Current Advances in Agricultural Sciences 3(2): 77-88 (December 2011) ISSN 0975-2315

Direct-seeded rice: Potential, performance and problems – A review

H PATHAK*, AN TEWARI1, S SANKHYAN2, DS DUBEY, U MINA, VIRENDER K SINGH2, N JAIN and A BHATIA

Division of Environmental Sciences, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012, India
*Email of corresponding author: hpathak.iari@gmail.com

Received: July 2011; Accepted: November 2011

ABSTRACT
Production of conventional puddled transplanted rice is facing severe constraints because of water and labour scarcity
and climatic changes. Direct-seeded rice (DSR) is a feasible alternative to conventional puddled transplanted rice with
good potential to save water, reduce labour requirement, mitigate green-house gas (GHG) emission and adapt to
climatic risks. The yields are comparable with transplanted rice if crop is properly managed. In recent years, efforts
have been made in promoting the DSR technology by various organizations. Scientists are concentrating in developing
suitable varieties and agronomic packages for promoting the DSR. However, the DSR suffers from some constraints
particularly high weed infestation. The system has been proved cost-effective and farmers’ friendly but require further
improvement in technological approach to realize greater benefits. The article assesses the resource and environmental
constraints of conventional puddled transplanted rice production, outlines the production technology of DSR, analyzes
the potentials and constraints of DSR, and suggests options for promotion of DSR in India.
Key words: Direct-seeded rice, Ecosystems, Green-house gas emission, Nutrient, Water, Weed management

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a major crop from 44oN latitude
in North Korea to 35oS latitude in Australia. It is cultivated from
sea level to 2700 ft above sea level. At least 114 countries grow
rice and more than 50 countries have an annual production of
0.1 million tonnes (Mt) or more (FAO, 2010). Currently, it is the
staple food of almost 3 billion people, that is, about 50% of the
World’s population. Rice fields cover around 155 million hectares
(Mha), more than any other crop. Thus, the rice systems belong
to the most important food production systems on Earth. Annual
production of rice is about 700 Mt (FAO, 2010). More than 90%
of this is produced and consumed in Asia with two countries,
China and India, growing more than half the total crop,
providing 50% of the total calorie intake of Asia’s population.
Most of the rice in tropical countries is produced in irrigated
and rainfed lowland areas. Irrigated rice systems account for
78% of all rice production but only 55% of total harvested rice
area is concentrated on alluvial floodplains, terraces, inland
valleys, and deltas in the humid and sub-humid subtropics and
humid tropics of Asia. The rainfed rice that is mostly grown in
South and Southeast Asia can be upland (unbunded), lowland
(generally bunded with water depth less than 1 meter), or
deepwater rice.
Rice, India’s most prominent crop, is the staple food of
the people of the eastern and southern parts of the country.
The term ‘rice is life’ is most appropriate for India as this crop
plays vital role in country’s food security and is the backbone
of livelihood for millions of rural households. By 2010, rice
production had reached 151 Mt, second in the world only after
China (FAO, 2010). Since 1950 the increase has been about 4
times. Most of this increase was the result of an increase in
yields; the number of hectares increased only 40 per cent during
this period. In India the demand for rice will increase because
of population growth and an expected diet change (Joshi et al.,
2009). The increase in rice production has to come from higher
yield because land area under rice is declining. Therefore, the
sustainability of rice eco-systems and the ability to increase
production in pace with population growth with reduced water
and labour use are major concerns.
The conventional puddled transplanted rice is a major
source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, particularly methane
causing global warming and climate change. The Inter-
Governmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) projected a
temperature increase between 1.1 and 6.4°C by the end of the
21st Century. Global warming also leads to other regional and
global changes in climate-related parameters such as rainfall,
soil moisture, and sea level. These changes may adversely
affect water availability and thereby growing of much water-
intensive transplanted rice cultivation. Efforts, therefore, have
to be made to mitigate GHG emission from rice and develop
strategies to grow rice with less water.

1
International Rice Research Institute, India Office, New Delhi-110 012, India, Email : ant_kanpur@rediffmail.com; dr.tewari.amarnath@jains.com
2
Pepsi Foods Private Limited, Gurgaon-122 002 (Haryana), India
78 CURRENT ADVANCES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES 3(2): DECEMBER 2011

The objectives of the article are to (1) assess resource
and environmental constraints of conventional puddled
transplanted rice production, (2) outline the production
technology of dry direct-seeded rice (DSR), (3) analyze the
potentials and constraints of DSR, (4) assess the greenhouse
gas emission in rice and the mitigation potential of DSR, and
(5) suggest options for promotion of DSR in India.
RICE ECOSYSTEMS IN INDIA
Indian rice fields cover an area of 43.86 million hectares
(Mha) (Table 1). There are mainly four major rice ecosystems in
India: (1) irrigated lowland, (2) rainfed lowland, (3) rainfed upland
and (4) deepwater. Of the total rice area, 55% is irrigated, 12% is
upland, 3% is deepwater and the remaining 30% is rainfed
lowland (Fig. 1). The irrigated rice area is further divided into
the continuously flooded, single aeration and multiple aeration.
The rainfed area is also sub-divided into flood prone and
drought prone. In lowland ecosystems rice seedlings are
transplanted in puddled condition and the fields are kept either
in continuous submergence or intermittently flooded
depending on soil texture, rainfall and availability of irrigation
water. Lowland rice fields in north India are generally

