Aikido and the

Dynamic Sphere
AIKIDO
AND THE
DYNAMIC SPHERE
An Illustrated Introduction

by A. Westbrook and O. Ratti

Illustrations by O. Ratti
TUTTLE PUBLISHING
Tokyo • Rutland, Vermont • Singapore
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To Master Morihei Uyeshiba
who did not believe his
aikido was for any particular
individual, elite or nation
—but for the whole human family.
 Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 9
PREFACE 11
LIST OF CHARTS 13
I WHAT IS AIKIDO? 17
Defense in Aikido • The "Centre" and "Ki" • The Strategy of Neutralization • The
Potential of Aikido
II THE FOUNDATIONS OF AIKIDO 29
The Founder • Main Sources of Formation and Inspiration • The Martial Arts •
The "Ethics" of Defense
III ORGANIZATION 35
The Hierarchy • Promotion • The Uniform • The Practice Hall • The Mat •
Etiquette and Glasses
IV THE PRACTICE OF AIKIDO 45
The Theory of Attack • Physical Factors • Dynamic Factors • Technical Factors •
The Unified Power of Attack
V THE THEORY OF DEFENSE 61
The Process of Defense and Its Factors • The Inner Factors: the Role of the Mind
• The Principle of Centralization • The Principle of Extension • The Principle of
Leading Control • The Principle of Sphericity • Circuits of Neutralization •
Spirals and Semi-Spirals of Neutralization • The Dynamic Sphere • Fusion and
Special Exercises
VI THE PHYSICAL PREPARATION 113
Preliminary Exercises: Suppleness • Basic Exercises: Coordination • Rolls and
Somersaults
VII THE POSTURE AND MOTION OF DEFENSE 143
Stages and Unity of the Aikido Process of Defense • The Posture • The Motion
VIII THE BASIC TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALIZATION 159
General Recommendations • Immobilizations • Projections • Combinations
IX ADVANCED PRACTICE 323
"Mat" or Kneeling Aikido • The Stave Exercises • The Techniques of
Neutralization Applied Against an Armed Attack • The Techniques of
Neutralization Applied Against a Multiple Attack • Free Style
X CONCLUSION 359
GLOSSARY 365
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 371
INDEX 373
 Acknowledgments
THE SOURCES of direct and indirect assistance to the authors in the process of
collecting the material for Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere are too many to be
acknowledged individually here. In the former category, for example, are all those
instructors and advanced students of the art, scattered throughout the world, under
whose personal guidance the authors explored the practical dimensions of this
Discipline of Coordination, or with whom they practiced and corresponded for years.
In particular, however, they wish to express their personal gratitude to Yasuo Ohara,
who introduced them to aikido for the first time in New York in 1962; to Edi
Hagihara, Barry Bernstein, and Virginia Mayhew, who helped them overcome many
difficulties during their "apprenticeship" period; to Walter N. Dobson, Motokage
Kawamukai, and Yoshimitsu Yamada, who clarified many problems of technical
application and style; to Koichi Tohei, chief instructor at Hombu Dojo in Tokyo who
—in April, 1965—conferred upon them the rank of black belt, 1st degree; and to
Kisshomaru Uyeshiba, son of the founder of aikido, who instructed them during his
brief visit to New York in 1966.
The authors are not listing individually, by name and rank—but do remain deeply
indebted to—all those other instructors and advanced students in the United States
(from the East Coast to the West Coast, and Hawaii), in Japan, France, Italy, and
Belgium who illustrated and explained their particular methods and technical
interpretations of aikido, either personally or in lengthy correspondence.
Styles of performance are as many and as unique as the individuals who practice
an art—aikido being no exception. Each and every one to which the authors were
exposed offered them an opportunity to view various aspects of the practice in a new
light and to re-examine their own basic premises.
The sources of indirect assistance, invaluable moral support and encouragement
include in particular Dr. Elizabeth Richards and Mr. Charles G. Partington; Edward
M. Kinney, Edward O'Brien, Anthony Foddai, and Edvi Illes Gedeon.
Finally, the authors wish to express their heartfelt gratitude to all those aikido
practitioners with whom they were privileged to practice in the United States, France,
and Italy, and to those students at all levels of development who willingly cooperated
in the testing and refining of the authors' theories on the tatami in dojo all over the
world.
Last, but certainly not least, we wish to express our appreciation to the members
of the Editorial and Design departments of the Charles E. Tuttle Company for their
patient and painstaking efforts on behalf of Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere.
 Preface
IN ORDER to be consistent and have any significance whatsoever, a book—any book—
must have a purpose and a system for achieving that purpose. The primary purpose of
Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere is to widen and deepen knowledge of this Discipline
of Coordination. In the authors' estimation, the art of aikido contains valuable
directives for helping man in his struggle against the age-old predicament represented
by that dispersive (and dispersed) condition of physio-functional and psychological
lack of coordination which can undermine the very foundation of his character,
personality, and—eventually—his entire well-being. This art also contains an ethical
message, a reason why, as well as a means of harmonizing that character and that
personality in the sphere of superior development and of coordinating it with the
everyday conduct of man—in his individual niche, in his society, in his world.
Such a purpose, however, because of its very depth and extension, is extremely
difficult (if not impossible) to achieve in a single book. Aikido, in fact, rests upon
cultural foundations drawn from the life of Japan in particular, and Asia in general. Its
theory is complex and its practice extremely varied—both replete with unexplored
possibilities. At best, then, what we have systematically gathered together here can
serve only as an introduction to the subject.
Aikido consists of, and may be systematically approached as, theory and
practice. Volumes could be devoted entirely to either, and anthologies to both (the
Bibliography found at the end of this book indicates a very bare beginning). We were
forced to consider whether Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere. should concentrate
primarily on the former—the history, philosophy, ethical motivations of the art, etc.—
or should deal more specifically with its practice, i.e., its techniques, exercises, and
strategies.
We decided finally in favor of the second possibility, and have consequently
gone very deeply into the practice of aikido, taking great pains to demonstrate through
examination of concrete conduct of actual techniques, exercises, and strategies, what
their theoretical motivations are (or should be), hoping that the image of an action or
the action itself may prove to be worth the proverbial "thousand words."
As to the system adopted, we would propose that there are two equally valid
ways of approaching any experience—both with their positive and negative aspects. In
the East, the general tendency historically has been that of approaching it as a totality,
as an indivisible entity whose hidden laws must be felt intuitively and followed
absolutely if the desired result is to be obtained. There is, of course, a tacit acceptance
of order and therefore, implicitly, a system of some sort; but the emphasis is upon
leaping into the experience with both feet—as into a pond—and sinking or swimming
as the case may be.
In the West, analysis plus the ability to project abstractions have been largely
responsible for the advances (and the horrors) of Western civilization. However, in
the West, the pervading theme is beginning to be: "We have, progressed from
primitive and unself-conscious participation to analytical thinking and an appreciation
of awareness on the individual level—now, finally, let us move onward toward
synthesis and unity on a higher and more truly humane level."
In the East, on the other hand, they began with the idea of unity accepted a priori
—an acceptance which was to be largely responsible for the wonders and the
tragedies of their civilization. But with the coming of industrialization, Asia of
necessity began to respond to the analytical resonances buried just beneath the surface
of that word. In Asia too, however, it is only a matter of time before there will be a
move toward blending the original and largely unexamined totality with the newly
acquired tradition of analysis—gravitating, as in the West, toward a higher and more
consciously constructed unity.
In this book, we, being Westerners, have analyzed and systematized the practice
of aikido, always keeping in mind the ultimate unity of the art and hoping that the
method we have devised will help to introduce other Westerners to this marvelous
Discipline of Coordination.
And, as we—although steeped in Western ways—learned aikido by studying
with many Japanese instructors, so we hope that it may prove enlightening for readers
in the Orient to catch a glimpse of their art as seen through Western eyes.
 List of Charts and Tables
CHARTS
CHAPTER 2 PAGE

1 Main Sources of Formation and Inspiration 30

2 Major Armed Martial Arts 31
3 Major Unarmed Martial Arts 32
4 Major Schools of Martial Arts 33
5 The Ethics of Defense in Combat 34
CHAPTER 3
6 Categories and Ranks of the Aikido Hierarchy 36
7 Hombu Dojo Grading System 37
8 Requirements for Promotion—New York 38
9 The Uniform 39
10 The Practice Hall 40
CHAPTER 4
11 The Practice of Aikido 47
12 "Uncontrolled" Neutralizations Affecting the Physical Factors of an Attack 50
13 "Controlled" Neutralizations Affecting the Functional Factors of an Attack 52
14 Motion, Resistance, Control 53
15 Guiding the Motion of Convergence 54
16 Directions of Aggressive Convergence 55
17 Basic Holds 56
18 Basic Blows 57
19 Basic Combinations 57
20 Aggressive Coordination of Power 59
21 Inner and Outer Limits of Power 60
CHAPTER 5
22 The Theory of Defense 61
23
24 The
The Process
Process of
of Defense
Defense:and Its Factors
Stages and Qualities 62
63
25 The Process of Defense 65
26 Aggressive Solicitation 66
27 The Process of Defense: Stages and Factors 66
28 The Inner Factors: the Role of the Mind 68
29 Centralization 71
30 Coordination 79
31 Types of "ki" 85
32 The Power of UPA 88
33 The Points of Control of UPA 88
TABLES
1 The Basic Techniques of Neutralization 161
2 Examples of Basic Techniques of Neutralization Illustrated 162
Aikido and the
Dynamic Sphere
 CHAPTER I
What is Aikido?

EMERGING from a long period of obscurity in the East—during which time it was
familiar only to relatively restricted circles—aikido has been called one of the most
subtle and sophisticated of the martial arts, and—at its higher levels—an effective
discipline for the development, integration, and utilization of all man's powers,
physical and mental (spiritual).
What may appear at first glance to be a unique method for efficiently defending
yourself against any form or type of attack will reveal itself under careful scrutiny to
be not only an effective method of self-defense derived from Japanese Bujutsu
(warrior arts); in addition—and this is the element which interests many who are
strangers to the traditional dojo, or practice hall—it is a Discipline of Coordination, a
way of strengthening the mind and body, of fusing the individual's physical and mental
powers so that he or she will emerge as a more fully integrated human being. The
word, in fact, means, "method or way [do] for the Coordination or Harmony [at] of
Mental Energy or Spirit [ki]."
The particular martial art method developed by Master Morihei Uyeshiba in
Japan which he referred to as "aikido" combines practical self-defense movements
taken from sword and spear fighting, jujutsu, aikijutsu and other ancient, more esoteric
forms of the martial arts—with an emphasis from the very first moment of practice
upon a characteristic centralization of thought and action, and the extension of mental
energy or ki that makes this such an intriguing art.
 It is a unique method of self-defense equally adaptable to and effective against a
single attacker or several. The practice section of this book (Chapters IV-IX) is
devoted to explanations and illustrations of the particular methods employed to
achieve these often spectacular results—and to achieve them, moreover, in a manner
which makes aikido practice possible for people of all ages and both sexes.
But why do we say that aikido is unique? Almost every martial art can claim to
be an efficient means of self-defense and many can be safely practiced by old and
young alike. How does aikido differ from all the others?
The difference lies in the essential motivations and characteristic effects which
identify its practice, and the early as well as continuing emphasis placed upon them.
These include the following:

1. Aikido, purely in its practical application, is an art of self-defense. It is entirely

reflexive, and related ethically to defense against an unprovoked attack. There is
no attack in aikido. When the techniques are applied by aikidoists who have
achieved a certain degree of mastery in the art, they will leave no serious injury
in their wake.
2. There is the constant reference to the hara, or a man's "Centre" (i.e., center of
gravity), as the point of concentration of energy; there is the predominance of
references to ki, or "Inner Energy," as the particular form of energy to be
employed. Finally, there is the interesting possibility of expanding these concepts
and their relevance to areas outside the comparatively restricted world of the
martial arts.
3. There is the characteristic strategy (i.e., movements, displacements, techniques)
peculiar to the art, and the emphasis upon circularity or "sphericity" in the
application of that strategy.

We will enlarge upon these three categories in some detail in the pages that follow, as
well as upon the application of aikido training programs in the interest of physical
fitness.

Defense in Aikido
As a self-defense art, aikido recognizes that one individual attacked by another
has the right (and, of course, usually the instinctive urge) to defend himself against that
aggression.
B ut how will he defend himself? This will depend upon the degree of his
personal development. If he is still on a primitive level—mentally and/or physically
—he may react wildly (often ineffectively); from the depths of his lack of preparation,
he may clumsily inflict whatever damage he can upon his aggressor. Or, if skilled in
one of the more deadly of the self-defense arts, he may cold-bloodedly proceed to
seriously injure if not actually kill his attacker.

Using aikido properly however, an unjust and violent aggression can be

neutralized swiftly and cleanly with demonstrable control over all the aspects of
attack and defense—so that effective self-defense becomes possible without the
necessity for inflicting serious injury upon an aggressor.
In other words, aikido says that you should and must defend yourself, and
supplies you with an extensive practice that will enable you to do so with optimum
efficiency. But aikido also says that you must be responsible for not inflicting
unnecessary damage upon your attacker. He is still operating on a lower level. You
aspire to a superior level where your proven ability, well-earned self-confidence, and
refinement of technique, will allow you to defend yourself without resorting to the
brutal methods so often taught as legitimate means of self-defense.
This definitely more difficult and therefore more sophisticated concept of self-
defense, and the correlative control which must be developed in order to concretely
achieve such aims in the practice of combat, becomes the testing ground for a
developed aikido personality and the evidence of its existence. It is, therefore, in the
very meaning attributed to the word "defense" that aikido differs from the other martial
arts. This difference is graphically examined in the sections of this book concerned
with the ethics of the art (Chapter II and Chapter X).

The "Centre" and "Ki"

Westward from the Orient have come many tales of strange forms of power—of
strength like that of "massed wind or water" sweeping everything away before it. This
power has been called by many names, but the one that appears most often in these
accounts, especially in Japan, is ki and the seat of that power is said to be the hara, or
Centre.
 Almost all of the martial arts at some point in their development mention this
power and the various means by which it may be developed. It is held to be "Intrinsic
Energy" or "Inner Energy" and possessed by everyone although developed consciously
by only a few.

The seat of this energy, the hara, or Centre, is a point approximately two inches
below the navel. This corresponds roughly to the physical balance point of a man's
anatomy which we in the West call his center of gravity.
In aikido, the emphasis upon this balance point and this Inner Energy (as
differentiated from purely physical, muscular energy) is the very core and lodestone of
the method.
We are faced with certain difficulties in attempting to explain and define this
power according to generally accepted Western terminology. It is mental as opposed
to physical and yet more than mental in the restricted, Occidental sense of "mental
power"—although Western psychology does speak of "will power," the "will to live,"
etc., all aspects of attitudes and mental impulses which, while unsubstantial, can
nevertheless produce concrete physical results.
By far the most serious obstacle to any discussion of the particular strength
referred to in aikido as ki is the strict division which Western terminology usually
makes between what is mental and what is physical—between the mind and the body.
But of what use is the mind and its reasoning, directing powers without the body to act
and carry out its decisions? And of what use is the body without any over-all
conscious control and direction? The mind and the body are not separate entities; the
mind is part of and contained within the body. The closer unity of mind and body—the
fusion of these two functions (direction and action)—seems to come closest to an
acceptable Western explanation of the strange strength which aikidoists call hi. It can
be demonstrated quite convincingly by reference to the phenomenon called the
"unbendable arm"—as well as to many others.
What do we mean, exactly, by this "fusion" of mind and body? Well, if you have
ever tried unsuccessfully to open a tiny baby's tightly closed fist, you will have
encountered an example of this fusion. The baby is relaxed and obviously not straining
to resist you—he may not even seem to be aware of you—but that little fist remains
closed. Since a baby responds instinctively to its environment, there is hardly any
separation between perception and reaction, or between the mental and the physical.
But as we grow older and develop our rational powers, we find, especially in
Western cultures, a widening of the gap between the mind and the body, a noticeable
hesitation between decision and action. It is as if the mind is to review, decide, and
then leave the body to carry out the physical activity, depending solely upon the
muscle power which can be generated.

