.
Fourth generation mobile communication (4G):
The 4G mobile communication system provides ultra-broadband Internet mobile access. The
applications of 4G mobile technology could include amended mobile web access, IP
telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, 3D television,
and cloud computing.

Wireless Fidelity (WiFi) Technologies:

WiFi is a technology for wireless local area networking with devices based on the IEEE
802.11 standards. A hotspot is a physical location where people may obtain Internet access
using Wi-Fi technology via a wireless local area network (WLAN) using a router connected
to an internet service provider. Most of the educational institutions, large hotels, and airports
provide wifi connectivity.

WiMax Networks / Fixed wireless communication:

WiMAX technology is a broadband wireless data communications technology based around
the IEE 802.16 standard providing high speed data over a wide area. The letters of WiMAX
stand for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (AXess), and it is a technology
for point to multipoint wireless networking. WiMax is intended to provide high-speed,
mobile telecommunications services to diverse Internet connections and locations.

Seven Layer OSI Model:

The seven layer OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) model is one of the most important
concepts to be learned in understanding the networking concepts. This is a conceptual model
of the computer network developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1978 and revised in the year 1984. The OSI model, shown in Figure 4.10, describes
a network architecture that allows data to be passed between computer systems. The seven
layers of OSI reference model are: physical, data link, network, transport, session,
presentation, and application. The physical layer is classified as Layer 1, and the top layer of
the model, the application layer, as Layer 7.

Figure 4.10 Seven layer OSI reference model

Reference:
Management Information system 10e by James Obrien, McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India
Chapter 5: Word Processing with MS Word

Word processing using MS Word has been pictorially described in the various figures given
in this chapter. The Figure 5.1 shows how to open MS Word from the Startup menu. Once
you click on ‘Microsoft Word 2007’, the word processing application opens with a dialog
box asking you whether you would like to open a blank document, click ‘yes’.

Figure 5.1 Opening Microsoft Word 2007

This would take you to a blank word document, and in which you could type the text as
shown in Figure 5.2 through the QWERTY keyboard.

Figure 5.2 Typing text on the MS Word 2007

A portion of the typed text can be shown as bullets by clicking on thumbnails just below the
title bar, as shown in Figure 5.3 and 5.4.

Figure 5.3 Making Text as bullets

The Figure 5.4 shown below indicates how to create the bulleted text using the thumbnail
buttons.

Figure 5.4 Making Text as bullets using thumbnails

Figure 5.5 Bulleted Text made successfully

The Figure 5.5 shows the text formatting and making bulleted text and showing some
important points in a document as bulleted text enhances the importance of the bulleted
content inside a word document.

5.1 Making tables in word document

A table can be inserted into the word document by either selecting the automatic option
which allows you to select the number of rows and columns from dropdown menu
automatically formatted (can be resized, later) or by drawing it manually by selecting the
‘draw table’ option. The activities involved in making a table are shown in Figures 5.6

Figure 5.6 Making a table in MS Word 2007

You could type numbers as shown in the first column of the table and then resize the table
first column width by single clicking on the right vertical line of the first column and drag it
to the desired position (to left for reducing column width, and to right for increasing the
column width). This has been clearly shown in Figure 5.7

Figure 5.7 Changing the width of the 1st column

The Figure 5.8 shows the table in MS word after entering of numbers and text in all the cells
of the table. Please note that the table column widths have been resized to suit the width of
the text in each column.

Figure 5.8 Formatted Table

You could format the table selecting the table with the mouse, the table selection hinge gets
highlighted. After selecting the table, you can right click on it to insert rows and / or
columns. You can also select table properties option which allows you make enormous ways
of formatting the table as listed below, not limited to:
 Change row height
 Change column width
 Alter text box border line width and color
 Table cell fill color
 Change the text margin in the cells

Figure 5.9 Table properties option for formatting

These formatting options are shown in Figure 5.9 and Figure 5.10 shows the formatting of the
table border line visibility (making it non-visible).

Figure 5.10 Table properties option for formatting border visible option
The Figure 5.11 shows the table in the final form after carrying out the formatting through the
‘Table Properties’ option.

Figure 5.11 Table after formatting

5.2 Formatting in word

The Figures 5.12 and 5.13 shows how to center the document title and make it appear in bold
letters. These formatting activities have been done through the formatting shortcuts in the
shortcut menu.