Table 1. Area under the various rice ecosystems in different states of India
State Total Irrigated Upland Deep water Rainfed
Multiple Single Continuous Drought Flood
aeration aeration flooded prone prone
000 ha
Andaman & Nicobar 11 11
Andhra Pradesh 3978 805 1726 1304 102 41 0 0
Arunachal Pradesh 123 0 52 0 0 0 71
Assam 2176 50 50 544 272 700 560
Bihar 3358 539 449 808 356 419 572 215
Chhattisgrah 4014 355 463 385 577 2234
D & N Haveli 14 4 10
Delhi 7 7 0
Daman and Diu 2 2
Goa 53 17 36
Gujarat 834 91 196 235 0 312
Haryana 1041 520 416 104 1
Himachal Pradesh 79 49 30
Jammu & Kashmir 231 231 0
Jharkhand 1623 27 23 41 154 38 974 366
Karnataka 1292 515 309 103 110 255
Kerala 264 37 81 56 30 42 18
Madhya Pradesh 1494 70 91 76 263 994
Maharashtra 1528 128 213 85 350 602 150
Manipur 166 11 24 16 20 2 68 25
Meghalaya 104 9 19 13 13 1 36 13
Mizoram 51 3 7 5 6 0 22 8
Nagaland 164 11 24 16 20 68 25
Orissa 4450 563 467 865 853 67 883 752
Pondicherry 24 22 2
Punjab 2621 2608 13
Rajasthan 108 38 70
Sikkim 15 9 0 6
Tamil Nadu 1931 386 835 575 20 23 67 25
Tripura 212 22 48 33 30 19 36 24
Uttarakhand 281 187 94 0
Uttar Pradesh 5921 2285 1143 1143 455 218 406 271
West Bengal 5688 413 1514 826 840 253 697 1145
Total 43858 9910 8193 6748 4950 1353 9019 3685
Source: Pathak et al. (2010)
 PATHAK et al. – DIRECT-SEEDED RICE: POTENTIAL, PERFORMANCE AND PROBLEMS – A REVIEW
Continuously
Upland
flooded
12%
Deepwater 15%
3%
Flood prone
8%
Single aeration
20%
Drought prone
22%
Multiple
aeration
20%
Fig. 1. Distribution of rice area under various water management
practices in India in 2007 (Source: Pathak et al., 2010)
intermittently flooded whereas those from east and south India
are flooded continuously. In the case of upland rice the seeds
are directly sown on pulverized seedbed and fields are never
flooded. Deepwater rice is grown in low-lying high rainfall areas,
where fields are inundated with water. In these areas rice is
either direct seeded or transplanted depending upon the onset
of monsoon.
The rice crop has been grown in South Asia for more
than 6000 years. In earlier days, farmers of many parts of the
world commonly followed the practice of broadcasting rice
seeds directly on dry or puddled soils, drilling of seeds in moist
soils behind country plough or manual seeding. However, there
was rapid switch over from traditional direct seeding to
transplanting of rice onto puddled bed ensuring optimum plant
stand, good water retention and less weed problem owing to
the availability of high yielding, fertilizer responsive and
lodging resistant dwarf rice varieties, expansion of irrigation
infrastructure and attractive incentives provided from the Govt.
to produce more food grains. For conventional pudddled
transplanted rice, puddling is achieved by intensive tillage under
ponded water conditions, which serves to break down soil
aggregates, reduce macro-porosity, disperse the clay fraction,
and form. In addition to facilitating transplanting, puddling
serves several functions including weed control and reduction
in deep percolation losses of water. Presently, the transplanting
system of rice is most common in the irrigated areas whereas
dry-seeding is extensively practiced in rainfed lowlands,
uplands and flood-prone areas in India (Rao et al., 2007).
CONSTRAINTS OF CONVENTIONAL
PUDDLED TRANSPLANTED RICE
Transplanting of rice is more water demanding, laborious,
cumbersome, time consuming and entails a lot of expenditure
on raising nursery, uprooting, and transplanting. Scarcity of
labour during peak period of transplanting, uncertain supply
of irrigation water, depletion of groundwater and increasing
production cost necessitate the search for an alternative to the
conventional puddled transplanting of rice. As rice production
79
is intricately linked with land and water, this has unique and
profound implications for the environment. Hence, careful
management of the natural functioning of rice ecosystems is
critically important for protecting the environment while raising
rice productivity to meet growing demand. Yield trends from
long-term continuous rice-rice experiments conducted in
Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines,
and Thailand indicated that, even with the best available
cultivars and scientific management, rice yields (holding input
levels constant) have either stagnated or declined over time
since the early 1980s (Ladha et al., 2003). The rice-wheat
cropping system of the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) also showed
yield stagnation/decline in the last two decades (Ladha et al.,
2003; Pathak et al., 2003). The challenge is to integrate
productivity and profitability improvement while conserving
and enhancing the quality of the environment on which
production depends. Some of the major environmental problems
associated with puddled transplanted rice is discussed below.
Degrading water resource base
The productivity of water in rice is very low. Conventional
rice cultivation needs 3000 to 5000 L of water to produce 1 kg
rice. At global level 70-80% of fresh water is used in agriculture
and rice accounts for 85% of this water. Rice requires about
two times as much water as wheat or maize. In some regions,
such as northwest India, water application in rice is about 5–6
times that of wheat. Rice’s large water demand is expected to
outstrip the available supply in the near future. The declining
availability and quality of water, increased competition from
domestic and industrial sectors, and increasing costs are
already affecting the sustainability of irrigated rice production
systems in many parts of South Asia. For example, in the upper
transect of the IGP, rice cultivation resulted in a decline in water
tables and water quality. Many districts in the rice-wheat
growing area of Haryana, India, show a water table decline in
the range of 3–10 m over the last two decades. The groundwater
table has fallen at about 23 cm yr-1 in the Central Punjab, India.
Excess pumping depletes ground water and causes pollution
such as arsenic contamination as has been observed in many
parts of West Bengal. Water application in rice production,
therefore, needs to be decreased by increased water-use
efficiency through reduced losses caused by seepage,
percolation, and evaporation; laser land leveling; crack plowing
to reduce bypass flow; and bund maintenance. The direct sown
rice has got potential to improve the efficiency of water use.
Degrading soil resource base
Concerns about sustainability are arising throughout
tropical rice ecosystems because of decreasing soil fertility as
most countries move into the post-reen revolution era. Recent
trends of yield decline/stagnation observed in long-term
experiments in South Asia were mostly due to soil-related causes
such as the decline in soil carbon (C) and macro- and
micronutrients in rice-rice and rice-wheat systems; accumulation
of phenolic compounds, Fe2+, and sulfides in the rice-rice
system; and the increase in soil salinity. Intensive use of
80 CURRENT ADVANCES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES 3(2): DECEMBER 2011