But if this gap can be bridged, the result will be a closer unity of mind and body,
with the strength, decision, and direction of the mind flowing directly and without
interruption through all the channels and into all the recesses of the body.
Then as we note in the section on "Operational Principles" (Chapter V), since the
force generated by the use of the body as a whole will be greater than that obtainable
by employing any of its parts separately (i.e., arms, legs, etc.), so will the force
resulting from the use of the mind and body as a totality be greater than that realizable
by their separate employment.
Many scholars and practitioners of the martial arts, as well as monks and medical
men have spoken of and demonstrated this Inner Energy and the ofttimes almost
unbelievable results of its development and use.
One frequently mentioned method of developing this Inner Energy is by the
regular practice of deep or abdominal breathing, since ki is held to be closely
connected with breathing and has indeed even been called the "breath of life." (A
method similar to that recommended by Mr. Tohei for breathing practice is included in
Chapter V.)
 Every beginner who steps on the mat in an aikido dojo soon encounters examples
of Inner Energy. The most common among them is the exercise known as the
"unbendable arm": he is told to extend his arm in front of him slightly inclined so that
it describes a shallow half-circle extending forward, with his fingers outstretched.
Then he is told to relax, not to tense his muscles, and to concentrate upon a point
beyond his extended fingertips—perhaps the wall in front of him, or the other side of
that wall. Someone will then try to bend his arm. If he has grasped the idea of "mental
extension" and does not resist muscularly, his arm will not bend. The authors have
seen this concrete demonstration of the extension of mental or Inner Energy many
times, and the result is always the same: regardless of how slight or lacking in muscle
power an individual may be, the extended arm cannot be bent.
The "unbendable arm" is, however, more than just a static example of mental
projection. It is a basic concept related to the practice of aikido, and thus to motion on
the mat. In fact, Mr. Tohei says that if a student does not keep his unbendable arm, he
will not be able to perform the techniques properly. A note explaining this in detail is
to be found immediately preceding the illustrations and explanations of the techniques
(Chapter VIII).
There are many other methods of exercising and testing this mental "extension" or
"projection" and these are outlined in detail in the section on Basic Exercises.
It might be possible to link the idea of the hara, or Centre, more closely to what
Westerners know as a man's center of gravity—the spot where his weight reaches its
concentration and balance, achieving equilibrium between the central and upper
anatomy above and the supporting architecture of his hips and legs below. Mr. Tohei
especially warns again and again that you cannot "keep one point" or stay centralized
(and thus be able to extend and utilize your ki, or Inner Energy) unless you keep your
balance.
It might also be possible to approximate and expand upon the idea of Inner
Energy in terms of recent developments in the field of psychology in the West, but this
might lead us too far afield, and unfortunately research undertaken in this general area
in the West has not been extensive enough or concentrated enough to provide us with
exact parallels. We will, however, discuss the Centre and hi in more detail in other
sections of this book, drawing heavily upon Eastern sources (Chapter V).

The Strategy of Neutralization

Although certain general movements and technical applications evident in the art
have been drawn from sword and spear fighting as well as from various ancient
schools of jujutsu and aikijutsu, they have been expanded and developed with certain
unique additions and modifications made so that the strategy characteristic of aikido
today (i.e., the movements, displacements, and techniques) cannot easily be confused
with any other method or art.
The strategic methodology of aikido consists, more precisely, of dynamic
movements of evasion, extension, and centralization, which are the foundation for
more technical actions of neutralization in the form of the now-famous techniques of
immobilization and/or projection; their number in combination is almost unlimited.
The general principles ruling the application of both these stages of the strategy:
the dynamic or preparatory, and the technical or conclusive are many, but those of
circularity (sphericity), control and extension of power predominate in an absolute
sense.
In aikido the purpose of this practical training is to replace certain instinctive
responses (such as clashing directly into or against another person's force) with other,
more subtle and refined instinctive responses (such as evading a direct attack almost
as soon as it is launched and then directing or guiding it away from you).
 Of course, before undertaking any program such as aikido training, the rational
intellectual faculties will be used to review the program and study its elements. Thus a
man will decide, after due consideration, whether or not to pursue the program any
further. But once the decision has been taken and aikido training commences, then the
immediate practical end in view is to obliterate certain inherent or acquired responses
and replace them with others more selective and less primitive.
For make no mistake—when events overtake you suddenly—(as they may if you
are unexpectedly attacked) it will not be possible to pause, consider, decide, and then
act. You must react instinctively. But how will you react, and what kind of instinctive
responses will you exhibit?
This will depend almost entirely upon the diligence with which you have applied
yourself to your aikido training because, as is true of any and all arts, no proficiency in
the practical performance of movements or techniques is possible without continuous,
programmed practice of the various movements, etc. This training is undertaken in the
same spirit in which one attempts to learn to ski, to type, or to play the piano. The
ideal, as indicated above, is to go beyond technique so that after repeated exposure to
aikido training methods your experiences actually become part of you. They are
programmed into your psyche so thoroughly that you no longer think of them as
separate movements or techniques. And of course no one ever learned to play the
piano by discussing composers and their compositions, but only by a physical
application to a mentally prepared program. If you are interested in a fusion of the
strength of mind and body, you must remember that one cannot function at optimum
efficiency unless both parts are kept in good working order.

The Potential of Aikido

Aikido training functions on many levels, since the ultimate aim for the individual
is his development and integration physically, mentally, and thus functionally.
It has been noted previously that the practice of aikido is characterized by a
particular sphericity of action and smooth extension of power. A high degree of
coordination is the main result: fluid, supple, functional movements which are free
from any form of rigidity, whether physical (muscular contraction and/or over-
development) or mental (tension).
In the first sense, and for this reason—over and above its proven efficiency as a
superior art of self-defense—aikido has attracted athletes of all persuasions who have
found it a method for improving their coordination, reflexes, timing, and general
physical well-being. This includes swimmers, skiers, dancers, etc., who find the
exercises and movements to be an excellent form of conditioning. (Of special interest
to them is the concept of extension which is so fundamental to their respective sports
or arts.)
Even women, children, and older people find the combination of mental and
physical activity to be stimulating and of such a nature that it can be safely adapted to
the needs of the individual in actual training.
 Among the concrete results of regular practice of aikido exercises will be a
noticeable improvement in your general health, with special emphasis upon
respiration and circulation. The practice of abdominal breathing will obviously
influence the development of the former, while the regular exercise of the joints and
the body as a whole will promote the latter. The improvement in respiration and
circulation in turn, will allow the blood to bring fresh material more rapidly and
regularly to all the organs of the body, while at the same time helping to keep veins
and arteries free from clogging materials and fatty deposits which might otherwise
build up.
In the second sense, as a practice centered upon the reduction, elimination and/or
sublimation of mental tensions, aikido provides proven outlets for any accumulation of
such "mental debris" through the practice of the arts—the exercises and techniques.
The usually relaxed, good-humored atmosphere of an aikido dojo is, in fact, a striking
contrast to the ofttimes intense, rigidly controlled atmosphere typical of the practice of
so many other martial arts. The authors' personal experiences include relief of
insomnia and the disappearance of a serious ulcer condition which had developed
prior to beginning aikido practice.
Of course, any regular physical activity will greatly improve one's general
physical condition, but physical fitness as an end in itself can become boring and
eventually be reduced to a tiresome routine which most people will abandon sooner or
later.
The possibilities of aikido training, however, are so varied and demand such
application of both mental and physical powers that one can continue practicing the art
indefinitely without ever feeling that he has learned everything aikido could teach him,
nor accomplished all that he could.
 CHAPTER II
The Foundations of Aikido
The Founder
AIKIDO was founded by Master Morihei Uyeshiba. He developed and synthesized it
from various other martial arts which he learned as a young man. His practical
experience in these arts is one of the richest and most thorough of any sensei (teacher).
Many of the arts and techniques which are found in aikido date back, in fact, more than
700 years to the time of the Genji and Heike regimes. A number of the masters under
whom Master Uyeshiba studied died without revealing their arts to any other disciple.
The records of Master Uyeshiba's studies include, among others:
1. jujutsu—Kito School, under Master Tokusaburo Tojawa (1901)
2. fencing—Yagyu School, under Master Masakatsu Nakai (1903)
3. jujutsu—Daito School, under Master Sakaku Takeda (1911-1916)
4. jujutsu—Shinkage School (1922)
5. spear fighting—(1924)
He also pursued religious and philosophical studies: Zen, under Priest Mitsujo
Fujimoto of the Shingon School of Buddhism at the Jizo-ji (1890-1893). In later years
(1918-1926), he became deeply involved with the religious school of Omoto-kyo,
founded by the Rev. Wanisaburo Deguchi, to the extent of participating actively in the
promotion of the sect in Korea, China, and Manchuria.
Master Uyeshiba himself marks 1925 as the year in which his thus far unsatisfied
search for a deeper meaning to be attributed to the martial arts came to an end, or
rather to the threshold of a new dimension which was to be explored further by him
and by his followers. It was in this year that he succeeded in blending the highest
ethics of mankind with the practice of the martial arts: he developed that practice into
a particular, truly defensive art in accordance with the highest dictates of those ethics.
In 1927 his dojo, or practice hall, was moved to metropolitan Tokyo. His method
aroused interest in the highest circles. He taught until World War II emptied his dojo
of its most promising pupils.
There was a temporary ban on any instruction in military arts (1945), but with
renewed stability Japan once more assumed a position of prominence in Asia and in
the community of nations, and this bah was lifted. Since then, aikido has expanded
until today it is being taught all over the world.

Main Sources of Formation and Inspiration

In the chart which follows, you will find an outline of the main sources of
formation and inspiration tapped by Master Uyeshiba in developing the art of aikido.
1. MAIN SOURCES OF FORMATION AND INSPIRATION

(Examples of ethics as applied to combat are given in Chart 5, page 34.)

The Martial Arts

Since the martial arts of Japan played such an important role in the formation of
the techniques, or "forms," of aikido, we have included in the following charts
examples of the most important of those armed and unarmed arts and their major
schools.
2. MAJOR ARMED MARTIAL ARTS

3. MAJOR UNARMED MARTIAL ARTS

4. MAJOR SCHOOLS OF MARTIAL ARTS
 The "Ethics" of Defense
But as indicated in Chart 1, page 30, self-defense according to Master Uyeshiba's
method must always comply with certain ethical imperatives. These are many and
complex, but for our purposes we have devised Chart 5, page 34. It briefly illustrates
the basic differences in various forms of self-defense.
In this chart, each panel represents an ethical level of combat. The level rises as
we proceed from Panel A through Panel D.
In Panel A, the man on the left, without provocation and on his own initiative,
attacks the other man and kills him. Ethically, this is the lowest of the four levels—
unprovoked aggression in the form of a direct attack.
In Panel B, the man on the left has not directly attacked the other man, but he has
provoked the other man to attack him. It may have been an obvious provocation, such
as an insulting remark or the more subtle provocation of a contemptuous attitude. In
either case, when the other man is invited to attack and does so, he is killed. While the
first man is not guilty of launching the actual attack, he is responsible for inciting the
other man to attack. There is only a shade of difference ethically between Panel A and
Panel B.
In Panel C, the man on the left neither attacks nor provokes the other man to
attack. But, when attacked he defends himself in a subjective manner, i.e., he takes
care of only "number one," and the other man is killed or at least seriously injured.
Ethically, this is a more defensible action than the other two. The man still standing
was in no way responsible for the attack, neither directly nor indirectly. His manner of
defense, however, while protecting him from possible harm, resulted in the destruction
of another man. As you can see, the result in all three Panels—A, B, and C—is
identical: a man is killed.
 In Panel D, we have the ultimate in ethical self-defense. Neither attacking nor
provoking an attack, the man on the left defends himself in such a way, with such skill
and control that the attacker is not killed. In this case he is not even seriously injured.
This last and highest level is the goal of all aikido self-defense arts. It requires
skill: the result of intensive practice of the technical means of defense devised by the
founder, Master Uyeshiba. But it requires more than that. It requires an ethical
intention. A man must sincerely desire to defend himself without hurting others. He
must be well on the way toward integration of mind and body, of physical means and
ethical motives.
He will often have practiced various other disciplines. Breathing exercises and
meditation are common means employed in the East to further this integration (these
and other disciplines also being employed in the West).
As we have seen then, at this ethical level aikido emerges as a Discipline of
Coordination, where a man develops his own coordination of mind and body while
helping his partner or partners to develop theirs as well.
The practice of the art of aikido then becomes a harmonious interaction between
two or more people, fulfilling Master Uyeshiba's intention via translation of the
highest ethics of the East (and West as well) into vital and active modes of conduct.
5. THE ETHICS OF DEFENSE IN COMBAT
 CHAPTER III
Organization
The Hierarchy
THE HIERARCHICAL structure of aikido follows substantially the ranking system
adopted by almost all the other major martial arts. The students of the art are divided
into two categories: one including students of kyu rank, and the other including
students of dan rank.
The category of kyu rank embraces students of aikido who have not yet attained
the status of dan, and thus have not yet received their black belt. According to their
degree of experience, as illustrated in Chart 6, page 36, they are subdivided into ranks
which usually begin with the rank of 6th kyu (the lowest) and progress upward to the
rank of 1st kyu. In some aikido clubs, all students below the rank of 1st dan (shodan)
wear white belts over their uniforms regardless of their kyu standing. In other clubs,
however, various colored belts are used to denote the various kyu ranks, as in the
other martial arts.
The category of dan ranking embraces those students of aikido who have been
awarded their black belts. According to their experience and proficiency, they are
also subdivided into ranks which progress upward from 1st dan (shodan) to 9th dan
(kudan) and above.
The founder of the art and his son, according to Japanese custom, are above the
ranking system. The students who hold dan rank, from 1st dan upward, wear the black
belt over their uniforms (gi) and under the divided skirt or trousers (hakama) inherited
from the samurai who wore it while practicing the martial arts. There are some clubs,
however, where all students, regardless of category or rank, wear this hakama, as do
students of Japanese archery (kyudo), Japanese fencing (kendo), etc....
 Promotion
There are three basic methods of conferring class or rank:
1) examination—for each kyu class and for each dan rank, there are certain precise
requirements pertaining to hours practiced, techniques mastered, etc., which must
be fulfilled. However, these requirements may differ according to the dojo.
Following are two tables: one listing the requirements for promotion up to and
including the rank of shodan as posted for examinations in New York in the spring
of 1965; the other outlining the requirements at Hombu Dojo in Tokyo in October,
1964.
2) honorary—for contributions to the introduction and promotion of aikido.
3) combination of examination and honorary—one supplementing the other.
7. HOMBU DOJO GRADING SYSTEM
(As of October, 1964)