Figure 5.12 Centering the title line

The Figure 5.13 shows how the title of the document to appear centered in the page and also
the fonts have been made bold.
Figure 5.13 Making the title line appear in bold letters

5.3 Finding the text

Finding the text or find the text and replace with option, could be done through the dropdown
options available on the near right top of the document window. The find text ‘Introduction
to’ has been clearly demonstrated in the following Figures 5.14, and 5.15.

Figure 5.14 Find Text option in the MS Word 2007

Once the find command completes locating the text ‘Introduction to’, it will give a message
saying ‘Word has finished searching the document’ and you press the “OK” button to close
the find text dialog box.
Figure 5.15 Find Text option in the MS Word 2007 has identified the text

5.4 Editing the Text

The text size can be altered, for example you can make title look better in larger font size.
The Figure 5.16 shows the drop down menu for changing the font size. However, you should
note that the text for which you want to increase the size should be selected first either with
mouse or through text selection with the help of SHIFT plus arrow key left or right depending
upon the cursor position.

Figure 5.16 Editing the font size

The Figure 5.17 shows how to change the lower case of a selected text (by text selection
method) to UPPERCASE.

Figure 5.17 Changing lower case text to UPPERCASE

The Figure 5.18 shows the text of the document selected for further editing. In Figure 5.19,
how to change the color of the selected text has been demonstrated.

Figure 5.18 Selected text for further editing

The text font color of the document title has been changed to ‘red’ as shown in Figure 5.19.
Figure 5.19 Changing the color of the selected text (in this case, document title)

The Figure 5.20 shows how to change background fill color of the selected text. The
background fill color of the document title ‘FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS’ has been
changed to yellow.

Figure 5.20 Changing background fill color of a selected text

5.5 Opening another document file

The Figure 5.21 shows how to open another document while working on the MS Word 2007
environment. The document which we are attempting open is having a file name ‘Game
Theory’ in the directory.
Figure 5.21 Another word document is being opened in the MS Word window

The Figure 5.22 shows as how the word document file ‘Game Theory’ in the file directory
‘Documents>’. This folder is same as the ‘My Documents>’ directory of the earlier versions
of Windows operating system.

Figure 5.22 Another document is getting opened while working in the MS Word 2007

The word document file ‘Game Theory’ which has been opened is shown in Figure 5.23. It
should be noted that this is a word document already prepared.
Figure 5.23 Word document ‘Game Theory’ has been opened

The Figure 5.24 shows the Windows taskbar indicating that there are two active MS Word
2007 windows one each for the word document files named ‘temp’ and ‘Game Theory’

Figure 5.24 Windows taskbar indicates the document files ‘temp’ and ‘Game Theory’

The Figure 5.25 and 5.26 indicate how a typed text in a word document could be formatted to
appear in two columns. Such provision in the MS Word 2007, is useful when a table or a
picture has to be exhibited along with text content.
Figure 2.25 Formatting word document to display content in two columns

The content in the word document has formatted for displaying it in two columns. This
provision, many a times enhances the readability and appearance of the document.

Figure 2.26 Word document displaying content in two columns

Reference:

Microsoft Office 2010 Professional by Joyce Cox, Joan Lambert, and Curtis Frye
Chapter 6: Microsoft Excel

The Microsoft Excel could be opened in the windows environment from the Startup Menu 
All Programs  Microsoft Office  Microsoft Office Excel 2007. The Figure 6.1 shows the
blank MS Excel worksheet.

Figure 6.1 Blank MS Excel worksheet

In Figure 6.2 text content is typed into cell A1. The Figure 6.3 shows how the column width
could be adjusted to suit the content in the cell. The red mark in Figure 6.3 shows how the
column could be adjusted by double clicking on the location marked with red circle, between
the Excel column headings A and B.
Figure 6.2 Text typed into cell A1

The width of column A could be adjusted to suit the content by double clicking on the
location marked red in Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3 Column A width adjustment to suit text

The Figure 6.4 shows the MS Excel worksheet after the adjustment of the column A width to
match the content.

Figure 6.4 Cell width adjusted to match the content in the cell
The content in any particular cell could be moved by drag and drop method, as shown in
Figure 6.5. The cell content in a cell could be moved from one cell to another by copy and
paste commands. This can be done by simply selecting the particular cell and then a right
click of the mouse which will give you option for copy. Then, move the cursor to the cell
where you want to paste the content and right click of the mouse again will provide option for
paste and then could be successfully pasted in the new location. This is similar to the copy
and paste or move options for formatting text in any of the MS Office application tools.