irrigation water in rice led to a salinity buildup. In the short as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, causing global
term, salinity buildup leads to reduced yields, whereas, in the warming; and (3) loss of plant nutrients such as N, P, K, and S.
long term, it can lead to abandoning of crop lands. Farmers are Almost the entire amounts of C and N, 25% of P, 50% of S, and
also using poor-quality water for irrigation in several areas of 20% of K present in straw are lost due to burning.
the IGP for rice and run the risk of further aggravating soil
degradation. The soil quality of rice systems therefore needs GREEN-HOUSE GAS EMISSION
to be continuously monitored and efforts made to improve soil Rice production contributes to global climate change
health. through emissions of methane and nitrous oxide and in turn
suffers from the consequences. Methane is formed in soil
Pollution due to pesticides
through the metabolic activities of a small but highly specific
The use of pesticides is a part of modern rice cultivation bacterial group called methanogens. Their activity increases in
and their use greatly enhanced agricultural production. submerged, anaerobic condition developed in wetland rice
However, the non-judicious use of pesticides has caused large fields, which limit the transport of oxygen into the soil, and the
problems of air, water, and soil pollution in many rice-growing microbial activities render the water-saturated soil practically
regions. Part of the applied pesticide, irrespective of crop, devoid of oxygen. The upland, aerobic soil does not produce
applicator, or formulation, ultimately escapes to the soil, water, methane. Water management, therefore, plays a major role in
and food chain, causing human health problems such as methane emission. Altering water management practices,
carcinogenicity, reduced life span and fertility, increased particularly mid-season aeration by short-term drainage as well
cholesterol, high infant mortality, and varied metabolic and as alternate wetting and drying can greatly reduce methane
genetic disorders. The use of chemical pesticides also threatens emission in rice cultivation. Improving organic matter
biodiversity, kills off the natural enemies of rice pests, and management by promoting aerobic degradation through
removes any form of biological control that occurs naturally. composting or incorporating into soil during off-season drain-
Efforts should be made to reduce pesticide use and adopt period is another promising technique.
integrated pest management (IPM) strategies to reduce
pesticide pollution problems. Indian rice fields covering an area of 43.86 Mha emitted
3.37 Mt of CH4 in 2007 (Pathak et al., 2010). The CH4 emission
Pollution due to fertilizer estimates, the emission factors used and area covered under
each rice ecosystems are given in Table 2. The highest emission
Fertilizer, especially nitrogen fertilizer, is often applied in
was from irrigated continuously flooded rice (34%) followed
excess of the crop requirement and at inappropriate times in
by rainfed flood prone rice (21%). Rainfed drought prone, single
many intensively irrigated rice systems, which increases the
aeration, deep water and irrigated multiple aeration rice
risk of poor fertilizer recovery by the rice crop. Less than 35%
ecosystems contributed 17, 16, 8 and 4% of CH4, respectively
of applied nitrogen (N) is taken up by rice and the remaining
(Fig. 2).
65% is lost from soil-plant systems into the environment
through volatilization, denitrification, leaching, and runoff, thus Table 2. Methane emission from various rice ecosystems in India
creating pollution problems (Ladha et al., 2005). The main loss during 2007
pathways are (1) leaching, predominantly nitrate (NO3–) but EcosystemWater regime Rice area Emission Methane
also occasionally ammonium, and soluble organic N; (2) (Thousand coefficient emission
denitrification, resulting in emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O), hectares) (kg ha-1) (Million
tonnes)
nitric oxide (NO), and dinitrogen (N2) gases; and (3) ammonia
Irrigated Continuous flooding 6747 162 ± 28 1.14
(NH3) volatilization. Significant improvement in N-use efficiency
(NUE) is therefore crucial and can be made by adopting fertilizer, Single aeration 8192 66 ± 10 0.55
soil, water, and crop management practices that will maximize Multiple aerations 9911 18 ± 5 0.15
crop N uptake, minimize N losses, and optimize indigenous soil Rainfed Flood prone 3686 190 ± 60 0.70
N supply. The key to improve NUE is the synchrony between Drought prone 3686 66 ± 4 0.70
N supply and demand. Deep water 1353 190 ± 60 0.26
Upland 4949 0 0.15
Burning of rice residues
Total 43860 3.37
Rice straw and husk are often not disposed of in an
Source: Pathak et al. (2010)
environment-friendly manner. About 60% and 80% of rice straw
produced in the northwestern states of Haryana and Punjab, Rice soil is also a source of nitrous oxide, a greenhouse
respectively, is burned in the field (Pathak et al., 2006). About gas 298 times more effective than CO2. Soil contributes about
12 million tons of rice residues are burned annually in Punjab, 65% of the total nitrous oxide emission. The major sources are
India, alone. The burning of rice straw is environmentally soil cultivation, fertilizer and manure application, and burning
unacceptable as it leads to (1) the release of soot particles and organic material and fossil fuels. Appropriate crop-management
smoke, causing human health problems such as asthma or other practices, which lead to increased N-use efficiency, hold the
respiratory problems; (2) emission of greenhouse gases such key to reduce nitrous oxide emission. Site-specific nutrient
 PATHAK et al. – DIRECT-SEEDED RICE: POTENTIAL, PERFORMANCE AND PROBLEMS – A REVIEW
Deepwater
Continuously
Drought prone 7%
flooded
20% 31%
Single aeration
Flood prone Multiple 17%
20%
aeration
5%
Fig. 2. Contribution of various rice ecosystems on methane emission
in 2007 (Source: Pathak et al., 2010)
management, fertilizer placement and proper type of fertilizer
supply nutrients in a better accordance with plant demands,
thereby reducing nitrous oxide emission.
Loss of biodiversity
The introduction of modern rice varieties and practice of
monoculture have caused a reduction in and loss of biodiversity
as many traditional varieties have been abandoned when
farmers found modern varieties to be more productive and
profitable. Genetic diversity is required for the continual
improvement of the rice crop, as cultivars need to be invigorated
every 5 to 15 years to better protect them against diseases and
pests. With the advances in biotechnology, there is a need for
a diversity of genetic material for the potential of these
technologies to be fully achieved.
Impact on subsequent crop
Although the soil physical changes from puddling can
be favorable for rice. They can be very detrimental to the growth
of subsequent non-rice crops such as wheat by causing
temporary water logging, poor crop emergence, and restricted
root development because of a dense zone of compaction i.e.,
plough pan below 30 cm soil depth.
DIRECT-SEEDED RICE (DSR)
Direct seeding rice, a common practice before green
revolution in India, is becoming popular once again because of
its potential to save water and labour (Gupta et al., 2006).
Currently, direct seeded rice in Asia occupies about 29 Mha
which is approximately 21% of the total rice area in the region
(Pandey and Velasco, 2002). Countries like USA and Australia
extensively practicing direct seeding of rice are with profitable
results as it avoids all the penalties entailed in transplanting.
Direct seeded rice under no/reduced tillage is an efficient
resource conserving technology (RCT) holding good promise
in coming days because of the following advantages over
transplanting of rice.
l Labour required for nursery raising, uprooting and
transplanting of seedlings are saved to the extent of
about 40%.
81