EXAM.
FOR PREREQUISITE BASIC OPTIONAL
GRADE FOR EXAM: TECHNIQUES* TECHNIQUES*
OF:
standing: katate tori shiho nage,
5th kyu 40 hours practice shomen uchi irimi nage, shomen None
uchi ikkyo. sitting: kokyu ho
40 hours practice
yokomen uchi shiho nage, kata tori ikkyo,
4th kyu after obtaining add shomen uchi nikyo to above
and nikyo
5th kyu
30 hours practice shomen uchi kote gaeshi, munetsuki kote
after obtaining add shomen uchi sankyo and yonkyo
3rd kyu gaeshi, sankyo and yonkyo katate tori,
to above
4th kyu yokomen uchi ikkyo to yonkyo
60 hours practice add: hammi hantachi (uke standing, nage
2nd kyu after obtaining same as above sitting) jiyu waza (free style), ushiro waza
3rd kyu (rear techniques)
60 hours practice
1st kyu after obtaining same as above same as above
2nd kyu
shodan
black same as above same as above
belt)
nidan
1 year after same as above plus tanto don (knife same as above plus futari gakari (two-man
(2nd
shodan technique) attack)
grade)
sandan
2 years after same as above plus tachi dori (sword
(3rd same as above
nidan technique)
grade)

* irimi (omote) and tenkan (ura) when applicable

 The Uniform
As shown in the illustrations, the uniform worn by aikido students does not differ
substantially from the uniform adopted by other martial arts such as judo or karate.
This uniform, worn by everyone, consists of a jacket and pants with an appropriate
belt (white, black, or colored—according to rank and/or the custom of the individual
dojo).
In connection with the tying of the belt, the procedure is the same as that adopted
by most martial arts, with the exception that in aikido it is purposely worn low on the
hips in order to create a physical point of reference for that concentration on the hara
which is typical of aikido.
Students of aikido who have attained dan ranking (black belt) wear the divided
skirt called a hakama—usually black. This article, which is also used in the martial
arts of kendo and kyudo, was worn by the samurai. The securing of the hakama—also
low on the hips—increases that aforesaid feeling of centralization and adds a certain
plastic beauty to the performance of aikido on the mat.
9. THE UNIFORM

The Practice Hall

 The place where aikido students gather together with their instructor for the
purpose of practicing the art is called a dojo. The name is adopted, according to the
doctrine of the martial arts, from Buddhist lore relating to the hall in which monks
practice the disciplines of meditation, concentration, breathing, etc.
Usually, a dojo will consist of:
1. an area for an office where files, records, registration, and progress
records, correspondence, information notices, etc., are kept. In this area will
often be found:
(a) the name board (nafuda kake) containing the names of the members,
arranged according to rank;
(b) a bulletin board.
2. an area with seating accommodations for visitors, spectators, press,
general public, etc., usually located on the sides of the mat—the upper
(joseki) or the lower (shimoseki) (see Chart 10).
3. an area for the dressing rooms, lockers, and showers.
4. an area for the mat.
10. THE PRACTICE HALL

The Mat
The area where aikido is actually taught and practiced consists of a smooth and
elastic surface, not so hard as to damage the human body due to lack of necessary
shock-absorbing resiliency for the falls or somersaults, not so soft as to injure feet or
hamper that fluid and rapid movement which is so basic in aikido.
In Japan, this area is covered by a number of traditional tatami which are mats
made of canvas-covered or uncovered rice-straw padding (toko), grass matting, or
rush matting (i-omote). Each measures approximately 3 feet in width, 6 feet in length,
and is about 2 1/2 inches in thickness. A number of these tatami, when placed
together, will provide the smoothest of surfaces possible. Often they will be mounted
on an undersurface of wooden planks suspended upon steel springs which will
increase the already high natural elasticity.
 In Western countries where these tatami are not so easily available, the required
smooth and elastic surface is usually provided in the form of wrestling mats, foam-
rubber mats, etc. They are covered by a single piece of canvas. The whole is often
supported by a flexible wooden platform, raised on planks from the non-yielding
concrete or flat wood floor. This area is usually rectangular or square, and its sides
have particular names related to their specific function in the field of dojo etiquette.
The predominant side—which acts as the central part of the dojo and its main
area of orientation—is called upper seat, or kamiza (joza). It is reserved for
instructors, honored guests, and dojo officers during special meetings. It is usually
identified by the traditional display of Master Uyeshiba's picture or by an
appropriately framed sample of calligraphy (gaku) of philosophical content hanging
centered on the wall behind that selected side. In Japan, this upper seat is identified by
a raised dais, with typical emblems on display (swords, the ceremonial drum, painted
scrolls, etc.). Opposite the kamiza is the side called lower seat, or shimoza. It is the
meeting place for all the students, and the side from which they will face their
instructor. They will usually line up or sit down by order of rank, with the advanced
students on the upper side, or joseki, i.e., on the left side of the kamiza. This area is
also used by instructors in place of the kamiza, when the latter is pre-empted for
ceremonies, visiting dignitaries, etc. On the right side of the kamiza is the area of the
mat called the lower side, or shimoseki, which is used by students facing their
instructors on the joseki.

Etiquette and Classes

The behavior of the aikido student in the dojo is prompted by deep respect for the
place, for the people in it, for the purpose of the practice hall. In general, this behavior
conforms to the norms of "good manners" adopted by civilized people in their social
encounters.
In particular, however, the student follows certain precise rules of conduct once
he steps on the tatami—a form of ceremony which has been adapted from the martial
customs of Japan and is adhered to by the practitioners of most Japanese martial arts
today.
Ritsurei
When he steps on the mat, for example, the student bows slightly in the direction
of the kamiza. This bow follows the rules established for standing salutation
(ritsurei). It is executed in the normal, natural posture (shizen hontai) in which the
student stands with the chest bent forward at an angle of approximately 30 degrees, his
fingertips lightly touching the front of his thighs near the knees. It is usually considered
bad form to bend the head so low that a person in front of the student can see the nape
of his neck.

The student will wait for the instructor and employ his time profitably by
performing light calisthenics or the basic exercises, if these are not performed during
the instructor's class. He may also sit down, relax, and perform the special exercises
for the development of the Inner Factors of the art. As the time approaches for the
beginning of the class, the student will sit in seiza in line with the other students, and
in the customary place.
Seiza
The sitting position is called seiza and it is achieved by withdrawing the left foot
half a pace, placing the left knee on the mat with toes bent, but with the body and head
kept erect. The right foot is then withdrawn and placed close to the left, with the big
toes crossing or touching each other. The hips, of course, have been lowered so that
the body weight will settle on the inside of your heels.
The hands should be placed lightly on your thighs, palms downward, with the
fingers either turned inward slightly or curled into a half-fist. The distance maintained
between the knees should be approximately that which could be occupied by two fists.
The variations in this posture will affect only the positions of the legs and feet. It
is permissible, therefore, to keep the feet crossed, or rest one on each side—as shown
in the illustration—or sitting always with the spine kept straight, but with the legs
crossed in front of you, adopt the style popular in India.
One rises from the seiza position by reversing the above process. The student
will raise his hips, bending his toes, with their tips on the mat. He will raise his right
knee first and place his right foot near the left knee. Then he will raise the left knee
and place his left foot alongside the right one. The entire movement is performed
smoothly and quickly.
 The instructor usually sits in front of the class, and—turning his back so that he
and the students are facing in the same direction (that of the kamiza)—he will signal,
usually by clapping his hands. At the signal, the whole class will perform the
ceremonial bow from the sitting position.
Zarei
The ceremonial bow in the style of zarei starts from the seiza posture. The palms
of the hands are placed on the tatami at a distance of about 6 inches in front of your
knees, the fingers pointing inward. The chest is bent forward, as in ritsurei, at an
angle of 30 degrees, with the elbows slightly apart. The head should not bend so as to
touch the mat, but should be kept in line with the trunk of the body, and the hips should
not be raised from the mat, but should maintain their contact with the heels.
The instructor will then turn, face his students and repeat the zarei, which is
returned by them. The instructor will usually then rise and begin the basic exercise, or
—if these have already been performed under the supervision of advanced students—
he will proceed to illustrate and explain the defensive strategy employed in aikido.
Usually, an instructor will show a technique of neutralization applied against a
specified form of attack, while the students remain seated in seiza. At his signal, they
will bow to him, stand up, and select a partner (both performing an introductory
ritsurei) and practice the technique with that partner. When the instructor claps his
hands, they will sit down again.

At the end of the class, the instructor will clap his hands and then sit down in
seiza facing the kamiza. He and his students will bow in zarei toward the upper seat,
after which he will turn and bow again to his students, who will reciprocate. The class
is thus dismissed, with a "thank you" from the students.
 CHAPTER IV
The Practice of Aikido
AS WE HAVE said, aikido can be many things to many people, depending upon the
degree of their personal development. It can be an efficient art of self-defense, aimed
at neutralizing any possible form of attack; at its higher levels it can become a
Discipline of Coordination, a continuing, ever expanding method whereby a man
works toward that fusion of mind and body discussed earlier. It can become, finally, a
philosophy of integration, of a harmonious blending of man with man—of men with
their environment. All of these aims can be achieved through its practice.

And this practice consists of a distinctive series of movements, embodied in the

techniques of neutralization—each capable of deflecting or redirecting any attempted
attack, whether launched by a single man or several. This, of course, is in accordance
with the first outline of aikido, i.e., an effective means of self-defense derived from a
sophisticated blending and adaptation (with judicious additions) of many martial art
systems, based upon ethical considerations contained in Eastern religious and
philosophical thought.
As indicated in Chart 11, page 47, however, the practice is not based solely upon
a thorough knowledge and mastery of the aikido techniques of neutralization
themselves, but also upon an equally thorough familiarity with all types and forms of
possible attack—in accordance with the ancient Japanese axiom that "The very first
requisite for defense is to know the enemy."*
Eventually, through a better understanding of the interrelation of cause-effect,
action-reaction, solicitation-response, on the practical self-defense level (resulting
from regular practice of the art), the student will begin to develop a deeper
understanding of the relationship and interdependence of these factors in his life as a
whole, beyond the comparatively limited domain of the do jo.

The practice then is the way along which a man can proceed from the basic,
utilitarian consideration of learning an efficient means of self-defense which will
follow certain ethical guide lines, to the "high country" where the art becomes a
Discipline of Coordination aimed at the harmonizing of opposites or alternates—not
an art bent on or resulting in destruction, individual or wholesale.
The practice of the art, then, is based upon a series of carefully programmed
movements and actions, strategically linked, which are or can be actual responses to
various forms of aggression or attack. The dramatic and vital effectiveness of this
strategic activity, in fact, is perhaps the most immediately impressive element of the
art, as anyone who has witnessed a demonstration by skilled aikido practitioners can
testify.
However, the strategic activity has been particularly and pointedly structured;
i.e., aikido is an art of reactivity, all of its movements, all the techniques are based
upon individual responses to various forms of attack. The first factor which must be
analyzed then, in any study of the practice of the art, is the attack—that attempted
dynamic intrusion which will be neutralized by one or more aikido techniques.
 This is because the attack itself contains the very elements which an aikido
defensive strategy will utilize physically, functionally, and of course psychologically
in neutralizing that attempted aggression.
Because of this close interrelation between the attack and the defense, between
the aggressor and the defender, we will outline here a brief theory of attack followed
by a theory of defense which will explore the ways and means of guiding any form of
attempted violence into a harmless Circuit of Neutralization—always in a manner
typical of, and in accordance with, the ethical principles of the art.
 The Theory of Attack
Very few martial arts have analyzed the various forms of physical aggression—
the attack, and its possible strategies and basic forms—as thoroughly and accurately
as aikido.
 An attack is defined here as an unjustified, unprovoked attempt to destroy or
injure another person, or even interfere with his freedom of action. There may be a
single man attacking or several men—aikido techniques in particular, and strategies in
general, can be adapted to either eventuality. In this book, we will be mainly outlining
techniques applied defensively against an attack launched by a single man (singular
attack) since there are numerous basic techniques which should be explained and
illustrated here and so many combinations, some of which must also be discussed. We
will, however, also include a few examples of defense against multiple attack (plural
attack).
Many different elements are blended together to produce an attack. Multiple
factors, some apparent and some so subtle as to escape the notice of all but the most
discerning spectator, are fused in the act to actually give shape and recognizable form
to an aggression.

We must, however, examine these elements separately before we can consider

their fusion in a unified and coherent form of attack. Generally, these factors fall into
two classes: Inner Factors (mental/psychological) and Outer Factors
(physical/functional).
The psychological factors of any attack provide the background and setting for
the attempted aggression. These include the "will to harm," the total or partial
commitment to the inflicting of pain and/or injury. This intention may be conveyed by a
threatening attitude or gesture; it may, on the other hand, only be revealed at the
moment when a person actually launches his attack. In many cases, the threatening
glance or gesture is sufficient to literally frighten the intended victim into submission,
and to paralyze his will and/or reflexes so that he is utterly unable to defend himself
efficiently.

Physical Factors
 The physical factors of an attack are represented by the parts of a man's body that
he can use as natural weapons in an unarmed attack. In addition, of course, are those
deadly extensions of his aggressive instinct: a sword, stave, a knife, a gun.

(NOTE: In this book, we will be dealing mainly with aikido techniques of

neutralization against unarmed forms of aggression, although we will include several
examples of defense against armed attacks. The field of defense against unarmed
attacks, however, is so vast that we cannot even cover it adequately in this book, but
must content ourselves with outlining the basic techniques of neutralization and some
forms of the advanced practice.)
In most utilitarian methods of self-defense, the prime targets of any defense are
the physical factors—the attacker's body (Chart 12, page 50). In aikido, however, the
strategy of defense is centered mainly upon the functional factors of an attack; i.e., the
way in which those physical weapons are being employed.
In fact, the more a person concentrates his defensive actions upon those physical
factors, the less controlled, or aiki, his strategy is considered to be, since he should be
neutralizing the aggressive action. Any aikido strategy of defense, in fact, is qualified
and classified according to:
1. the theory of physical injury which, in obedience to the ethical principles
of the art, requires that the student respect the "natural" integrity of his
opponent's anatomy; and
2. the theory of physical pain which assigns only a subsidiary and temporary
importance to the inflicting of pain in the process of neutralizing an attack,
and further refines self-defense in a particularly aiki manner.
12. "UNCONTROLLED" NEUTRALIZATIONS AFFECTING THE PHYSICAL
 FACTORS OF AN ATTACK