Figure 6.5 Moving text by drag and drop

The Figure 6.6 shows the content in the new cell location after it has been moved from the
previous location.
Figure 6.6 Drag and drop of cell content done

The Figure 6.7 shows how to insert a formula into cell location B7 for calculating the
breakeven point. We know that the formula for breakpoint is:
BEP (breakeven point) = Fixed cost / (selling price per unit – variable cost per unit)
The formula has been effectively put into the cell location B7.

Figure 6.7 Formula for BEP in cell location B7

The results of formula could be seen by pressing the ‘ENTER’ button after putting up the
formula in a particular cell. The results of the formula for BEP could now be seen in the cell
location B7. The breakeven point is 4000 units.
The Figure 6.8 Results of the formula in cell B7 displayed

6.1 Inserting Formula into a cell in worksheet

The excel worksheet shown in Figure 6.8 depicts the data for number of units produced and
sold, values from 0 to 6000 shown in steps of 400. The subsequent Figures 6.9, 6.10,

Figure 6.9 Inserting formula for total variable cost

The Figure 6.9 shows a formula for calculating the total cost. The formula could be copied on
to the other cells from B10 by selecting the cell B10 and then drag the right bottom corner of
the cell downwards. This would effectively fill the formula for total cost on the other cells
below B10 (as shown in Figure 6.10).
Figure 6.10 Total cost Formula copying on to cells below cell B10

The total cost calculation is shown in the excel worksheet and is exhibited in Figure 6.11.

Figure 6.11 Total cost calculation exhibited

The total revenue can be calculated by multiplying the number of units produced and sold by
the selling price per unit and this is in equation form below:
Total Revenue = No. of units * Price per unit

Figure 6.12 Formula insertion for total revenue calculation

The Figure 6.12 clearly shows the total revenue calculation formula in the excel worksheet.
The total revenue calculation for the cells below C10, could be done in a manner similar to
the calculation procedure adopted for the total cost calculation (as shown in Figure 6.13).

Figure 6.13 Total revenue calculations

The Figure 6.14 shows the formula that has been inserted into the cell location D10. The
profit is simply the revenue minus the cost.

Figure 6.14 Profit calculation formula insertion

The Figure 6.15 clearly shows as to how the formula for calculation of profit has been copied
on to the cells below D10. In fact, the formula in the cell D10 could be copied after selecting
it by CTRL + C command. Then, the formula which has just been copied from cell D10 could
be pasted on the cells D11 through cell D25 on an individual basis by selecting each cell
separately and then executing the command CTRL + V repeatedly.

Figure 6.15 Calculation of profit for the total range of number of units produced and sold

The Figure 6.16 depicts the profits for the range of number of units produced and sold, for
finding the breakeven point. The breakeven point is the number of units produced and sold at
which there is no profit or no loss.

Figure 6.16 Profit calculation exhibited

Profit = Total Revenue – Total cost

Profit / Loss = 0 at the breakeven point. It means that there is neither profit nor loss at
breakeven point (BEP).

6.2 Graphical representation of data

Inserting a graph in the excel worksheet:

The Figure 6.17 shows the worksheet with cells B10 to B25 and C10 to C25 as selected.
These cells which hold the total revenue and the total cost for the various number of units
produced and sold.

Figure 6.17 Total revenue and total cost cells have been selected

Below 4000 units there is loss and above it there is profit; at 4000 units there is neither loss
nor profit for the company.

Figure 6.18 Line graph for total revenue and total cost
The graph shown in Figure 6.19 depicts the total revenue and total cost lines against various
levels of production. The graph has been selected for formatting.

Figure 6.19 Graph has been selected for formatting chart legends

Right clicking the chart in Figure 6.20 and making ‘select data’ option will lead to ‘select
data source’ window where editing of the chart legends (serial1 and serial2 in this case) can
be done.

Figure 6.20 Editing the chart legends

In Figure 6.21, the chart legend ‘serial1’ has been selected for changing it to ‘TC’ standing
for Total Cost. The Figure 6.22 shows the legend having been changed as ‘TC’.
Figure 6.21 Legend ‘serial1’ has been selected for editing

The Edit Serial1 dialog box enables changing the serial1 as ‘TC’, after making the necessary
change type OK. It will return you to the ‘Select Data window’ wherein you can edit the
second legend ‘serial2’ as TR standing for Total Revenue.

Figure 6.22 Legend serial1 has been renamed as TC

Figure 6.23 Select the serial2 for changing it as ‘TR’

The Figure 6.24 shows the legend ‘serial1’ changed as ‘TC’ and ‘serial2’ changed as ‘TR’.