l Saving of water (up to 60%) as nursery raising, puddling,
seepage and percolation are eliminated.
l Fertilizer use efficiency is increased because of placement/
application of fertilizers in the root zone.
l Early maturity (7-10 days) helps in timely sowing of
succeeding crops.
l Energy saving (up to 60% of diesel) because of elimination
of field preparation for nursery raising, puddling and
reduced water application for irrigation.
l Reduction in methane emission and global warming
potential.
l Soil structure is not disturbed in direct seeded rice as
occurs in puddled transplanted system.
l Less drudgery to farm women labours because of
elimination of transplanting.
l System productivity is enhanced.
l Cost of cultivation is reduced by about ‘ 5000-6000 ha-1.
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR DSR
Under the DSR technology sowing of rice seeds is done
directly in the soil where they are to grow, rather than
transplanting seedlings. Direct seeding methods could be
divided into wet (pre-germinated seeds) seeding and dry
seeding. In wet seeding pre-germinated seeds are broadcasted
into puddled and leveled field which are free from standing
water. At the time of puddling basal fertilizer mixture should be
added. After germination of seed, seedling desiccation due to
water stress should be avoided by intermittent wetting of the
field. When seedlings are of about 5 cm tall (about a week after
sowing) water is impounded to prevent germination of weeds
and desiccation of seedlings. The stand establishment by this
method varies with the quality of land preparation, weed
competition, water management and rainfall during the initial
period after sowing. Following factors contribute significantly
in achieving the optimum productivity of DSR under irrigated
condition.
Land preparation
This is a pre-requisite for good crop husbandry. Plowing
the fields during summer season helps controlling weeds. In
DSR technology precision land leveling has been proved
advantageous for better germination, controlling weeds
emergence, uniform irrigation saving considerable amount of
water and increasing water use efficiency with ultimate increase
in grain yield.
Time of sowing
This is a critical point to achieve the success in DSR crop
in the main rice growing season (kharif). The sowing of crops
should be accomplished before 10-15 days of onset of
monsoon. The crop should attain 2-3 leaves before rain starts.
This would facilitate the early root establishment so that crop
82 CURRENT ADVANCES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES 3(2): DECEMBER 2011
could compete with emerging weeds easily and also permitted
timely sowing of succeeding wheat crop. Since the time of
arrival of monsoon differs from West Bengal to Punjab in the
IGP, it is best to set the time of sowing accordingly and finished
the sowing between ending May to third week of June.
Selection of varieties
Selection of cultivars plays an important role to get the
desired yield. The choice of cultivars is determined as per the
availability of irrigation water and soil types. Under irrigated
condition, in light textured sandy loam soils, early to medium
duration varieties (100 –135 days) may be preferred whereas in
case of heavy textured clay, medium to late maturing varieties
(135-165 days) should be grown. Varieties suitable for DSR in
different states, regions and time of planting are listed in
Table 3.
Table 3. Varieties suitable for direct seeding of rice in different states
in the Indo-Gangetic plains
State Varieties
West Southern region: Nilanjana, MTU 7029 (Swarna
Bengal Mahsuri), and CR group
Northern region: N K3385, IET 15847
Bihar Early sowing: Pusa 2-21 and Prabhat
Medium sowing: IR 36 and Rajendra Dhan 201
Late sowing: Super mahsuri, Smbha mahsuri and
Swarna mahsuri
Uttar Early sowing: Narendra 97 and Narendra 118
Pradesh
Medium sowing: Sarjoo 52, NDR 359, Sugandha 3
and Sugadh 4
Late sowing: Sambha mahsuri, Swarna mahsuri,
Scented: T3, Pusa Basmati 1, Kasturi
Water logged condition: Jallahari and Jalpriya
Haryana Scented: Pusa Basmati 1, Haryana Basmati 1,
and Punjab Basmati 370, Kasturi and Tarawadi Basmati
Tewari et al. (2009, unpublished)
Seed priming
In order to enhance the seed germination, seed priming
i.e., seeds soaking over night in water and then dried in shades
before sowing. Seed treatment should be done with bavistin at
2.5 g kg-1 to prevent the seed-borne diseases.
Seed rates, row spacing and seeding depth
With zero till ferti-drill sowing, the optimum seed rates
for fine grains, basmati cultivars is 15-20 kg ha-1, coarse grains
20-25 kg ha-1 and for hybrids 8-10 kg ha-1. Use of planters having
inclined plate devices or a cupped metering system is very
useful for proper spacing (20 cm) and reducing seed rate. For
broadcasting a higher seed rate (25-30 kg ha-1) is required.
Seeding depth plays key role for good germination. Depth
should not be kept more than 3 cm for desired level of crop
stand. Placement of seeds below 3 cm adversely affects
dynamics of seed emergence because of rapid drying of the
upper layer soil moisture.
Water management
Usually a pre monsoon rain occurs during mid May to
mid June in almost all the regions of the IGP. If the adequate
rains are received this can be utilized for killing the first flush
of weeds through non-selective herbicides (glyphosate and
paraquat) under stale seed bed technique and for sowing direct
seeding rice crop through zero till machine. In case, no rain is
received during mid May to mid June, a pre-sowing surface
irrigation is required. In fact, after seedling to crop emergence,
no irrigation is required and soil should be moist but not
saturated from sowing till emergence. During transit period of
crop emergence and commencement of monsoon, one or two
irrigations are required. After commencement of rains, no further
irrigation is needed unless dry spell occurs. During dry spell,
irrigations may be given as life saving irrigations, particularly
during the critical growth stages i.e., tillering, panicle initiation,
flowering, milking and grain filling. Irrigation at alternate wetting
and drying has been considered as most effective and
economical in DSR as it improves rooting systems and reduces
lodging.
Nutrient management
Nutritional requirement should be met on the basis of
soil analysis of the crop field. In absence of soil analysis,
following fertilizer schedule should be adopted.
l Blanket application of 120-150 kg N ha-1, 60 kg P2O5 ha-1
and 40 kg K2O ha-1 may be applied along with 25 kg ZnSO4
ha-1.
l In light textured soil, ¼ N and full amount of P2O5 and
K2O should be applied basally. The remaining amount of
N should be applied as top dressing into two splits at
maximum tillering and panicle initiation stage.
l In clay loam soil, half N and full amount of P2O5 and K2O
along with Zn and S should be given as basal dose and
remaining half of N may be given into two installments
i.e. at maximum tillering and at panicle initiation stages.
l In DSR, iron deficiency usually occurs especially in light
textured sandy loam soils. It leads to iron chlorosis in
leaves. This deficiency could be mitigated through the
application of iron sulphate (FeSO4).
l Diammonium phosphate (18 N : 46 P2O5) and NPK (12 N :
32 P2O5 : 16 K2O) are applied basally through zero till ferti-
drill machine. Due to hygroscopic nature of urea, the
drilling of fertilizer is not properly done. In this case, the
remaining amount of N through urea could be applied as
top dressing.
l Leaf Colour Chart (LCC) has been proved very
advantageous in economizing the nitrogen application.
For hybrids and high yielding inbred rice, N application
should be based on a critical LCC value of 4. However, a
critical LCC value of 3 is used for scented basmati type
rice cultivars. Values of the LCC should be recorded 3
weeks after sowing and should continue till heading.
 PATHAK et al. – DIRECT-SEEDED RICE: POTENTIAL, PERFORMANCE AND PROBLEMS – A REVIEW 83