The theory of physical injury is based upon the obvious structural limitations of a
man's body. An arm can be twisted only so far before it will break. So much pressure
can be applied against a spine before it will crack. Inflicting serious injury on anyone
—including an attacker—is considered "un-aiki" and an indication of lack of control
and skill, since a superior strategy can accomplish the desired result, i.e.,
neutralization of any attack and efficient self-defense without resorting to such
comparatively primitive means.
 The theory of physical pain goes even one step further and insists that any pain
felt during the application of an aikido technique—if that technique is being applied
properly—should be momentary only. In fact, the best teachers continually admonish
their students never to apply pressure against the joints, but merely to exaggerate the
normal extension, as indicated below. Any pain felt is transitory and only intended to
facilitate the completion of a particular technique of neutralization. The practicality of
this strategy is obvious: pain acts as a warning signal and causes a man either to
stiffen against the pain or attempt to elude it in some way. Such a stiffening or attempt
to escape on the part of an attacker the moment you applied the severe pressure of a
"static" strategy would make the application of a particular technique more difficult. In
aikido at its best, almost before the attacker realizes what has happened, his attack has
been neutralized, quickly and cleanly.
Even in the ancient martial arts, merely defending oneself well was not as
admired as was the ability to defend oneself with the same efficiency, but with such
control and power that the opponent/attacker was left substantially unharmed, even if
greatly chagrined. These arts were qualified as "extremely difficult," "highly
sophisticated," "esoteric," and eventually came to be linked not so much to the martial
reality of particular combat encounters as to religion, philosophy, or the higher
spheres of man's existence.
But most martial arts were—and most have remained—highly practical and
subjective. The aim was to achieve as close to perfection as possible in the particular
method or methods being studied, and even if not actually attacking, nevertheless to
destroy the enemy as quickly as possible with a well-prepared counterattack.
In aikido, however, through the skilled employment of its carefully structured
techniques of neutralization, it is not only possible, it is actually imperative, to
exercise such control over the entire process of attack and defense that both will
merge into one smooth exercise of circular dispersion of an aggressive motion/action
into nothingness. And, as we have noted, this dispersion is to be achieved by acting
upon the "functionality" of the natural weapons a man employs, i.e., the way in which
he uses hands, arms, legs, and body to attack (Chart 13, page 52). Therefore, in any
aikido strategy, of the three classes of factors of any attack—psychological, physical,
functional—the last will be the most important.
13. "CONTROLLED" NEUTRALIZATIONS AFFECTING THE FUNCTIONAL
FACTORS OF AN ATTACK
 Dynamic Factors
In any attack there will be two stages: first, the dynamic stage of generic motion
toward you, around you, etc.; second, the technical stage which consists of the
particular form the attack will assume—punch, kick, slap, etc. The dynamic stage
involves what we call a motion of convergence, i.e., the attacker must close the
distance between himself and his intended target—you, and the particular part of your
body he intends to push, hit, or kick. Even if he is comparatively close to you, he still
must take a step or lean forward, twist or turn, in order to be in position to attack.
A defensive aikido strategy begins the moment a would-be attacker takes a step
toward you or turns aggressively in your direction. His initial motion (movement) in
itself contains the factors you will use to neutralize the action of attack which will
spring with explosive force from that motion of convergence. The most important
dynamic factor to be reckoned with in developing your defense will be the dynamic
momentum generated by your attacker's initial motion—its speed and its direction.
The dynamic momentum of convergence is represented by the amount of force
generated by the motion of convergence. The human body in motion tends to become
extremely easy to maneuver and its vertical stability greatly reduced by any dynamic
inertia. If you push a man standing still, bracing himself, you will meet a definite
resistance. The same push, however, or even a lesser one (in approximately the same
direction) if that man is in motion, can send him flying.
This dynamic momentum is closely related to the speed of the initial motion of
convergence. As shown in Chart 14, the faster a man moves, the less control he has
over his movements and the easier it is to unbalance him. Conversely, the more slowly
he moves, the more control he has and the harder it will be to unbalance him.

The factor of direction must be added to the dynamic momentum and to the speed
of the aggressive motion of convergence, because it is of the utmost importance that
you never meet that dynamic momentum head on—never clash with or oppose it
directly and frontally. You might enlarge upon that dynamic momentum frontally with a
maneuver which would extend your opponent's attack beyond the point where he can
maintain his balance, but usually you will guide his motion of convergence from the
side, curving it slightly and adding a certain amount of your own force (dynamic force)
to his already exaggerated movement, thus depriving him of control over his motion
and bringing him into a condition of unbalance and decentralized, dispersed power
(Chart 15).
There are two main types of convergence an attacker may employ: straight
(frontal and direct); and circular (spiral closing in upon you). Both can actually be
used in your own strategy of defense—in fact will become its foundation; i.e., his
motion will provide you with those factors you need to gain control over your
attacker's movements through their "amplification" and then lead him into one of the
aikido Circuits of Neutralization (Chart 16, page 55).
15. GUIDING THE MOTION OF CONVERGENCE

16. DIRECTIONS OF AGGRESSIVE CONVERGENCE

Technical Factors
 The second stage of any aggression—if it is allowed to develop that far—is
qualified as "technical" because it deals with the specific way in which a man may
attack you. Specific actions of attack are generally classified in aikido practice within
three groups: unarmed attacks; armed attacks; and combinations of armed and unarmed
attacks.
Unarmed Attacks
Aikido has subdivided the unarmed forms of attack into three main divisions:
twelve attacks consisting primarily of a hold (Chart 17, page 56); three attacks
employing blows (Chart 18, page 57); and a series of combinations resulting from the
use of a blow and a hold (Chart 19, page 57).

The first group consists mainly of a hold, i.e., grasping, strangling, immobilizing,
etc., whose primary purpose is to paralyze or delay your defensive reaction for the
length of time necessary to completely subdue you. They are considered preliminary
steps toward further more drastic attacks: a blow, perhaps a definitive choke, which
will put you at the absolute mercy of an attacker. These holds are further classified as
either "frontal" or "dorsal," i.e., from behind. The system of identification adopted by
the authors, with Japanese names and English equivalents, is included in the chart
which follows.
 The second group of unarmed attacks includes a direct punch or blow, a chopping
cut with the knife-edge of the hand, a variety of jabs, or thrusts, etc. These attacks are
further subdivided into two main classes: the first involves blows aimed at your upper
body (the head, the throat, the chest) whether directly from the front or circularly from
the side; the second class includes those blows aimed at the center—or lower parts of
your body. Chart 18, illustrates these blows (giving their respective numbers as well
as their Japanese and English names).
 Finally, Chart 19 shows a few examples of the third group of attacks which
combine a hold with a blow. Numbers and descriptions are also given.

Armed Attacks
The armed attacks included in this second group are divided into two classes.
The first class includes ancient forms of aggression inherited from the martial past of
Japan and its arts of combat. The techniques of neutralization developed by most
ancient martial arts were geared to the neutralization of attacks in which weapons (the
sword and the spear in particular) played a determinant role. Aikido techniques of
defense are often employed against attacks using a bokken or jo (stick or stave)
because the coordination required to control a strategy of defense against such an
impressive physical extension of an attacker's personality is of the highest degree.
These forms are to be found in the advanced practice of aikido.
 The second class includes modern techniques of armed aggression employing
firearms, knives, etc. The practice of forms of defense against such attacks is also
understandably rather advanced and complex, and really necessitates a book in itself.
In this introductory study of aikido, limitations of space and the vast field which must
be covered permit us to give only a few examples of such defensive, neutralizations.

The Unified Power of Attack

In conclusion, the importance of the factors of attack—the aggressive intention,
the motion of convergence, and the specific attack—can be expressed in a single
concept: the "Unified Power of the Attack" (UPA). All of these factors will be fused
into that singular, intense, and dangerous stream of aggression which results when a
man attacks totally, without reservation. The aikido doctrine refers to this aggressive
concentration of all a man's powers, factors, and features in an attack as "aggressive
kV or "your opponent's ki," etc.
This aggressive coordination of power has definite limits of concentration within
which its dangerous potentiality will be at its maximum. Outside those limits, a man's
capacity to do damage will decrease considerably, until his aggressive coordination
vanishes completely, leaving him highly vulnerable and his motion/action
comparatively easy to maneuver. The examples in the charts which follow (Charts 20
and 21) illustrate this more fully.
20. AGGRESSIVE COORDINATION OF POWER
21. INNER AND OUTER LIMITS OF POWER
Footnote
* Journal of World History by Shozan Sakuma, III-3, UNESCO, Switzerland, 1957.
 CHAPTER V
The Theory of Defense
22. THE THEORY OF DEFENSE

23. THE PROCESS OF DEFENSE AND ITS FACTORS

EVERY process of defense will consist of three stages: perception, evaluation-
decision, and reaction. And the effectiveness of any defensive strategy will depend
largely upon the time lapse between the first inkling that an attack may be imminent,
and your defensive reaction. In aikido the strategic aim is to train and refine your
faculties to such an extent that perception, evaluation-decision, and reaction will
become almost simultaneous.

In the first stage of perception, on the most obvious sensorial level, we may see
someone preparing to attack, or hear him as he approaches, or feel the actual, physical
contact of a hold. On the subliminal, and more difficult to define sensorial level, we
say that we "sense" something—without being conscious of seeing or hearing anything
menacing, we nevertheless sense or know that something is wrong.
In the second stage, that of evaluation-decision, the various elements of an attack
are analyzed: the amount of its dynamic momentum, the speed, the direction—and a
decision is made concerning the most appropriate technique to apply.
 The third and final stage is that of reaction. The decision "comes to life" via the
motion/action of a specific aikido technique of neutralization.
As we have noted, however, these three stages—perception, evaluation-decision,
and reaction—will be so closely identified and so nearly simultaneous in an advanced
aikido strategy that they will appear as one. This of course is the immediate, strategic
goal of your training.
Keeping this criterion in mind, any process of defense can accordingly be
qualified as normal (positive) or abnormal (negative). The normal process of defense
proceeds smoothly and culminates in the effective neutralization of an attack. The
abnormal (or negative) process will be one which exhibits either faulty perception,
poor judgment, or an insufficient reaction—and does not result in the desired
neutralization.
In the normal process of any defense, perception will be both general and
particular at one and the same time. In other words, if you are in a room, you will be
aware of the entire room and its contents, while remaining alert to the motions/actions
of the people within that room. This is only possible, of course, if all the powers of
perception are "turned on" at all times.
 On the basis of this positive state of perception, the second stage of a normal
process of defense (evaluation-decision) will develop smoothly and as a natural
consequence of that correct perception.
In the astoundingly swift process of defense which characterizes an efficient
aikido strategy, this intermediate stage may be imperceptible, i.e., it may appear that
reaction (third stage) follows perception (first stage). This, however, is not entirely
correct.
What has happened, actually, is that intensive and specialized training has
reduced the span of time between perception and evaluation-decision so that this stage
of the process of defense has become unconscious, the body having been trained to
react in a specialized way to a certain type of stimulus, to a certain type of attack.
Reaction has thus become almost a conditioned reflex; and the response, almost
simultaneous with the perception.
Here, of course, we are speaking of a process of defense which belongs to the
highest levels of aikido. At the beginning of a student's practice this second stage of
evaluation-decision will be noticeable in the form of a slight hesitation between the
attack and the response. Even here, however, in the normal (positive) process of
defense, a student will be working toward maintaining a calm, objective awareness of
what is happening so that he will be able to take the proper action and successfully
perform an appropriate aikido technique.
A positive defensive strategy is further qualified as being specific, immediate,
consistent, and powerful.
It will be specific when you select the proper technique to neutralize a particular
attack. All aikido techniques are tailored responses to certain motions and actions of
attack. And some are more appropriate and easier to perform in response to certain
types of attack. An attack from behind, for instance, will be neutralized by the
application of a defensive technique particularly geared to that form of attack, not by
attempting a technique more suitable to a frontal attack.
It will be immediate or instantaneous when your reaction is so swift that you
apply a technique of neutralization while the attack is still developing, and at the
higher levels of the practice even before an attack has been fully launched.
A positive reaction will be consistent or constant, i.e., it will become so much a
part of your personality that an efficient defensive reaction will become the rule rather
than the exception, when and if you should be attacked.
A positive reaction, finally, will be powerful when it contains sufficient
centralized energy to control the entire process of defense from beginning to end. This
control is evidenced by the fluid shifting from one defensive strategy to another if
necessary, by efficient defense against an attack launched by one man or several men,
and by the calm and controlled manner in which your defensive strategy will be
developed and concluded.

26. AGGRESSIVE SOLICITATION

 In the abnormal process of defense, as we have said, the perception may be
faulty, the judgment poor, or the reaction insufficient. This may take a variety of forms:
as far as your perceptions are concerned, you may not see an attack coming until it is
too late, you may not hear someone as he comes up behind you, and, of course, you
may not possess that peripheral awareness which would serve to alert you to an
impending attack before it actually materialized. You may also be hypnotized by the
very fact of the attack, or your attention may be captured by one element of the attack
so that your assessment of its speed, direction, dynamic momentum, etc., may not be
correct. This kind of poor judgment may be responsible for an ineffective reaction, for
a hesitant or badly timed response to an attack. Or, even if your perceptions are
adequate and your judgment correct, your reflexes may be poor, your muscles
unresponsive through lack of regular physical exercise. Thus lack of proper physical
conditioning may also make it impossible for you to respond effectively.

In order to insure that the process of defense will be positive, i.e., specific,
immediate, consistent, and powerful—the Inner and Outer Factors of that defense must
conform to certain patterns.
The Inner Factors of defense in aikido are related to the role of your mind in
combat; to the spiritual attitude and to the interior forces activating, controlling, and
directing the defensive strategy of the art; to the energy employed in carrying it out; to
the particular principles which rule any defense from beginning to end.
The Outer Factors of defense are related to the physical and functional dimension
of combat, to the physical instrument or weapons employed (your body), and to the
dynamic and technical ways of using your body under the directing and controlling
power of the mind.
Of these two classes of factors, the former, i.e., the Inner Factors of defense, are
considered within the doctrine of aikido to be of primary importance if you are to
practice the art correctly and if your strategies are to be successful. As Mr. Tohei
points out, "... the physical techniques can be easily learned within a short span, like
other Martial Arts." But, in order to develop the keen powers of perception, the
flexibility and the concentration of powers—which alone will insure the immediacy of
your reaction and the maintenance of a properly calm and undaunted attitude—a
stringent, continuous program of mental as well as physical application is required.
In aikido, it is considered meaningless and ultimately self-defeating to
concentrate primarily and almost exclusively upon the Outer Factors of the art, and
upon the physical development of the body or upon a skillful maneuvering of the
various strategies of defense (both dynamically and technically), without at the same
time developing an inner condition of calm and constant control. The body has its all
too obvious limitations, but who can describe with certainty the limits of the mind and
its possibilities of development? Moreover, who can deny that combat, in reality,
begins in the mind?
In the best aikido dojo, you will be told over and over again that the domain of
the mind is unlimited and ever expanding. To develop the imaginative and controlling
powers of the mind, to coordinate them all with the physical and functional capacities
of the body means that the possibilities of the body will be enhanced and its general
functionality will be improved, while the character and personality of the student will
develop and mature. Without this inner development, the rest is an illusion.
 The practice of the art provides ample material for the development of both the
physical and functional aspects of your defensive personality. What is necessary,
however, is to create a Centre of control, of direction and concentration which will
make the fusion of mind and body possible.
From the very beginning of aikido practice, then, the emphasis is upon creating
the proper mental condition for an effective defense.
28. THE INNER FACTORS: THE ROLE OF THE MIND

"The mind leads the body," Tohei Sensei proclaims again and again during his
lessons, thus re-emphasizing the ancient axiom of almost every great civilization:
"Spirit rules matter."
 One of the elements which sets aikido apart from many other martial arts (in
addition to the special forms and types of techniques of neutralization which Master
Uyeshiba adapted and developed for his art) is the predominant role assigned, from
the first moment you step on the mat, to the role of your mind and its functions of
control, direction, and power.
In combat, the mind must control the process of defense from the moment an
aggression is perceived to the moment when a reaction occurs, while channeling a
particular type of totally coordinated energy in the appropriate direction.
In analyzing this process of control and the type of energy referred to above, four
basic principles emerge. These are:
1. The principle of centralization
2. The principle of extension
3. The principle of leading control
4. The principle of sphericity

The Principle of Centralization

"Be stably centralized, inwardly and outwardly, in the lower abdomen!"
As soon as you step on the mat in an orthodox aikido dojo, you will be
encouraged to acquire and develop, through appropriate exercises, a feeling of stable
centralization of your whole being in the lower abdomen. This is the area which
corresponds to what Westerners know as a man's "center of gravity," or the spot
where your weight reaches its maximum concentration and balance, achieving
equilibrium between the central and upper anatomy above, and the supporting
architecture of your legs below. This area, with its powerful pelvic structure,
represents the balanced center of elevation which allows you to stand erect and
maintain an upright posture continually and with comparative ease.
 From that center of elevation and support, the sum total of your central and upper
weight is channeled downward through your legs to the ground.
Known in Japan generally as hara, this Centre of unification and coordination is
more specifically identified in aikido terminology as seika no itten ("one point," K.
Tohei), and as seika tanden ("centrum," K. Uyeshiba). We refer to it simply as the
"Centre."
We speak of centralization in the lower abdomen. This is one of the most basic
techniques of aikido and must be mastered if any real progress is to be made, on the
mat or off. However, it is a technique, a device, a form of training or discipline, not an
end in itself. It has as its final aim the achievement of total coordination and harmony
of mind and body, of man and men, of man and his environment (now expanded to
include the whole universe). In sum, by following this discipline of initially conscious
centralization in the lower abdomen, a point can be reached where centralization
becomes automatic and unconscious, where you will not "think centralization"—you
will be centralized.