Figure 6.24 Legends in the edited form

After having successfully edited and changed the legends as ‘TC’ and ‘TR’, now let us
attempt to change the X-axis labels. The Figure 6.25 shows the ‘Select Data’ window making
the selection ‘EDIT’ button for altering the X-axis labels.
Figure 6.25 Editing X-axis labels

The Figure 6.26 shows the selection of X-axis labels from the excel worksheet. The labels
selected are the values under the ‘Number of units produced and sold’ which are ‘0’ ‘400’
……. ‘5600’ ‘6000’ in the excel worksheet.

Figure 6.26 X-axis labels ‘0’ ‘400’ ….’6000’ being selected

In the Figure 6.27, you may note that the X-axis labels have been changed.
Figure 6.27 X-axis labels change has been made

The Figure 6.28 shows the ‘select data’ window after having done the changes for the X-axis
labels. Then, press ‘OK’ to close ‘Select Data’ window.

Figure 6.28 Changes made with respect to legend X-axis labels

Once you select the chart, the additional three excel windows options comes to life and they
are: Design, Layout, and Format. Now, when you select Layout, it enables you to do the
following:

Layout  Axis Titles  Primary Horizontal Axis Title  Title Below Axis.
Figure 6.29 Adding X-axis title through ‘Layout’ option in the Excel worksheet window

The above command button ‘Title below Axis’ when double clicked puts the text <Axis
Title> below the X-Axis label. This can be edited to show ‘No. of units (produced / sold)’ as
shown in Figure 6.30

Figure 6.30 X-axis title has been done

The making of Y-axis title can be done through the following sequence of selections in the
Layout menu, as:

Layout  Axis Titles  Primary Vertical Axis Title  Rotated Title.

Figure 6.31 Y-axis Title change option selection

The Figures 6.31 shows the ‘Rotated Title’ option button having been selected for making the
Y-axis title for the chart under selection. The text is entered into the chart for the rotated Y-
axis title and it is shown within the red circle in the Figure 6.32.

Figure 6.32 Vertical axis title indicated as <Axis Title>

The Y-axis ‘Rotated Title’ has been entered as ‘Revenue / Cost (Rs)’ and the Figure 6.33
clearly shows the same. Also note that the Layout menu provides other choices for the Y-axis
title like ‘Vertical Title’, ‘Horizontal Title, and ‘None’.
Figure 6.33 Y-axis title entered as ‘Revenue / Cost (Rs)’

The chart has been selected and right clicking leads to enabling selection of ‘Format Chart
Axis’ option. This has been shown in Figure 6.34 shown below.

Figure 6.34 Format Axis option is getting selected

The X-axis along with the labels has been selected, as shown in Figure 6.34, then a right click
on the x-axis scale takes to the selection of ‘Format Axis’ choice. The Figure 6.35 indicates
how the format of the chart is getting changed and this is shown within the red circle.
Figure 6.35 X-axis format option being changed to ‘On the tick marks’

The action of changing the X-axis format under ‘Position Axis’ property has been
successfully done and the change of option from ‘Between tick marks’ to ‘On tick marks’
leads to the proper appearance of the chart with respect to the location of revenue line which
intersects the x-axis at zero indicating that the revenue is zero when the number of units
produced / sold is zero.

Figure 6.36 X-axis has been formatted

The Figure 6.37 shows the worksheet along with chart after a few successful steps of
formatting with respect to the chart in total as well as the X-axis in particular.
Figure 6.37 The excel worksheet after successful formatting seps

6.3 Advanced formatting of the cell text in the worksheet

Another existing excel worksheet has been opened by executing the ‘Open File’ command
through the excel worksheet windows menu.

Programs  Microsoft Excel  Microsoft Excel 2007

The above sequence of steps for opening the desired excel worksheet has been pictorially
shown in Figure 6.38

Figure 6.38 Another excel worksheet is being opened through Excel window
The file getting opened is ‘exim_bn_1516’. The file after getting opened is shown in figure
6.39 and 6.40 given below.

Figure 6.39 File ‘exim_bn_1516’ is getting selected through navigation in My Computer

The Figure 6.40 shows the file ‘exim_bn_1516’ after getting opened. Now, further editing,
formatting, and other a little advanced actions also could be done.

Figure 6.40 File ‘exim_bn_1516’ has been successfully opened

6.4 Filter by selection

The excel worksheet first row content which generally contains the column headings has
been selected and is shown in Figure 6.41. After selecting the first row header contents and a
right click of the mouse leads to the selection of ‘Filter
Filter  Filter by selected cell’s value

This action provides us with a number of filter options of filtering data available in the
worksheet through the column header.