Weed management Use of herbicides

Weeds are great menace in DSR during rainy season and Paraquat: It is a contact and non-selective foliar
inadequate weed management led to severe loss in grain yield. herbicide, which can be applied on emerged weeds before
In puddled transplanted rice, standing water does not allow sowing. Weed mortality takes place within 6-8 hours of
weeds to emerge. In DSR, conditions are more favorable for the application. The DSR crop may be sown after 1-2 days following
germination of weeds, which competes with rice for nutrients, the application of the herbicide.
moisture and sun light causing large yield losses. The important
Glyphosate: It is non-selective highly translocated
weeds associated with irrigated direct seeding rice crop are
herbicide, very effective against perennial grasses reproducing
listed in Table 4.
through underground rhizomes, tubers and stolons. This
Table 4. Important weeds associated with direct seeding rice crop in herbicide may be applied on the foliage of emerged weeds prior
the Indo-Gangetic Plains to sowing of DSR. It is inhibitor of acetolactate synthesis. A
Weed group Weed species
rain free period of 6-8 hours is necessary following the
application of herbicide. The DSR crop may be sown 15-20
Grassy Echinochloa colona, E. Crusgalli, Digitaria days after application of this herbicide as it takes 2-3 weeks
sanguinalis, Dactyloctenium aegyptium,
Leptochloa chinensis, Eleusine indica,
time for complete mortality especially perennial grasses.
Cynodon dactylon, Paspalum distinchum, Pretilachlor with safener: It is selective herbicide
Ischaemum rugosum absorbed by hypocotyls and coleoptiles and roots of
Broad-leaved Trianthema monogyna, Commelina germinating weeds. It is applied as pre-emergence for controlling
benghalensis,Caesulia axillaris, Sphenoclea annual grasses, broadleaved and sedges. Pretilachlor causes
zeylaica, Marsila minuta, Ludwigia spp.,
phyto-toxicity in rice and hence is always used with safener.
Monochoria vaginalis
Sedges Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus iria, Fimbristylis Pendimethalin: It is soil applied herbicide and usually
littoralis, Cyperus difformis, Scirpus applied as pre-emergence to control seasonal grasses and
juncoides broadleaved weeds. It is absorbed by roots and coleoptiles
Source: Adapted from Gupta et al. (2006) and Tewari et al. (2009, and acts by inhibiting cell division and cell elongation.
unpublished)
2,4-D: It may be applied at 30-35 days after sowing in
It is very difficult rather uneconomical to keep DSR crop DSR crop to knock down the broadleaved weeds. It is available
weed free throughout crop period. Pre-germinated weeds can in sodium, amine and ester forms. The amine and ester forms
be knocked down with glyphosate/grammoxone (at 0.5% two are comparatively more effective than sodium salts.
days before seeding) or by 1-2 very shallow ploughing (stale
Chlorimuron ethyl + metsulfuron methyl ready mix: It is
seed bed method). Second flush of weeds can be removed
applied as post-emergence to control broadleaved weeds and
manually It has been proved that weed free conditions provided
sedges.
during 2-6 weeks after sowing gave optimum grain yield of
DSR. Based on several trials conducted under different SAUs Ethoxysulfuron: It is used as early post emergence and
and IRRI collaborated projects, following herbicides have been mainly taken by roots and leaves and translocated within the
found effective against annual and perennial weed species in plants. This could be used successfully in DSR for controlling
DSR (Tewari et al., 2009, unpublished). The recommended rates broadleaved weeds and sedges.
and time of application of selected herbicides have been
Azimsulfuron: This is a post-emergence herbicide and
presented in Table 5.
could be used 15-20 days after sowing or 2-3 leaf stage to
Table 5. Recommended rates and time of application of selected check the grasses, broadleaved weeds and sedges. This
herbicides in direct seeded rice herbicide is absorbed by roots and leaves and inhibits
acetolactate synthase in susceptible weed plants.
Herbicide Dose Time of Target weed
(kg a.i. ha-1) application Integrated weed management
Paraquat 0.5 1-2 DBS All types of weeds
There is hardly any herbicide which could control the
Glyphosate 1.2 -1.6 7-15 DBS All types of weeds menace of all types of weeds in a single application. Integration
Pendimethalin 1.0 1-2 DAS Grasses, of preventive, physical, mechanical, cropping and cultural
broadleaved measures along with low doses of herbicides is imperative to
Pretilachlor + 1.5 1-2 DAS All types of weeds make weed management effective, economical and eco-friendly.
safener z
Ethoxysulfuron 15 10-15 DAS Sedges, broadleaved PERFORMANCE OF DSR COMPARED TO
2,4-D 0.5 20 -25 DAS Sedges, broadleaved
TRANSPLANTED RICE
DBS, days before sowing; DAS, days after sowing (Source: Tewari et al., Several experiments have been conducted to evaluate
2009, unpublished) the performance of DSR compared to the conventional
84 CURRENT ADVANCES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES 3(2): DECEMBER 2011