This Centre will be used as a unifying device in the difficult process of

coordinating the whole range of your powers and possibilities. It will be used in
establishing a stable platform of unification and independence from which you may
operate in full control, relating to and coping with your reality, combat, or an
aggressor.
Your training in becoming and ultimately in being centralized will involve your
personality totally, both within and without. We will, therefore, speak of a subjective
form of centralization—involving your personality alone ("Be centralized within!
Keep One Point!"); and of an objective form of centralization which will expand to
include your external reality—("Be in the 'Centre' of the action, of the Technique!").
This interesting concept of centralization is well known in the Orient and
amazingly comprehensive. Its dimensions range from the cosmic or universal where
the Centre is identified with the idea of order, harmony, and total integration in the
balance of opposites, to the human and personal, where it is seen as the balance point
of your personality, the unified basis of your individuality and particular character
(see Chart 29, page 71).
Both the cosmic and the human dimensions of the concept, however, are closely
identified, man being an integral part of creation. The true and all-encompassing
Centre, according to Eastern philosophy, is the same for both the general and the
particular, for the universe and for man. This is underscored in many Japanese tales of
the wise man who lives in harmony with himself and with nature. Separation of man
from that identity with the universe, alienation of man from man, and finally, a man's
feeling of a split within himself are considered to be the result of paying too much
attention to the surface differences, to the details of life. This completely ignores the
underlying identity of all life, the basic "oneness" of its essence.
29. CENTRALIZATION
 Man, even if unconsciously, seeks to find a Centre. In Western psychology we
say that he is "goal-directed" or "goal-motivated." He is considered to be functioning
properly only when he is working toward a specific goal or goals. If he has no goals,
he has no "life" in the social sense of the word, since he is existing merely as all
animals do, in response to certain basic life-preserving instincts (territory, food, sex,
etc.), but not as man does, or should. In other words, it is not enough for man to ask
"how"—he also seeks to know "why."
However, even if he is striving toward a goal (actually doing, moving), he may
have selected the wrong goal for himself. Therefore, the problem is twofold: first he
must be provided with the instruction and guidance, with the "education" in the most
comprehensive sense of the word, which will enable him to select the proper goals for
himself; then he must be encouraged to strive toward that goal, an actual process of
doing, of becoming. And even then he must maintain a certain objectivity, a certain
balance or independent Centre so that he can pursue his goals without becoming totally
immersed in them. One man may play many parts, but only if he remains flexible, only
if he develops and maintains his Centre.

Asia has many schools of thought devoted solely to the search for and
development of the Centre (haragei). The concept, however, has been adopted by
many other schools of thought and action (such as the martial arts) as a means of
achieving other more practical ends.
In this sense it has been incorporated into almost all the arts of the Orient
wherever performance and not merely contemplation is essential. In the martial arts it
became a Centre of stability and power for the specific purpose of controlling the
reality of combat.

In a comparatively specialized and necessarily limited book such as this, it is

impossible to examine the general theory of the Centre in both the culture of Asia and
in the martial arts, in great detail. We can only outline the applications of this concept
to the art of aikido, hoping to enlarge upon both the Centre (hara) and intrinsic, inner,
or total energy (hi) in another book.
Subjective Centralization
Centralization is intended to further the unification and coordination of all of your
powers—mental, physical, and functional—so that yours will become a truly
coordinated personality.
The effects of this "inner" centralization, according to the doctrine of aikido, will
be evident. In the mental dimension, all of your powers of perception, of evaluation
and decision, and of reaction will be heightened and sharpened as a result of this
fusion. You will find yourself seeing, understanding, responding with extraordinary
clarity and intensity.
 This "clear vision" is possible because effective centralization acts as a screen
between you and the often confusing, disturbing sequence of events accompanying any
form of combat—just as a screened-in porch in the summertime allows you to sit
outside and talk without continually interrupting yourself to shoo away the mosquitoes.
Centralization, therefore, means adopting a new point of reference, a new
platform from which you can exercise a more objective form of control over events
and over yourself.
But such objectivity—i.e., a clear understanding of the nature, extent, and
complexity of a given problem, is impossible if your mind is obsessed by that
problem, unable to consider it dispassionately. Objectivity requires as much
impartiality as you can muster, and this will depend, in turn, upon the degree of mental
independence you have achieved.
If you are not capable of maintaining this mental distance between yourself and
events as they unfold—or even explode—around you, then the events will begin to
dominate you and your control will disappear. Mr. Tohei often warns students not to
pay undue attention to or become hypnotized by the weapons, face, or threatening
posture of an opponent. These, as the ancient teachers of martial arts often wrote, "...
are only appearances." What you must seek to develop then in your aikido training, is
the ability to stay centralized and to be centralized, so that when and if a concrete
attack should materialize you will be able to perceive it clearly, to decide and
respond effectively, and to channel all of your powers toward the neutralization of the
aggressive action in a total, decisive manner.
Clarity of vision, in turn, has two aspects: the first is awareness, which covers
the entire field being perceived; the second is concentration, which is related to a
specific event, person or persons within that field.

Awareness is the foundation of effective combat readiness. Episodes such as that

of the fencing master mentioned in the Monk Takuan's letter as translated by Dr.
Suzuki* indicate the intense and refined level of perception which the disciplined and
experienced mind can attain.
In aikido practice this condition is best displayed when an advanced practitioner
defends himself against four, five, or six attackers closing in upon him from every
side. Whirling in their midst, the aikido practitioner seems to "sense" which one is
about to attack at any given moment, even if that attacker is behind him. And this
perception is blended so smoothly with his strategy of defense that his reactions will
be coordinated with the various attacks considered as a whole. His control over the
neutralization is as complete as the circumstances will permit.
 This general awareness permits particular concentration once an attack has been
launched. At that moment, everything else will fade into the background (but will not
disappear, since the mind will always maintain its awareness of the whole). The
particular action of attack will then be subjected to the focused light of your attention
so that it may be understood, evaluated, and neutralized.
This inner centralization, when correctly understood and practiced, will produce
certain noticeable effects in your body, i.e., the development of balanced stability and
relaxed suppleness.
In aikido, balance means: vertical alignment of the body with the perpendicular
axis of gravity (therefore, maintenance of a "normal" posture; Chapter VII), and a state
of fluid poise between rest and motion (therefore, readiness to maintain or return to
either state).
Again, we are brought back to your body's maximum balance point which is
located in the lower abdomen, i.e., your center of gravity.
Maintaining your balance is of the utmost importance in aikido practice, whether
you are simply standing still or in full motion. Even when whirling about on the mat as
one man after another attacks, you must seek to maintain the correct posture, to keep
your balance, so that your upper anatomy will be in vertical alignment with your
center of gravity or Centre.

There will, of course, be moments when you will twist, turn, or bend your body
as you lead a motion of attack around you and away from its intended target. But
always, upon completion of such an evasion or leading motion, your trunk will be
brought back into alignment with your Centre.
It is interesting to note how many Japanese practitioners of the art bend their
knees deeply, keeping their trunks straight (but not rigid) when they wish to lead an
attacker down, rather than bending over, pretzel fashion, which would leave them
extremely vulnerable to even a slight push from behind.
This physical centralization is a "constant" of combat. There are even special
exercises for its development (see Chapter VI). And, of course, even a cursory glance
at the techniques of neutralization will reveal how important the maintenance of
correct posture is to any defensive strategy.
Centralization in the lower abdomen, moreover, represents a sort of gravitational
descent of your body's weight, draining the upper anatomy of excessive muscular
stress and leaving it extremely supple and mobile (especially the muscles of the neck
and shoulders which so often display the first signs of paralyzing rigidity).
In the area of "relaxed suppleness," the literature available on aikido always
stresses the importance of relaxation; in fact, this is considered one of the basic
requirements for an effective aikido performance.
As Mr. T. P. Leggett (Judo, 6th dan) has observed in The Demonstration of
Gentleness, London, 1964, the word "relaxation" as commonly used and interpreted in
the West may be misleading.
In aikido terminology, "relaxation" does not mean a collapsed, weak, or
comatose condition, but rather a state of muscular pliability and smooth flexibility
which permits an unimpaired reaction in any direction, at the first indication of an
aggressive movement.
The authors, therefore, prefer to refer to this condition as one of "relaxed
suppleness," with the intention of conveying the idea of softness without rigidity or
abnormal muscular tension, while also suggesting resiliency, or a lively, smooth
readiness to react when and if necessary.
For those who maintain that without tension there can be no reaction, and that
tension therefore is the indication of preparedness, we refer to the example so
frequently cited in works on the martial arts, of a cat's reactivity. If you have ever
watched a cat curled up in a ball on the living room rug or stretched out lazily in the
sun taking a nap, you will have noticed that it seems as limp as a piece of fluff: all of
its muscles are relaxed, no tension is evident in any line of its body, and only an
almost imperceptible rise and fall indicates its breathing.
Approach it as stealthily as you can in an attempt to catch it off guard, bend down
ever so carefully, and—at the very moment when your outstretched hand is about to
close upon the animal—there will be a flash of movement. The next instant that same
cat will be on the other side of the room, calmly licking its paws.
Another example widely employed in aikido and in other martial arts (see the
Chinese Classic, Tao Te Ching, quoted by Mr. Leggett in his book, The
Demonstration of Gentleness) is that of the infant whose body is supple and full of
life and whose grip—total, blending with the object held—is astoundingly strong and
difficult to break, and yet not rigid or tense.
Finally, in relation to functionality, centralization will result in increased power
and effectiveness, since in combat the Centre will operate as a unified source of
motion and action—the power of both seeming to flow upward from the very earth, as
from an inexhaustible well. It is immediately noticeable in aikido that movement is
always from the hips involving your entire body and your entire personality in the
action.
You will move about on the mat with a particular gliding step, searching for the
appropriate centralized position. Once you have found it you will maneuver your
attacker's body with ease, keeping him spinning orbitally around his own Centre. Arid
this will apply even in the immobilizations—as you lead your attacker into one of the
Circuits of Neutralization.
Objective Centralization
Your own Centre must become the center of your attacker's action as well. The
Centre is not restricted in aikido, as we have indicated, to your personal dimension. If
a man attacks you, he has lost his own point of independence and balance by the very
irrationality of that act, and you must substitute your own Centre in an attempt to return
the situation to normal. Thus he attacks, you evade; he plunges into a vacuum, you lead
and guide him back around your own Centre and neutralize his attack.

In every technique of neutralization there is this constant, fluid centralization of

the action around you, before you pin an opponent down in an immobilization beneath
your Centre, or project him away from that Centre.
 Your Centre may be located almost directly beneath him or at his side, but it is
always the Centre of a dynamic circle along whose fringes your attacker will be
forced to spin without any possibility of controlling his motions. This process is
explained in detail in the section entitled "Principle of Sphericity."
30. COORDINATION

The Principle of Extension

One of the most important and truly amazing features of aikido, the aspect which
never ceases to astound even the practitioner, is represented by the essence, the spirit
—the hi or centralized energy—which animates the application of all the techniques
(when the art is being practiced properly), and characterizes aikido in a particular
way.
Aikido begins, in fact, with the fundamental assumption that every human being
possesses this hi: this vital force which when concentrated in a single unified stream
can be extended and channeled into a practically irresistible action of defense, into a
technique.
 The presence of this ki and the way it can be extended is very often demonstrated
in aikido dojo by a series of tests or practical demonstrations. Among these, the most
popularly persuasive is that of the unbendable arm described in the introductory
chapter. The idea of an unbendable arm is an example of what may be defined as static
ki, or extension in the sense that what the student achieves is a powerful concentration
of consciousness and energy within the Centre, in the interest of immovability.