Figure 6.41 Filter  Filter by selected cell’s value action for filtering

The Figure 6.42 shows the selection by cell value being done for all the column values in the
worksheet.

Figure 6.42 Filter by selected cell’s value

The Figures 6.42, 6.43, and 6.44 shows the selection and display of the records based on the
cell value of the Country (first column hading).

Figure 6.43 Filter by selected cell’s value

In Figure 6.43, the cell values selection has been made to display all the records (all the
countries have been selected).

Figure 6.44 Filter by selected cell’s value

The Figures 6.45, 6.46, and 6.47 shows the Filter by selected cell’s values in the logical
sequence of country wise trade ranking for obtaining the data rows with Rank 1,2, and 3.
Figure 6.45 Filter by selected cell’s value to obtain records with rank 1, 2, and 3

The Figure 6.45 shows the Filter by selected cell’s value with all the ranks, and then the
Figure 6.46 shows the selection for rank 1, 2, and 3 only.

Figure 6.46 Filter by selected cell’s value to obtain records with rank 1,2, and 3

The Figure 6.47 shows the results of Filter by selected cell’s value for Rank equal to 1, 2, 3.
The country with rank 1 in terms of trade with India is number 1, the United States of
America Has rank 2, and the United Arab Emirates has rank 3.
Figure 6.47 Filter by selected cell’s value to obtain records with rank 1,2, and 3

6.5 Statistical formula insertion in excel worksheet

The Figure 6.48 shows the infant mortality rate for the year 2008 and 2013. The heading or
the first row holds the titles of columns. The first column heading ‘STATE’ stands for the
twenty states for which the infant mortality data has been provided in the excel sheet. The
following are the other column headings:

Figure 6.48 Infant mortality rate for year 2008 and 2013

T2008 --- Infant mortality for male and female together for year 2008
T2013 --- Infant mortality for male and female together for year 2013
M2008 --- Infant mortality for male for year 2008
M2013 --- Infant mortality for male for year 2013
F2008 --- Infant mortality for female for year 2008
F2013 --- Infant mortality for female for year 2013

The Figure 6.49 shows the steps involved in inserting formula into the cell in the excel
worksheet. The sequence is: Formulas  Insert Function

Figure 6.49 Inserting formula into the excel worksheet cell

The execution of the above indicated two steps will take you to the ‘Insert Function’ dialog
box shown in Figure 6.50.

Figure 6.50 Insert Formula dialog box

The Figure 6.51 shows how the formula for the statistical function average is getting selected
for insertion into the excel worksheet at cell location B23. It may be noted that the text ‘IMR
rate’ should have already been typed in the cell location A23.

Figure 6.51 Selection of the statistical function average for insertion into cell B23

The Figure 6.52 and 6.53 show the average function ‘=Average(B2:B21)’ having been
inserted at cell location B23.

Figure 6.52 Average function at cell B23 is getting inserted

The Figure 6.52 shows the cells B2: B21 being selected by pressing the OK button in the
‘Insert Function’ dialog box.
Figure 6.53 Average function at cell B23 is getting inserted

The Mean of T2008 is shown in the cell at B23 calculated by the statistical function
‘average’. The Figure 6.54 shows the actual mean value calculated using the statistical
function.

Figure 6.54 Average of T2008 has been calculated by the inserted formula

The average function can by copied and pasted on to cell C23 for calculating the average of
T2013 and this has been shown in Figure 6.55.
Figure 6.55 Average formula copied and pasted on to cell C23 --- Mean of T2013

The Figure 6.56 shows the cells B23 and C23 as slected and this selection has been to copy
and paste the formula on to cells D23, E23, F23, and G23 by dragging the right bottom of the
seleceted cell towards right till the end of G23. This action shows the average values of infant
moratlity rates for the categories M2008, M2013, F2008, and F2013 also

Figure 6.56 Average formula being copied by dragging cells B23 and C23 to right

The Figure 6.57 shows the average values of infant mortality rates for all the categories
considered in this analysis: T2008, T2013, M2008, M2013, F2008, and F2013.
Figure 6.57 Statistical function inserted into the excel worksheet

The Figure 6.57 shows the insertion of formula for calculating the mean of the data values in
each of the columns of the worksheet.

Reference:

Microsoft Office 2010 Professional by Joyce Cox, Joan Lambert, and Curtis Frye