Table 6. Grain yield of rice with different crop establishment methods at different sites in India
Year Location Soil type Variety Planting method Yield (t ha-1)
1992 Pantnagar Silty clay loam Pant Dhan 4 Transplanted 5.88
1992 Pantnagar Silty clay loam Pant Dhan 4 DSR tilled 5.34
1993 Pantnagar Silty clay loam Pant Dhan 4 Transplanted 5.89
1993 Pantnagar Silty clay loam Pant Dhan 4 DSR tilled 5.42
2001 Delhi Sandy loam Pusa 44 Transplanted 5.50
2001 Delhi Sandy loam Pusa 44 DSR tilled 4.20
2001 Pantnagar Silty loam Sarju 52 Transplanted 7.85
2001 Pantnagar Silty loam Sarju 52 DSR tilled 6.11
2001 Pantnagar Silty loam Sarju 52 DSR no till 6.60
2002 Delhi Loam Pusa 44 Transplanted 5.44
2002 Delhi Loam Pusa 44 DSR tilled 4.20
2002 Modipuram Silty loam NDR 359 Transplanted 7.30
2002 Modipuram Silty loam NDR 359 DSR no till 7.30
2002 Pantnagar Silty loam Sarju 52 Transplanted 6.14
2002 Pantnagar Silty loam Sarju 52 DSR tilled 6.69
2002 Pantnagar Silty loam Sarju 52 DSR no till 5.74
2003 Kumarganj Silty loam Sarju 52 Transplanted 4.51
2003 Kumarganj Silty loam Sarju 52 DSR tilled 3.67
2003 Kumarganj Silty loam Sarju 52 DSR no till 3.93
2003 Modipuram Silty loam NDR 359 Transplanted 7.20
2003 Modipuram Silty loam NDR 359 DSR no till 6.60
2003 Pantnagar Silty loam Narendra 359 Transplanted 5.33
2003 Pantnagar Silty loam Narendra 359 DSR tilled 5.52
2003 Pantnagar Silty loam Narendra 359 DSR no till 5.09
2004 Kumarganj Silty loam Sarju 52 Transplanted 3.68
2004 Kumarganj Silty loam Sarju 52 DSR tilled 3.32
2004 Kumarganj Silty loam Sarju 52 DSR no till 3.94
2004 Masodha Silty loam Sarju 52 Transplanted 4.90
2004 Masodha Silty loam Sarju 52 DSR tilled 3.87
2004 Masodha Silty loam Sarju 52 DSR no till 4.12
2004 Pantnagar Silty loam Narendra 359 Transplanted 6.84
2004 Pantnagar Silty loam Narendra 359 DSR tilled 5.93
2004 Pantnagar Silty loam Narendra 359 DSR no till 5.31
2005 Kaul Clay loam HKR 126 Transplanted 7.28
2005 Kaul Clay loam HKR 126 DSR no till 6.67
2005 Meerut Sandy loam PBH 71 Transplanted 7.90
2005 Meerut Sandy loam PBH 71 DSR no till 7.30
2005 Meerut Sandy loam PBH 71 DSR tilled 7.40
2006 Kaul Clay loam HKR 126 Transplanted 7.06
2006 Kaul Clay loam HKR 126 DSR no till 6.52
2006 Meerut Sandy loam PBH 71 Transplanted 7.50
2006 Meerut Sandy loam PBH 71 DSR no till 5.70
2006 Meerut Sandy loam PBH 71 DSR tilled 5.60
2009 Jalandhar Sandy loam 26 P26 Transplanted 7.40
2009 Jalandhar Sandy loam 26 P26 DSR tilled 7.70
2010 Jalandhar Sandy loam Arize 6129 Transplanted 6.45
2010 Jalandhar Sandy loam Arize 6129 DSR tilled 6.24
Source: Singh and Ladha (2011), Pathak et al. (2011, unpublished)
 PATHAK et al. – DIRECT-SEEDED RICE: POTENTIAL, PERFORMANCE AND PROBLEMS – A REVIEW 85

8.0 water during the crop growth period and increased water
productivity by 25-48%. Rice can be established by DSR once
150 mm rain or irrigation water has accumulated compared to
6.0 450 mm needed for transplanting. Furthermore, because DSR
establishes deeper roots and is more efficient at using soil
Yield (t ha-1)