But the real basis of aikido is "dynamic" ki, the same concentration and unified
power in motion.
Here we are faced with the problem of defining just what type of energy or
power we mean by ki. Is it mental, physical, or a combination of both? In the West we
tend to measure strength in terms of muscle power, while in the East they often refer to
the "power of the spirit" or "mind over matter." If, however, man is considered not as
a divided being—mental vs. physical—but rather as an entity, a whole human being
whose mental activity involves physical changes in the brain and whose physical
activity can have long lasting, supra-physical results, then his energy, his power—
when unified and coordinated—can also be considered to be a "total" type of strength.
The universe throbs with energy; energized particles in various forms bombard our
globe constantly. So man is "energized" and displays that energy in everything he does.
If, however, he works toward becoming a truly integrated, unified human being with
all of his powers coordinated and harmonized, then he will be truly able to "flow ki"
or extend that energy.
It should be remembered, however, that ki, considered specifically as energy, is
employed like the Centre and techniques to achieve certain aims, neutralize an
aggression, promote harmony (according to Master Uyeshiba). Like any other force, it
can be misapplied or negatively applied from a moral point of view. Therefore,
"strong ki" does not necessarily mean a morally positive or "good ki," a distinction
not too often made in the Orient where (like many of their counterparts in the West)
quite a number of martial art scholars tend to see this form of "might" as being
automatically "right." Ancient masters of the martial arts, however, who recognized
that strong or well-developed ki without an ethical or moral foundation could be
unleashed as a force for terrible destruction, were very discriminating when selecting
students since they were well aware of the evil uses to which this tremendous power
could be put.
This type of energy or power is referred to constantly in most works on the
martial arts and is often called intrinsic or inner energy (prana in India, ch'i in China,
hi in Japan). It is usually developed through conscious, disciplined programs; and
once it has been concentrated in a total sense, it is "extended" in the desired direction.
The expression "mental projection" is a frequently recurring one in the literature of the
martial arts. (The authors, however, prefer to use "mental extension" to avoid any
confusion between mental projection and the group of techniques of neutralization
known as "projections.")
As is true of the concept of hara, or Centre, to which this intrinsic or total energy
is closely linked (being its point of maximum concentration, storage, and extension),
the concept of ki can be expanded to include the cosmos and the ever expanding
energy of life in the universe as a whole, and then contracted to a consideration of the
character, personality, and vitality of the individual man.
Here, too, the authors can only briefly outline its general dimensions, particularly
as they relate to the practice of aikido, and treat the theory of ki in depth in their
monography on the Centre and ki.
In Master Uyeshiba's martial art, this form of energy is considered to be the
fundamental, all-pervasive force activating any strategy of defense. The statements of
the highest instructors of the art, in this context, are unmistakably clear: "No ki—no
aikido."
This intrinsic or total energy, present potentially in every human being in an
uncoordinated and dispersed state, must be unified, accumulated, stabilized, and
extended.
The task of developing ki in aikido is fulfilled through special exercises, among
which abdominal breathing is one of the most important. This technique of deep
breathing is found in the esoteric disciplines of Yoga and Zen, as well as in many
other martial arts.
The exercise of abdominal breathing in aikido is usually linked to that of
concentration of energies in the Centre.
Ki is accumulated, in fact, in the Centre, where its full coordination is achieved.
The two concepts—that of the Centre and that of intrinsic, inner, or total energy—are
thus really one:—the Centre, vitally active and ever expanding through this form of
energy; the energy, fully coordinated and stabilized in the Centre (centralized energy).
The entire body of the student seems to become a compact source of power, without
undue emphasis upon individual parts of that body acting or performing on their own.
In this context, ki can also be qualified as "global" energy, "total extension," or "full
coordination of powers."
This totality of extension is particularly evident in every movement of aikido
practitioners on the mat when the art is being practiced properly. In fact, many of the
Japanese instructors with whom we have practiced have stressed the idea of moving
from the hips or Centre and of being whole, i.e., not performing techniques by
stretching out an arm, pulling, or pushing, but rather by moving with the whole body
and involving it totally (under the mind's concentrated and controlling leadership) in
the action.
Totality of extension is also the reason why in aikido practice the student is
encouraged to think of his body as an extension of his mind, and his arms and legs as
extensions of that body, not as separate entities.
This is not to say that your arms and legs will not have their functions, but rather
that these functions will be integrated with, and subordinated to, the general unified
movement of the body as a whole. Even apart from any esoteric considerations of ki, it
seems logical to assume that the power efficiently generated by the body used as a
single unit will be greater than that which could be generated by the use of the arms
and legs alone.
In aikido practice, legs will carry your centralized anatomy from place to place;
hands will grasp or guide an opponent, but only as extensions of and in accordance
with the movement of the body as a whole. There is no pushing, pulling, or straining of
individual limbs, but rather a whirling, unified movement with dominant emphasis
upon hip motion.
 In aikido practice, you will be trained to extend as well as move from the hips.
Through the basic exercises, you will be encouraged to let your ki flow outward from
the Centre, in the specific directions which identify the particular ways of neutralizing
an aggression. Thus the extension of defensive energy becomes automatic and constant.
An aggressive solicitation (an attack) triggers the appropriate defensive response
flowing from the Centre of control and power, intended to neutralize that attack
through the extension of centralized, "soft," and yet powerful energy.
And this concept of constant extension underlies the unbendable arm exercise. In
his lessons, Mr. Tohei always insists that if you do not maintain this unbendable arm at
all times (in other words, if you do not keep your extension constant), you will be
unable to perform the techniques correctly.
This expression, so popular in aikido dojo, identifies both an exercise and an
idea. In the first sense, it is related to an outpouring of your coordinated energy in a
given direction through your extended arm as previously explained. In the second
sense, it is related to the extension of energy from the Centre which must be constant
and centrifugal, i.e., directed outward.
The unbendable arm, however, does not mean an absolutely straight, ramrod arm,
but an arm slightly curved in the form of a half-circle. This will permit you to guide
and direct your attacker's force without smashing directly into it. This is a particularly
important point, since the notion of going "through" an obstacle is a rather alien one at
the highest levels of the art. But whatever the degree of half-circle extension you
maintain, your arm must not collapse in the face of an oncoming blow or any other
form of attack.
This is the real meaning of unbendable arm, not that it juts out straight and rigid in
front of you, but rather that the mental energy directing the half-circle extension of your
arm will maintain that half-circle intact, protecting the rest of your body while you
lead and guide your aggressor's attack into a Circuit of Neutralization.
Whether taking falls (the particular, circular aikido roll-out illustrated in Chapter
VI), or reacting to an attack with a technique of immobilization or projection, you must
maintain unbendable arm. If you do not, if you attempt to "grab" a blow or a punch in
mid-air, you will be practicing incorrectly since it is obvious that you could not
possibly hope to grab a blow directed toward you suddenly and with great force. So
you must extend at all times—this is a mental and physical form of extension—just as
the energy is total energy, so also must your extension be "total extension." And this
warning should be kept in mind especially when you are performing those techniques
which require an irimi, or "entering" movement, since it will be then that the tendency
to try to grab will be very strong.
 After the first movement and extension, you will usually secure a hold on your
aggressor's arm, hand, etc., but this will only be after you have parried and led your
opponent's motion through your extension, the outer perimeter of which is your
unbendable arm.
As you progress in the art, as your reflexes become more keenly honed and your
perceptions refined, the entering and/or evading motions as well as the initial
extension will be briefer, and the hold will be secured with often blinding speed. But
the basic mental and physical extension must be maintained constantly, even if the
initial extension is barely perceptible when techniques are performed by an advanced
practitioner of the art. For, if you should miscalculate the speed or exact angle of an
attacker's motion, if you should be tripped, if more than one person attacks you, that
mental and physical extension may very well mean the difference between defending
yourself efficiently and being overcome.
Outward extension represents, on one side, comprehensive control over the
outside reality through this "turning on" of mental, physical, and thus functional
powers, which we may relate to that condition of independent awareness surveyed in
the principle of centralization, in the mental dimension. It also implies impenetrability,
the impossibility of an opponent reaching your Centre either by hitting it or capturing it
in any way.
Aikido doctrine often refers to the image of a spring whose waters flowing
outward are crystal clear. The moment the outward flow ceases, muddy, polluted
waters will rush in. Impenetrability, therefore, is the active part of that Centre of
independent control which we encountered on pages 69-79.
This centralized energy also appears to be of the all-pervading, force-field type,
as compared with (or opposed to) the concentrated and sharp form of energy which
cuts through an opposing target, smashing anything in its path—a form of energy
cultivated in many other martial arts. In aikido however, as in certain ancient martial
arts, the emphasis is upon the unified harmonized personality and therefore upon
centralized energy.
 The general doctrine of the martial arts also enlarges at great length upon the
basic differences between the "hard" form of ki and the "soft" form. Hard ki appears to
be sharp and concentrated to a dangerous point of fusion resembling the edge or point
of a Japanese blade. As such, when used in combat (whether offensively or
defensively), it will cut through the physical target against which it is being directed. It
is predominantly straight (direct) although there are circular forms of hard ki (theory
of the slashing extension). The very concentration of this form of ki usually requires
that a single anatomical weapon, i.e., arm, leg, hand, foot, elbow, etc., be employed to
deliver the force of the concentrated energy.
 31. TYPES OF "KI"

Soft ki, by contrast, appears to be evenly diffused, irradiating, and expanding like
a huge globe to envelop the target completely or spin tangentially against it. Here
again we have the image of "massed wind or water."
This form of energy does not cut through the target; it sweeps it away in a
tangential, circular pattern that sends that target spinning in full centrifugal unbalance
or extends and stretches it elastically in the desired direction. The diffusive nature of
this soft ki implies necessarily a typically circular form of extension as well as the
employment of the whole body to produce it.
In aikido, soft ki is the desired form, and according to Master Uyeshiba, it should
be employed within the framework of the natural laws of creation. Aikido does not, in
other words, advocate the employment of intrinsic or total energy in a way which
breaks those laws by seriously injuring or destroying another man.
As noted elsewhere, neutralization in aikido is centered upon the aggressive
action, not against the personality of the aggressor. That neutralization can be achieved
with tremendous efficiency and power to spare, against one aggressor or against many;
it does not destroy the bridge which, linking man to man, permits you to approach the
remote or ethical aims of aikido.

Finally, this intrinsic energy is permanent in the sense that, like the Centre, its
extension is "turned on" at all times, not only during combat. This requisite implies
that the energy developed progressively through the specialized exercises of
abdominal breathing and mental concentration in the Centre, extended consciously at
first, will become a part of your personality—a way of being—through regular and
properly motivated practice of the art of aikido.
As is always the case, the most difficult stage for everyone studying and training
in aikido will be that of attempting to achieve the proper balance and integration
between substance and manifestation, spirit and action—ki and technique. Those
seemingly separate divisions are actually only closely related segments of the whole
(the human being striving to be an individual who, as Pericles claimed for the free
citizens of Athens, will be "able to meet every variety of circumstance with the
greatest versatility—and with grace").
 The Principle of Leading Control
"Control the Attack By Leading it"
The first principle dealt with the basic centralization of your personality, with its
unification; the second principle explained the extension of energy, of ki, flowing
outward for the purpose of controlling an attack. The next two principles will specify
more exactly, just how that control is to be achieved.
In Chart 20, page 59, we saw how all the factors of an attack were combined in
the Unified Power of Attack, i.e., your opponent's force as a totality converging upon
you. We also noted that this UPA was extremely powerful along its direct line or
pattern of convergence, but comparatively weak at the outer edges of that direct
pattern or line, as well as beyond its intended functional point of impact, as illustrated
in Chart 32, page 88.
Therefore, from the very first moment that you perceive an attack, you must
control it through an appropriate "lead" which will direct its potentially dangerous and
concentrated force into harmless channels. This lead must be smooth and continuous
and never in direct opposition to the force of the attack, since halting or interrupting it
would destroy the very momentum your aikido defense strategy requires. This lead
will have certain definite points of control and certain precise dimensions.
In the illustrations which follow, you will see that the points of control to be
established over the UPA as it converges upon you will be directed toward the areas
where it is weakest:
At its source, i.e., at the point of its uncoiling, or where it is in the process of
developing—inner limit (enter when pulled);
At its outer limit, beyond the point of its maximum extension, where dissipation
of its force begins (turn when pushed), or
In the middle between its inner and outer limits, during the process of
convergence upon you (see Chart 33, page 88).
32. THE POWER OF UPA
 33. THE POINTS OF CONTROL OF UPA

In all the cases indicated above, control through leading is assured by-blending
with and flowing within the aggressive convergence. Once you have established
contact and control in this "non-abrasive" manner, you will then be able to direct that
aggressive convergence, that attack, from within into an appropriate Circuit of
Neutralization.
Readers familiar with the martial arts will recognize at this point the principle of
nonresistance (ju) which figures so prominently in many of those arts. The principle of
leading control is the specific form which the principle of nonresistance assumes in
aikido practice.
If you do not establish control through this leading and blending motion and
action as illustrated, you will be forced to clash directly with the concentrated force of
that attack. It would mean strength directly opposed to strength, force meeting force
head on, the exact opposite of an orthodox aikido strategy.
"Lead," in fact, does not mean "force" in the physical sense of pressure, a pull, or
a push. If you push a man suddenly, he will instinctively push back. Grab his hand
violently, and he will immediately try to shake you off. Any direct action taken against
a man will almost inevitably result in an equally direct reaction.
This instinctive tendency to act and react directly will present you with your first
stumbling block when you begin to practice the art. You will have to learn to spin
when you are pushed and to enter when someone pulls you—in accordance with the
principle of nonresistance, a principle which can prove much more effective in
combat than that of strength or force directly opposed to an attacker's strength or force.
The dimensions of this lead will be simultaneously mental and functional (the
latter being both dynamic and technical).
For example, you will move to evade your opponent's motion of attack, but
evasion is only one of your dynamic purposes: centralization for the purpose of
applying the appropriate technique of neutralization is the other. You will move, in
other words, primarily because this is how you will begin to lead your opponent into
the desired position. It is not simply to avoid his initial attack.
Against a direct thrust to your stomach or lower abdomen, for example (whether
your opponent employs his fist or a knife), you will not pull back or pull in, mentally
or physio-functionally. This would only draw him on. Instead you will move in
tangentially toward the oncoming blow, spinning vertically at the same time.
Following well-defined psychological and dynamic laws, such a spin will render the
target (your mid-section) extremely elusive—as you lead the converging motion of
attack around you.
Professor Tohei moves in and spins. Even if he does not touch your extended arm
(which has already missed its target) you will feel drawn forward and around him; his
movement becomes a sort of suction you will find extremely difficult to resist.
 This leading, which is a combination of intention (mental) and motion (physio-
functional), will continue until your defensive strategy has been completed. You will
keep your opponent's initial movement or attack going, leading him by a thin dynamic
thread into whatever technique of neutralization is most appropriate to the
circumstances.
This complex combination of psychological and functional factors (dynamic and
technical) which work simultaneously to produce this principle of leading control,
will reach its highest concentration in those techniques where you will seem to move
hardly at all while under attack (usually in self-defense against a single attacker).
Several times the authors attempted to hit Mr. Tohei with full mental and physical
concentration upon the part of his anatomy previously selected as the target (his lower
abdomen, his throat or chin, his head, etc.). Every time at the very moment when it
seemed we would surely hit him, his hand would suddenly appear as if out of
nowhere, and lead the oncoming blow or punch in such a way as to extend it out and
away from its intended target, usually bringing it back to us. If a number of people
attacked him he would lead the aggressive motion of one man around his own body,
thus creating a vacuum into which he would draw the other attackers, only to send
them spinning away from him across the mat.

Obviously this type of controlled, leading ki is not easy to develop. It requires a

profound knowledge of the psychological and dynamic laws which govern human
behavior: in general as well as in particular (combat).
To demonstrate even more clearly what is meant by leading, Mr. Tohei asked the
strongest, most powerful members of our class to set themselves in the firmest position
they could manage (standing). Then they were told to concentrate totally upon
remaining still, rooted to the spot upon which they stood. Even though their ki was thus
flowing downward, a light movement of Mr. Tohei's hand traveling from the student's
forehead to the back of his neck, or a rotating motion against his cheek, clockwise,
brought each one in turn down to the mat flat on his or her back.
 Mr. Tohei explained that he had led their ki upward from the front to the back
where they had no support or balance, and then down.
This leading motion (defensive), if it is to be effective, must never be in direct
opposition to the motion being led (aggressive). And once control has been assured by
blending your lead with the line of attack, your leading motion will develop slightly
ahead of the aggressive motion—not so close as to be easily captured, and yet not so
far ahead that you will lose control over your attacker's dynamic momentum.
In the application of basic projection no. 1 (kokyu nage) from a static position,
for example, you will allow your opponent to grasp your right wrist with his right
hand. You will not try to pull away, but will allow your wrist to remain in his grasp as
you move your body with a spinning motion, whirling to his side and slightly ahead of
him. At the same time, you will extend your captured arm out, taking the lead as your
hand projects slightly ahead of his grip and your pointing finger describes the dynamic
pattern in the air which will lead to his fall.
 The example given above is of the technique applied from a static position. It can
also be applied dynamically: that is, before an opponent can secure his hold. But you
must never pull or snap your hand away. Rather, you will move (arm in alignment with
your body) at approximately the same speed and (initially) in the same direction as his
original motion, keeping slightly ahead of his outstretched hand until full, centralized
control has been established over his motion, body, etc.
A blow may be delivered to your head (attack no. 13, shomen uchi). You will
pivot and kneel down, so that you are facing the same direction as your opponent.
Your arm(s) will not "block" in the sense of stopping his motion, but will be extended
so as to protect yourself. At the same time you will guide his motion (via his wrist or
even sleeve) from the inside, lead him in full, circular extension forward and then
down. This can be accomplished almost without touching him.
There is no pulling, no dragging; it is just a smooth, simple, circular lead,
synchronized perfectly with your attacker's own movements. It is blended dynamically
with them and, therefore, almost unnoticed until he is in flight. He falls, but yet does
not know precisely how he came to fall.

The Principle of Sphericity

We have noted elsewhere that:
1. The mental attitude typical of aikido is strongly centralized.
2. The energy required in aikido is extended outward (either in a condensed or
irradiating form) from the Centre.
Both of these principles—that of centralization and that of extension—imply the
idea of sphericity or circularity in operation. And this circularity will characterize all
aikido strategies of self-defense, regardless of how slight or barely noticeable that
circularity may be when techniques are performed by advanced practitioners of the art
at great speed. The authors refer to this general principle as the principle of sphericity.
 In Asia, this principle is almost as ancient as the land itself. It is present in the
doctrine of the Tao in China and in the taiyoku.
In India it appears again and again at the highest levels of that culture, i.e., in the
Mandala, or the Wheel of Life, in Buddhism.
Sphericity was applied to the practice of many martial arts from the armed
methods of fencing and spear fighting to the unarmed methods of boxing and wrestling.
Moreover, it was usually a reflexively applied principle, i.e., a samurai would wait
for another samurai to attack, using the attacker's dynamic momentum as part of his
own strategy, leading and defeating it circularly.
According to many martial art chronicles, it was impossible to penetrate the
guard of a skilled spear fighter—man or woman—who awaited an attack in the center
of a sphere whose orbiting patterns could be traced with the razor-sharp blade.
It was also considered to be equally impossible (during the period when the
sword was the most widely used weapon) to penetrate the defense of an Oriental
swordsman skilled in the use of one, or, as in the case of the legendary Musashi, two
swords.
 The records of European martial arts, especially those of the Italian, Hungarian,
and English fencing schools, also indicate that this principle was applied to strategies
of combat devised for either sword or dagger. And this circular approach is still
predominant in the use of the knife among the people of the Mediterranean from North
Africa to Spain, and along the land arc which passes through the Middle East to the
Balkans. It is also evident in the curved shape of many blades, including the Japanese
katana, whose employment by the very logics of its design and structure, is based
more upon the circular slash than upon the direct thrust.

The ancient principle of sphericity reached an exceptionally high level of

functionality in the Chinese methods of Pa-kua boxing. It was neglected for a time in
favor of the shattering power of the linear thrust so widely employed in the derivative
schools of karate, in both the Chinese and Japanese versions. Many of the modern
schools of karate seem to be returning to this ancient circular concept.
The principle of sphericity was also basic to the practice of judo at its highest
levels as indicated by the records and films of early demonstrations. This principle
was the nucleus of the teaching of the late judo Master, Kyuzo Mifune (black belt 10th
degree), who in order to visualize it for his high-ranking pupils used an actual ball in
his lessons. (Film Short, Judo with Master Mifune, Toho Cinema, 1964.)
It is in the practice of aikido especially that the principle of sphericity achieves a
peak of functional excellence. In this art, in fact, the concept of sphericity almost
becomes an absolute.

Circuits of Neutralization
In an aikido strategy, in fact, you may lead your opponent's aggressive
motion/action into innumerable Circuits of Neutralization which flow around your
Centre. These circuits are divided into three main groups, consisting of horizontal,
vertical, and diagonal circuits.

Basic Horizontal Circuits

The horizontal Circuits of Neutralization flow around your Centre in a circle
parallel to the ground. They may flow from your right side to your left or vice versa.
 These circuits are fundamental to aikido in both its dynamic and technical stages,
and are known as tenkan, "turning or pivoting movements."
You will immediately recognize these circuits as the most commonly employed
motions of evasion and centralization, and they will also figure prominently in many of
the actual techniques of neutralization.
To give you a practical example of how these circuits will operate in combat, let
us consider the case of defense against a direct thrust to your lower abdomen by an
opponent who is employing either his fist or a knife. As the blow is being delivered,
you will move in toward it, even though slightly tangentially, spinning at the same time
and hooking his extended arm as it passes by. Both the spinning motion of your body
and the leading motion of your hand upon his arm will guide him into full circular
extension around you in a circuit parallel to the ground (mat). When the dynamic
momentum of his initial thrust, extended and expanded by your evading motion of
centralization, has reached its point of maximum effectiveness, you will reverse your
spin and the pressure upon his captured hand/arm, thus sending him whirling down
onto the mat.

Basic Vertical Circuits

The vertical Circuits of Neutralization can flow around your Centre in a circle
perpendicular to the ground. They may flow from front to rear, from rear to front, from
the right side to the left side, and from the left side to the right side.
These circuits are found in many techniques of neutralization, some of which are
illustrated at the moment of conclusion in the following examples.
Basic Diagonal Circuits
The diagonal Circuits of Neutralization flow around your Centre in a circle
diagonal to the ground. They may flow on your right side (from front to rear or vice
versa) and on your left side (from front to rear or vice versa).
These circuits are also embodied in many techniques of neutralization (see
illustrations on page 99).

Spirals and Semi-Spirals of Neutralization

 Your opponent's aggressive strategy, his motion and action of attack, may also be
channeled into innumerable spirals and semi-spirals of neutralization flowing around
your Centre. In fact, very seldom will a Circuit of Neutralization be as clear and
determined as in projection no. 2 because very seldom will you remain on the same
spot while your arms describe that clear, circular pattern around and above you.
As compared to the circuits examined above, the spirals and semi-spirals may be
qualified as the ever-present and leading movement of your aikido strategy. (The
"Dynamic Spiral" is actually the logical extension of the "Dynamic Sphere.") This is
because your body, when executing a technique of neutralization, will move; you will
turn or bend, thus enlarging upon or restricting the original circular movement.
The variety of possible operational spirals of neutralization can only be hinted at
in the illustrations which follow.
These spirals may begin from a height and descend rapidly to the ground, or they
may suddenly plunge down only to rise with increased momentum. They may be
narrow or ample, simple or elaborate. But in every case, like the circuits, they will
always enable you to "hook" an attack, drawing it into a vacuum of neutralization.
Examples of the semi-spirals are illustrated on page 99, drawn from the
impressive immobilization no. 2 which is known as nikyo.
 The Dynamic Sphere
If you combine all of those basic circuits and all the possible spirals and semi-
spirals of neutralization around your Centre into a single image, the result is a sphere:
a "Dynamic Sphere" of circuits enveloping you protectively as you channel any
aggressive action into any one or combination of those circles according to the
circumstances of each attack.
In the Dynamic Sphere, the concepts of the Centre (attitude) and the energy or
extension (hi) as well as that of leading control are synthesized, providing a clear
formula to which you can turn when seeking to resolve those functional problems
which may arise during your practice of the art.
Any motion of attack (from in front of you, from behind you, or from either side),
or any technique or method of attack (a blow, a hold, a combination) may be
dynamically drawn into a circuit around your Centre and led away to its dispersion
and/or neutralization.
Up to this point the Dynamic Sphere which we have examined, with all of its
circuits, spirals, and semi-spirals of neutralization, has been linked to techniques of
self-defense performed almost on the spot, usually against one attacker.
If you move along or across the surface of the mat, your functional command over
an attack can be expanded to include the possibility of multiple attack, i.e., when two
or more people attack you at the same time.
When you move your Centre, its protective sphere and its accompanying Circuits
of Neutralization move with you, and spin around and about you in the direction of the
attack, regardless of the side from which that attack may be launched.
Obviously it would be impossible to explore all the dynamic patterns which
could be realized when linked to the Circuits of Neutralization discussed earlier.
 We can only attempt to clarify the basic idea of the Dynamic Sphere as it would
be operational here, through a series of illustrations which indicate the main patterns
of motion that sphere may follow in combat.
Accordingly, by pivoting within, and as the Centre of an extremely mobile sphere
which rolls simultaneously along or across the surface of the mat and around your
body, you will be able to face the simultaneous attack of several men—evading,
spinning, always maintaining your centralized position in relation to your opponents,
and using their aggressive ki (intention, dynamic momentum) to draw them into various
Circuits of Neutralization, one or several, depending upon the number, tempo, or
rhythm of the individual attacks which you must neutralize.
The typical circularity of an aikido defensive strategy, synthesized in the motion
of the Dynamic Sphere, also characterizes the final stages of neutralization in which
the aggression is either led circularly back to its source or deflected and sent spinning
away.
First, "the closed circuit" is typical of those techniques of neutralization known
as immobilizations. Through an appropriate extension of that aggression into a circuit
around your Centre, you will channel that force back to its source. By leading that
powerful motion/action originally aimed at you back toward your opponent, you will
make him the target of his own attack.
Observe, for example, immobilizations nos. 2 and 3. In each, you will note this
circular return of the opponent's attack to himself, usually through an immobilization
which channels his power back to his own body. In fact, you will notice that in each of
them, the opponent's captured hand is twisted back in the direction of his own body in
a way that may be momentarily painful, but not permanently harmful.
Second, the centrifugal deflection is typical of those techniques of neutralization
known as projections, in which, through an appropriate extension of your attacker's
initial intention and dynamic momentum into a circuit flowing around your Centre, you
will deflect his attack from its intended target and send him spinning harmlessly away.
 In synthesis, circularity of motion on the mat in preparation for the application of
a technique, and circularity of action around your body (Centre), in concluding the
process of defense with that particular technique, are the main characteristics of
aikido in operation.
Once the principle of sphericity has been understood and recognized as being
basic to every strategy of neutralization, then that strategy may be approached in
relation to its two principal stages of practical application: the dynamic and the
technical.
All the techniques and motions of aikido have been constructed around this idea
of a circle, with you as the Centre and your opponents as whirling bodies flying along
its periphery. Since this is such a fundamental principle, it is easy to understand why
in aikido it is often said that you and your opponent form a whole, become a unit
(controlled and directed by you), with an exact balance of the centripetal force
flowing toward you and the centrifugal force flowing from you.

Fusion and Special Exercises

The first phase of centralization is concerned with coordinating the mental,
physical, and functional powers of the student. The second phase involves the
coordination of these powers with the action of combat, with the attack—in full fusion
and control.
This centralization as used in aikido has two levels of development: the
conscious or initial level of preparation, and the unconscious or advanced level of
stabilization.
As has been noted repeatedly in ancient chronicles of the martial arts,
concentrating all of one's attention upon the abdominal Centre, and therefore fixing the
mind upon a single spot, does not differ substantially from fixing it upon an attacker, or
concentrating upon his weapons, etc. In any one of these instances, mental
independence would be lost and the entire process of defense necessarily impaired.
But a problem of possible confusion arises here concerning the initial stage in
which centralization in the lower abdomen or Centre is developed through the special
exercises which follow, and that stage in which centralization is or has become an
accomplished fact (unconscious maintenance of balance—both mental and physical,
extension of energy, circularity of motion and action, etc.). In the second stage, there is
no longer any need for a conscious effort to stay centralized or to direct the attention to
or upon the Centre, since at this advanced level of the practice a student will simply
"be centralized," and his energy will always be "turned on." This condition thus
becomes a continuous state which no longer demands conscious participation.
Centralization, extension, smoothness of control and circularity of performance
are thus acquired through a disciplined concentration—at first, of your mental powers
upon one spot, the Centre. When the feeling of centralization becomes "normal," i.e.,
familiar, it will then be tested in action through a conscious effort to maintain that
feeling of centralization in the lower abdomen, even when walking or performing any
of your normal daily activities. It is finally stabilized by maintaining it on the mat
during aikido practice, during the performance of the basic exercises, and of all the
techniques of neutralization of the repertoire.
If the conscious training has been thorough and well programmed, eventually the
conscious part of the mind will not need to concentrate upon the Centre in order to
maintain the necessary centralization and extension, since this will have become a
continuing, unconscious state which will be maintained without conscious effort. The
process of reaction at this point will become highly automatic and direct.
The Exercise of Posture
If one wishes to achieve a true centralization of the personality according to the
natural law of gravity, posture in all of its possible forms and types is of paramount
importance.
STANDING POSTURE

The distinctive characteristic of man's particular personality is represented by his

upright posture straight between two spacial dimensions of his reality: the horizontal,
the source of his life; and the vertical, the goal of his aspirations. It has been seen how
this posture and its typical relaxed smoothness (or functional suppleness) determine
the degree of centralization developed by man. But the simple standing posture can
also be an exercise performed in order to achieve that centralization. In particular
many schools of the martial arts never failed to devote a large portion of their training
to this important initial attitude.
 Judo, for example, has developed one of the richest systematic elaborations on
standing postures, and so has karate. Very few disciplines, however, have emphasized
the "normality" of a relaxed posture, even in relation to the dramatic circumstances of
combat, as aikido and other related methods of self-defense have done.
This is the paradox of the theory on the hara, of the notion of a Centre, natural
and already consistent with itself in the order of creation: a normal condition, pure and
simple. What appears to be artificially contrived, i.e., a stiff posture indicating
underlying menace or defiance, or the so-called solid postures of defense, are all
abnormal because they are unnatural. An upright man learns to stay upright in a
correct, balanced manner. His weight descends normally along the strong architectural
patterns of muscle and bone without any tension manifesting itself anywhere or any
stiffening of the muscles (in particular, those of the legs).
If he stands correctly, he will be centralized at the point of maximum balance
between rest and motion (two opposites), and will be ready for either one.
The exercise of standing is performed by consciously relaxing and allowing the
weight of the upper body to descend naturally according to the law of gravity. Still
consciously, this centralization is felt at the Centre, kept in equilibrium there (not
pushed or imprisoned), until the newly developed condition of natural centralization
becomes instinctive.
SITTING POSTURE

Typical of the schools of thought (philosophy and religion) and those of

representation (arts and crafts, calligraphy, painting, weaving) is the development of a
theory of sitting and related exercises.
A panoramic survey of the most characteristic and representative sitting postures
adopted in Asia from India to China and Japan, notwithstanding national
differentiations of marginal relevance, will all reveal a typical closeness to and a
peculiar identification with the horizontal plane of the ground. There is an
unmistakable straightness, a verticality which becomes symbolic and universal in
implication as represented in art, for example.
 The exercise of sitting reaches its peak of perfection in Japan in the zazen posture
which has come to be identified with the Buddhist sect of Zen. It shines in the plastic
representations of Kabuki plays where the chorus, sitting in a characteristic manner,
accompanies the action with comments sung in an abdominally deep, musical way.
The forms of sitting, as exercise, aim at the achievement of a condition of supple
stillness conducive to the smooth centralization of the entire personality in the Centre.
Its advantage is clearly due to the increased proximity of the ground, whose
immobility is thus more easily shared. It is also invaluable for the contemplative
purposes of men of thought who can transcend the physical barrier of reality, soar into
the realms of the pure spirit, and be lost to the real world entirely. It is also of
paramount importance for the artist, who, rooted to the "great mother," can
nevertheless be free to move his brushes in a fluid manner. It is, however, less
important in the schools of action where withdrawal from reality and static immobility
are not primary objectives.
But in order to find and stay in the Centre, the sitting posture is definitely
necessary to develop the feeling of centralization until it becomes continually present
at all times, especially at times of stress, when in motion.