moisture, less frequent irrigation is required during the growing

4.0 season. Farmers in Uttar Pradesh who participated in the
evaluation of DSR on-farm trials estimated that DSR reduced
irrigation costs after crop establishment by one-third (Tewari
2.0
et al., 2009, unpublished).
Water saving of 35-55% have been reported for dry
0.0 seeded rice sown into non-puddled soil with the soil kept near
Transplanted DSR tilled DSR no till saturation or field capacity compared with continuously flooded
Fig. 3. Effect of crop establishment techniques on grain yield of rice (~5 cm) transplanted rice in research experiments in north west
(Data compiled from experiments at various locations in the country India (Lav Bhushan et al., 2007). In some other studies the
shown in Table 6). (Source: Adapted from Kumar and Ladha, 2011) DSR crop saved 32% water compared to transplanted rice
pudddled transplanted rice. A summary of the various without any yield penalty (Tables 7 and 8).
experiments is presented in Table 6 and their comparative yield Table 7. Yield, water productivity and profitability of rice under
is presented in Fig. 3. On-station experiments demonstrated different crop establishment techniques
that yields from DSR are broadly comparable with transplanted Crop establishment Yield Water Water Net profit
rice provided that weed management is effective (Table 6). If methods (t ha-1) use productivity (` ha-1)
weeds were not controlled, yields in direct-seeded rice were a (m3 ha-1) (kg grain
small fraction of those from transplanted rice. The research m-3)
and promotional activities being done under IRRI-RWC and Western Uttar Pradesh
other ICAR and SAUs institutes indicated enormous benefits Conventional puddle 7.56 18,720 0.40 19,440
TPR
of DSR being realized by the farmers of the IGP. Results of 110
ZT DSR 7.19 17,550 0.41 21,915
trials conducted in Haryana clearly elucidated comparable grain RT DSR 7.50 17,550 0.43 22,185
yield of DSR under zero till/reduced till system with less water Haryana
use, more water productivity and greater net profit over that of Conventional puddle 4.36 16,013 0.29 19,200
conventional puddled transplanting. The DSR established its TPR
superiority over manual transplanting in terms of higher rice- RT DSR 4.20 12,532 0.37 22,339
wheat system productivity with greater system net return,
increased water use efficiency and substantial improvement in Table 8. Compararative performance of DSR and conventional
fertilizer use efficiency compared to manual transplanting (Singh puddled transplanted rice in Jalandhar, Punjab
and Ladha, 2011). Field studies conducted for four years (2003- Parameter (ha-1) Transplanted DSR
2006) at Modipuram (Meerut) of Uttar Pradesh revealed that Human labour (man days) 55-60 35-40
system productivity of aerobic rice-wheat, aerobic rice-chickpea Tractor (hours) 10-12 5-6
and aerobic rice-mustard were higher than transplanted rice- Crop duration (day) 140-150 130-140
based systems (Gangwar and Pandey, 2007). Results of some Benefit (`) 14000-17000 17000-20000
of the experiment carried out at various on-farm locations at Number of irrigation 20-25 14-17
Jalandhar, Punjab showed that yield were higher in DSR than Global warming potential 2.0-4.5 1.3-3.0
transplanted rice (Table 6). The DSR also had higher number of (Mg CO2 eq.)
panicles per unit area, longer panicle length, more number of Source: Pathak et al. (2011, unpublished)
grains panicle-1 and higher 1000-grain weight.
Labour and cost saving
Water saving
In recent years, there have been concerns related to
Transplanted rice with continuous standing water has shortages of labor, which cause transplanting costs to rise and
relatively high water inputs and low water productivity as delay the planting. Direct seeding avoids to grow the seedling
compared to other technologies of rice cultivation (Table 7). and transplanting, thus reducing the labour requirement for
Reports from on-farm experiments to reduce water input by transplanting and nursery growing. It also saves machine labour,
water saving irrigation techniques and alternative crop maintenance of tractor, fuel cost and also time. Generally, it
establishment methods, in the Philippines reported that with seems that benefits will go to large farmers who rely heavily on
continuous standing water, direct wet-seeded rice yielded higher labour. Human labour use also reduced to 40-45% and tractor
than traditional transplanted rice by 3-17%, required 19% less use to 50-60% in DSR compared to transplanted rice (Table 8).
86 CURRENT ADVANCES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES 3(2): DECEMBER 2011
Mitigating green-house gas emission and climate
change adaptation
Direct-seeded rice is a feasible alternative to conventional
puddled transplanted rice having good potential to mitigate
and adapt to climate change. Pathak et al. (2011, unpublished)
observed that the average global warming potential (GWP)
due to three GHGs (CO2, CH4 and N2O) in transplanted rice was
2.91 Mg ha-1 whereas in DSR the GWP was 1.9 Mg ha-1 (Fig. 4).
4.0
Transplanted
Direct seeded
2.0
0.0
Methane Nitrous Carbon Total
oxide dioxide
Fig. 4. Global warming potential of transplanted and dry direct-seeded
rice.
(Source: Pathak et al., 2011, unpublished).
Climate change is expected to increase the variability of
monsoon rainfall and the risks of early or late-season drought.
The DSR increases the capacity of poor farmers to cope with
climate induced change by offering a choice of rice
establishment methods and by reducing the amount of water
required for crop establishment and subsequent crop growth.
Further, faced with early drought, farmers can direct seed with
minimal soil moisture, rather than wait for sufficient rainfall for
transplanting. Earlier crop establishment through DSR also
reduces the risk of yield loss from late-season drought, and the
cost of additional irrigation to prevent such losses.
Avoiding burning of rice straw
In DSR technology seeds can be sown directly on residue
retained fields by using Happy Seeder machine. It will reduce
burning of rice straw that is environmentally unacceptable as it
leads to the release of soot particles and smoke causing human
health problems such as asthma or other respiratory problems,
emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane
and nitrous oxide causing global warming. In addition, the entire
amount of C and N, 25% P and 20% of K present in the straw
are lost due to burning (Pathak et al., 2006).
CONSTRAINTS OF DSR
Inspite of potential benefits, DSR suffers from some
constraints. It faces a potential threat from high weed infestation
and weed species that are difficult to control. These include
Ischaemum rugosum, Echinochloa crus-galli, Echinochloa
colona, Leptochloa chinensis, and Cyperus spp. To avoid
these externalities farmers must be provided with information
on herbicide resistance management strategies and the value
of crop-rotation. Some farmers observe that perennial weeds
are increasing in DSR crop. Due to weedy rice problem, DSR
crop failed many times. Weeds emerge in different flushes and
create problems in direct seeding rice cultivation. In other areas,
Cyperus iria infest the DSR crops in later stages. In some
areas e.g. West Bengal boro rice is grown alternately by canal
water. During boro year, kharif rice sown by zero tillage create
weedy rice problem. Perennial grasses namely Paspalum spp.
and C. dactylon were noted troublesome weeds in upland rice
in the area. The DSR, therefore, requires the use of herbicides,
but farmers need more information on how to use them wisely
and safely. Inappropriate use of herbicides may lead to the
evolution of herbicide resistance in weed species, with
devastating impacts on production costs and yields.
Most farmers are also not well acquainted with the new
herbicides and technique of herbicidal application. Some farmers
are not fully acquainted about the DSR technology and face
difficulty in sowing and good crop stand. Sowing of DSR crop
in early June may create difficulty in harvesting during ending
October due to heavy and frequent rains in some parts of the
IGP. Small and fragmented holdings, however, appears to be
the most important constraint in the adoption of tractor drawn
zero till sowing of DSR. Scarcity of water and dependence on
rain or canal water also pose problems in performing the timely
sowing. Lastly bird damage after sowing is common in case of
DSR.
INNOVATIONS FOR PROMOTION OF DSR
In recent years, sincere efforts have been made in
promoting the DSR technology by various International,
National and Private organizations. Breeders, agronomists and
agricultural engineers have also concentrated their efforts in
developing suitable cultivars, agronomic packages and need-
based implements for promoting the DSR. Some of the recent
technological developments in the DSR are discussed below.
Suitability of genotypes
Consistent efforts have been made by the rice breeders
for developing high yielding rice genotypes suitable for direct
seeding . Under aerobic conditions, with irrigation around field
capacity, varieties with grain yield of 4.75-5.75 Mg ha-1 were
Pusa Rice Hybrid 10, Pusa Sugandha 3, Pusa Sugandha-4 and
Pusa Sugandha 5 identified in a participatory varietal selection
trials in farmers field at Bulandshahr, UP. With the adoption of
recommended cultivation practices, these aerobic rice varieties
yielded 5.5 Mg ha-1 of grain and 6 Mg ha-1 of straw with water
saving of 40-50%. Rice cultivars, viz. Sarjoo 52 and NDR 359
(medium durations), samba mahsuri, swarna mahsuri (late
maturing) are gaining the favours of the farmers in West Bengal,
Bihar, and eastern and central UP for direct seeded rice crop. In
farmers’ participatory trials in eastern UP at Ballia, all the rice
varieties under test including Sarjoo 52, Sambha mahsuri and
Swarna mahsuri excelled under the DSR.
 PATHAK et al. – DIRECT-SEEDED RICE: POTENTIAL, PERFORMANCE AND PROBLEMS – A REVIEW
Zero tillage/reduced tillage
Zero tillage has been established as cost saving, yield
boosting and eco-friendly resource conservation technology
in entire IGP. In this system, no preparatory tillage (ploughing,
harrowing, planking) is done and there is slight soil disturbances
associated with creating a narrow slit for planting seeds and
fertilizers and in this way only one pass is required against the
normal practice of 4-10 passes. The multi-crop new generation
zero till seed cum test planters with disk type coulters allow
seeding in presence of anchored and loose residue.
Laser land leveler
Traditionally, levelled fields, although look even but may
have up to ± 6 cm or more deviations from the average elevation
of the fields. With laser leveling, the field surface is smoothened
to within ± 2 cm. In fact, traditional land leveling by animal or
tractor drawn scraffers leaves wide variability in the landscape.
Results of farmers participatory trials have indicated that laser
assisted precision land leveling saved a minimum of 15 cm
water in rice-wheat system and improved yield up to 25%.
Precision leveling reduced or eliminated weed problem in the
initial years and increased cultivable area by 3-6% due to
elimination of many field bunds and irrigation channels (Gupta
et al., 2006). Laser leveling improved water use efficiency (WUE)
through uniformity in water application, better crop stand,
improved nutrient- water interaction combined with bed planting
and zero tillage increased available planting area by 2-7%,
curtailing irrigation application losses (25%), reduced labour
requirement for irrigation (35%) promoted the adoption of
improved soil and crop management practices and increased
crop yields. This is becoming very popular practice among the
farmers of the north-west IGP regions and there is huge demand
of this implement.
Leaf colour chart (LCC) for N application
Leaf colour chart (LCC) has been found an effective tool
through which a farmer could apply right amount of N at
optimum time. It has 6 colour shades from yellowish green to
dark green. The observations are recorded after 21 days after
sowing and the last reading is taken at flowering. Ten leaves
are selected and readings are taken at 7-10 days intervals (early
tillering, active tillering, panicle initiation and first flowering).
On the appearance of the symptoms, about 20-30 kg N ha-1 is
applied at each stage. It results in saving of 8-22 kg N ha-1 with
a yield increase of 2-8%. Nitrogen management based on LCC
and SPAD-N gave significantly higher grain yield with a net
saving of 30-50 kg N ha-1 with increased agronomic efficiency
due to need based N application to rice crop (Subbaiah et al.,
2002). Results indicated that agronomic efficiency of N in rice
could be enhanced by real time N management using LCC (LCC
= 3 for basmati rice and LCC = 4 for hybrid and high yielding
medium fine to coarse grain rice). Its use saved N up to 17% in
transplanted rice without any yield penalty.
Brown manuring
Traditionally, dhaincha (Sesbania aculeate) is sown
87
during mid May for the purpose of green manuring and is
incorporated 45 days after sowing before transplanting of rice
crop. However, due to dearth of irrigation water during summer,
majority of the rice farmers are not able to raise the green manure
crop. Brown manuring is a new innovative approach where
both rice and Sesbania crops are seeded together and allowed
to grow for 25-30 days. Application of 2, 4-D (0.5 kg ha-1) is
made to kill the co-cultured Sesbania. It reduces weed
population by nearly half without any adverse effect on rice
yield. Sesbania surface mulch decomposes very fast to supply
N. Direct seeding of Basmati rice (CSR-30) with Sesbania co-
culture as brown manuring yielded at par compared to
conventional transplanting and saved about 44% water at
Karnal (Tewari et al., 2009, unpublished).
Weed management
Weeds are major constraints responsible for low
productivity in direct seeded rice crop. Experiments conducted
in different SAUs under All India Coordinated Research
Programme on Weed Control Scheme/IRRI collaborated projects
on the use of herbicides in DSR have indicated that pre -
emergence application of pendimethalin at 1 kg ha-1 dissolved
in 500-600 L of water followed by post emergence application
of ready mix of chlorimuron + metsulfuron @ 4 g ha-1 for broad
leaved and sedges weed control or ethoxysulfuron @ 15 g ha-
1
for sedges and broad leaved weeds, or 2,4–D at 500 g ha-1
applied around 20 days after sowing for broad leaved weeds
and Fenoxaprop @ 50 g ha-1 for grassy weeds have been found
effective in realizing higher rice grain yield. Azimsulfuron is
also performing well in controlling complex weed flora in DSR
in Indo-Gangetic Plains.
FUTURE RESEARCH WORK
The DSR holds good promise and is an alternative in
present situation in view of water and labour scarcity and to
mitigate GHG emission. It is becoming more popular among
rice farmer as it is economical than transplanting. The yields
are also comparable with transplanted rice if crop is properly
managed. The system has been proved cost effective and
farmers’ friendly but require further improvement in
technological approach to realize greater benefits. Following
points are suggested for the consideration to the scientists,
extension officers and policy makers.
l More research is needed to develop high yielding rice
varieties suitable for DSR under different agro-climatic
conditions. Varieties must posses the desirable traits, viz.
vigorous growth, weed suppressing ability, germinating
ability under moisture stress, tolerant to micronutrient
deficiency.
l There is need to improve the productivity of DSR which
is low due to inadequate nutrient inputs, inefficient
water management and problem associated with weed
management.
l Timely DSR crop establishment during mid May to mid-
June (or 15-20 days before commencement of monsoon)
 88 CURRENT ADVANCES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES 3(2): DECEMBER 2011
is deciding factor for the success of the crop. Irrigation
water supply must be ensured at the sowing time.
l A cooperative society with a cluster of villages for
ensuring the availability of agri-inputs, laser land leveler,
zero till machine, LCC, cono weeder at reasonable costs
needs to be strengthened.
l Weeds are location specific and the nature and intensity
of weed flora are usually governed by the ecosystems
under which it is grown. There is need to give fine tuning
to the low cost integrated weed management technology
involving stale seed bed technique, suitable aerobic
genotypes, cultural, physical, mechanical and use of low
doses of herbicides for different ecosystems in the
different regions.
l The problem of weedy rice is coming up in direct seeding
rice especially in canal irrigated areas. Strategic approach
in tackling this menace is very much required.
l Since the herbicidal application is highly technical,
training to the rice growers is needed in respect of
calibration of sprayers, preparation of herbicidal spray,
importance of flat fan/flood zet nozzles, method of
herbicidal application and precautions in the herbicidal
spray.
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