The Exercise of Stillness

One of the primary exercises for the locating and focusing of consciousness in the
Centre is the exercise of stillness. It is aimed at dispersing the thick fog of sensorial
solicitations which assail the student from every side, as well as activating his
instinctive responses in the form of movement/action. It consists of assuming
particular postures, sitting or standing (depending upon the school), and maintaining
that posture for prolonged periods of time, holding physical responses in check until
this stillness becomes a natural state.
Because of its strongly static outlines, this exercise is particularly suited to the
metaphysical schools of religious or philosophical thought in which it is extensively
practiced. But it has also been adopted by the more practical schools of action, which,
like those related to the arts and crafts (painting, ceramics, theatrical presentations)
and combat, use it as a preliminary discipline to establish self-control—"bridling the
beast." Thus man learns to control his body and physical reactions so as to prepare it
for the practice of other exercises and techniques typical of his school.
The Exercise of Concentration
This exercise, in many forms specific to each of the many schools of Asia, aims
at directing the attention from the outside reality to the reality within man once his
body has been stilled. This shift aims at illuminating those dark recesses of man's
personality, at the roots of which the Centre is to be found.
Reacting against the dispersive solicitations of the outer reality, man withdraws
within himself. He allows his body to relax completely, lets it fall under the natural
sway of gravity, and concentrates his consciousness at the point of maximum intensity
of that weight—the hara, or lower abdomen. Amidst a clamor of unaccustomed
feelings—aroused and wildly fluttering about like bats in a cave which is suddenly
filled with strange sounds—a man, if he perseveres, will emerge slowly and painfully
from the confusion with a feeling of central balance, precarious at first, but
increasingly stable as he repeats the exercise with disciplined application.
At that point, all of the anatomical elements of the body will appear to be
magnetically unified; all the rambling thoughts will come to rest as a result of that
implosive fusion. Thus one comes to perceive a new, central "self," a root so balanced
that everything channeled there becomes still, in a state of rest.
The Exercise of Meditation
Finding the Centre, however, is only the beginning. Reality, both outer and inner,
has innumerable ways of reasserting its autonomy, of recapturing the attention. It will
continue to launch wave after wave of assault against that newly concentrated Centre,
especially during the period immediately following its discovery. Meditation,
therefore, is intended to make the discovery a stable, permanent condition as one
attempts to stay centralized for increasingly prolonged periods of time.
Abdominal (Deep) Breathing
An exercise of particular importance for the development of that centralized
energy which is the foundation of the principle of extension, is the practice of deep
abdominal breathing which aikido (as well as many other martial arts) has adopted
from other Asiatic disciplines such as Zen.
The characteristics of this exercise in the aikido dimension are of two orders:
physio-functional, related to the way of controlling the two phases of inhalation and
exhalation; and mental, related to the mental image you will use as a device for
developing the proper rhythm and style of breathing.
One method commonly employed involves sitting Japanese style, zazen (Chapter
III), while wearing loose clothing, in a well-ventilated room, and on a mat or some
sort of cushioning material so that the pressure on your legs, ankles, and feet will not
become too painful. Adaptation to this way of sitting should be built up gradually,
increasing the time spent in this position by a few minutes every session. You should
be careful when getting up at the end of this exercise because your feet and legs will
most probably have "fallen asleep"—a common problem which many Japanese who
practice zazen regularly have also mentioned. The Indian position for meditation
(cross-legged) is also used, but if you prefer this position you should be sure to place
a cushion underneath you in order to keep your spine straight.
When you are comfortably seated and relaxed, you may begin your breathing
exercise. Inhalation should be prolonged, as a thin stream of air is drawn in through
the nostrils at a regular, controlled rate. The sound of such a prolonged inhalation
should be close to the letter "u." And this inhalation should be done relaxedly with no
straining. Moreover, even though the air is drawn in through the nose, the glottis at the
back of the throat should be used to control the stream. In other words, by drawing the
air in through contraction of the glottis, instead of "sniffing" it you will be able to
achieve the slow, steady stream of which we are speaking.
The air you inhale should fill the central part of your body, not only the chest
cavity but also the lower abdomen which should thus expand normally, without undue
strain or tensing of your stomach muscles. The idea is to breathe as fully and naturally
as a child.
When you have inhaled all that you comfortably can, keeping your shoulders
down during the inhalation, rest quietly for a moment or so before beginning to exhale.
The exhalation should be through the mouth, again in a steady, concentrated, powerful
but relaxed stream—the sound of the exhalation resembling an "aah." Again, there
should be no straining or attempt to exhale suddenly with great force, since Mr. Tohei
warns that this can cause stomach adhesions or other unfortunate side effects.
 In order to coordinate the mental dimension of your personality with the physio-
functional, thus working toward that essential fusion of mind and body which is the
ultimate aim of any aikido exercise, many Zen masters advise their pupils to imagine
that during inhalation a very thin silver thread is being drawn in uninterruptedly
through the nostrils, flowing down the spinal column as illustrated, before being held
for a few seconds in spherical suspension in the lower abdomen. The process is then
reversed during exhalation.
Many martial arts practitioners declare that unless proper breath control is
mastered, progress will always be limited in any of these arts. Since, as indicated
earlier, this belief is also held by the best athletes, singers, and dancers, it does not
seem an unreasonable one.

Breathing exercises should be practiced daily, and when combined with regular
practice of the arts of aikido will result in surprising coordinated development.
Sitting Extension
As an examination of the various exercises for developing centralization and
inner, coordinated power will reveal, aikido (like most martial arts) is heavily
indebted to those doctrines of inner development such as Taoism and Zen Buddhism,
which made ample use of, and actually are considered to have devised those
exercises. But there are certain other aikido exercises which mark the translation of
the Inner Factors of the art, into the outer, external dimension, thus transforming those
factors into concrete and powerful actions.
Among these exercises, a position of particular eminence is accorded to an
exercise of sitting extension known as kokyu dosa, which is usually practiced at the
end of every aikido class—and sometimes even at the beginning of or during the class
—any time you need to test the degree of your centralized extension, or relax into it
again if you have lost it for any reason.
This exercise is performed in the sitting posture (zazen) described in Chapter III.
Your partner, sitting in front of you, will grasp your wrists and hold them firmly.
Moving from the hips with a powerful surge of energy from the Centre, you will
extend your arms toward uke (the opponent), leading the power of his hold back to
him, and circularly up to his rear. (This leading motion will often involve a slight
initial "sliding below" or deflection of the line of his concentrated force.) You will
follow him with samurai walk (Chapter IX) as he rolls sideways and down to the mat.
Settling yourself at his side (one knee braced against his body), you will extend your
arms and rest the knife-edges of your hands on the shoulder and arm of uke—firmly
but without pressing down painfully. Uke will attempt to rise, trying to disturb your
downward extension. If you are properly centralized and your energy is flowing
uninterruptedly downward "to the center of the earth," as some instructors say, you
should be immovable, and uke should be unable to rise.
 A variation of this exercise is also practiced as an introductory step to the
practice of immobilization no. 4 (yonkyo), illustrated in Chapter VIII. As uke grasps
your wrists, you will turn your hands around his forearms, passing over them from the
inside. You will then grip his forearm and exercise pressure on the nerve centers
located above the wrist. His instinctive reaction to this pressure—trying to arch back
and away from it—will allow you to extend his arms fully, setting them in direct
alignment with the line of centralized energy that you will be channeling against his
upper body through those paralyzed arms. You will project him sideways, since
extending him straight back may cause severe pain and/or possible injury to his ankles
or toes.
Tests

Aikido provides numerous ways of testing the quality and power of your
centralized extension. The accompanying examples are only a sample of their range
and type.
Sitting in zazen, you will relax and concentrate on your Centre, letting your hi
flow outward from it. Remember to keep your back straight and do not be disturbed by
your partner's efforts to topple you by pushing you backward (his hands on your
shoulders) from above. Experienced aikido students can thus neutralize the power of
two or three uke, even when sitting with legs apart as illustrated.
The same test may be performed in a standing position, with one of your arms
extended in an "unbendable" arch, the edge of your hand resting against your partner's
forearm. He will push and you will neutralize his power as if you were a rock against
which his power was being discharged. In advanced stages of the art, you should be
able to re-channel the force he is trying to use against you, and even be able to push
back several men as they strain against you to no avail.

Another test frequently employed consists of neutralizing the efforts of one or two
partners as they endeavor to lift you from the mat. In this exercise you should be stably
relaxed and centralized, your ki flowing downward and linking your whole body to the
earth.
The test of the unbendable arm has already been described in Chapter I. When
performed properly, the centralized energy flowing through your arm should be
sufficient to neutralize any attempt to bend your arm if you do not wish it bent. This
unbendable arm must be maintained continuously in every phase of your practice on
the mat, and eventually become a constant state.
Other tests, whose number is limited only by the preparation and imagination of
the individual instructor, may include the use of the stave (jo), or of the wooden sword
(bokken), etc., but those which will introduce the aikido student to the use of
centralized energy and extension in the performance of the aikido techniques of
neutralization are briefly described under the heading, "Basic Exercises" (taiso)—
Chapter VI.

Footnote
* Zen Journal of World History and Japanese Culture, New York, 1959.
 CHAPTER VI
The Physical Preparation

WE HAVE now reached the point in the aikido process of defense where you will move
from the study of those "inner" dimensions characterized by the predominant role of
your mind: perceiving an attack, evaluating its probable course, and deciding upon the
appropriate measures for coping with it, to the "outer" dimensions characterized by the
role of your body in carrying out those measures and neutralizing that attack.
We will now examine the physical and functional factors which will determine
the correctness and efficiency of your strategy of defense in response to an aggressive
solicitation which has been properly perceived and evaluated. These Outer Factors of
your aikido defensive reaction will include first the physical condition of your body—
the concrete instrument of defense (the authors prefer to avoid any reference to the
body as a weapon of defense, for reasons explained in Chapter X).
These Outer Factors will also include the functional way in which you will
position your body in the event of an attack; the way you will move, evade, extend,
and control that attack dynamically; the way in which you will neutralize it with an
appropriate technique of immobilization, projection, or a combination of both.
In this chapter we will examine how your body is to be prepared and conditioned
physically through the practice of certain exercises for the specific purpose of keeping
yourself fit and ready for the practice of the art, and, more generally, for the purpose
of improving upon and maintaining a condition of stable health so that you may enjoy
life—and living—more fully.
 The exercises of physical conditioning and preparation adopted and practiced in
aikido dojo are generally of two orders. The first group, qualified as preliminary, are
all intended to develop and improve upon your body's natural elasticity and
suppleness which have always been associated with youthfulness and a natural feeling
of well-being. The second or basic group of exercises includes a more specialized
body of practices and movements intended to develop and improve upon your physical
and functional coordination, in order to make your actions thoroughly coherent and
smoothly effective, and thus the expression of an integrated personality responding
appropriately to an attack.

Preliminary Exercises: Suppleness

The preliminary exercises performed at the beginning of most aikido sessions
have the primary, overall purpose of loosening up your body, of stretching and
relaxing your muscles, of limbering up your entire frame.
The development of suppleness and its correlative, speed, will be the natural
result of regular performance of these exercises. Every muscle will be stretched and
strengthened, every sinew freed from any "dust" which may have accumulated through
inactivity or fatigue. Every part of your body will be flexed elastically in the pleasant
manner of a natural extension similar to a morning stretch after a restful sleep.
When these preliminary exercises have been completed, you may then proceed to
the more specialized or basic aikido exercises. They differ from the preliminary not so
much in emphasis, but rather in their patterns of performance. The preliminary
exercises, in fact, are intended to prepare your body in a general manner (to render it
supple, flexible, and warm); the specialized or basic aikido exercises are intended to
develop the particular aikido type of coordination and to register the basic patterns of
the various strategies (extension of power, awareness, dynamic and technical
reactivity).
The following sequences illustrate the preliminary exercises most commonly
employed in aikido dojo everywhere. They will be most helpful in impeding the
creeping and relentless spread of muscular and skeletal rigidity affecting the spinal
column and the joints which is usually associated with advancing age. The
recommendation that you keep your body supple like that of an infant in order to
counteract the rigidity and stiffness of the aging process is a very old one which
ancient Japanese masters of martial arts often stressed to their disciples. This advice
may be traced all the way back to ancient Chinese classics such as the Taoist texts,
and having found its way into the manuals of martial strategy, soon became the
foundation for that famous principle of nonresistance or fusion (wa) which according
to a predominant school of thought in this area underlies the principles of suppleness
(ju) and harmony (ai).
PRELIMINARY EXERCISE NO. 1

Sitting on the mat, your body erect, legs and arms outstretched, you will bend
over to touch your toes (or the mat beyond your toes) with your fingertips, and your
knees or thighs with your chest. This limbering motion may be repeated five or more
times.

PRELIMINARY EXERCISE NO. 2

Sitting on the mat, arms in front of you, legs fully outstretched and spread
diagonally, you will bend to the left, touching your toes with your fingertips and
bringing your head down to touch your knee (or at least as close to your knee as
possible). You may repeat this exercise five times on the left and then five times on the
right.
Finally, grasping both ankles, or stretching your arms out in front of you, you will
bend forward, bringing your head down as close to the mat in front of you as the
elasticity of your spinal column will permit. This may also be repeated five times.
 PRELIMINARY EXERCISE NO. 3

Sitting on the mat, legs outspread in diagonal, you will set one fist on the mat in
front of you at arm's length and bend over to touch that fist with your forehead. If this
is difficult at first, you may begin by putting one fist on top of the other to reduce the
distance between them and your head. This exercise may be repeated five times.
PRELIMINARY EXERCISE NO. 4

Sit on the mat, Indian-style, with the soles of your feet touching and as close to
your body as possible. This position will raise your knees from the mat. You will push
down on both knees simultaneously (five times)and then bend over your feet five
times, bringing your forehead down as close as possible to the mat in front of you.

PRELIMINARY EXERCISE NO. 5

Sitting on the mat, Japanese-style (seiza) with your feet tucked underneath you
and your arms outstretched over your head, you will bend backward to touch the mat
behind you with your hands. A partner will hold your knees so that you will be able to
stretch up and back in full relaxed extension.

PRELIMINARY EXERCISE NO. 6

Standing with feet spread apart but on the same line, you will bend one knee and
let your weight settle on that leg, stretching your other leg out fully. You will turn and
twist your foot in order to stretch the ligaments. You may touch your outstretched ankle
with one or both hands, thus bending your whole body at the waist. This exercise may
be repeated five times on the left side and then five times on the right.
 PRELIMINARY EXERCISE NO. 7

Standing, feet close together, you will bend your knees, keeping them close
together and rotating them first in one direction and then in the other. After this, you
will bend your knees deeply five times, sinking down as close to the mat as possible.
(Do not move your feet or lift them from the mat while doing this exercise.)

PRELIMINARY EXERCISE NO. 8

Standing with feet set apart but on the same line, toes pointing straight ahead, you
will bend your knees deeply five times, spreading them apart.
 PRELIMINARY EXERCISE NO. 9

Standing with your feet apart, you will swing both your arms from one side to the
other, turning your whole body (including your head) as far around as possible without
moving your feet. The difference between this circular motion exercise and basic
exercise no. 15 (udefuri undo—spin) lies in the fact that this exercise is intended
mainly to stretch and exercise your spinal column, while basic exercise no. 15 is
directly related to the development of centralization, extension, and leading control
via a swinging motion which will apply to your arms alone. There, your trunk and
head remain facing forward as your arms swing from side to side.
PRELIMINARY EXERCISE NO. 10

Standing with feet apart but on the same line, you will swing your arms up and
over, bending your body sideways as far as possible. Repeat this exercise five times
on each side.
 PRELIMINARY EXERCISE NO. 11

Standing with feet apart but on the same line, toes pointing outward and arms
outstretched at your sides, you will swing your arms in an arc, bending as far back as
possible and then as far forward as possible (five times).

Basic Exercises: Coordination (aiki taiso)

The specialized exercises, the aiki taiso—which you will practice either in class
or by yourself whenever you can—are more precisely focused and at the same time
more complex than the preliminary exercises.
Their primary aim, in fact, is to improve the coordination of all the various
factors of the practice, as expressed through the disciplined blending of all your
various powers and functional possibilities.
In the mental dimension, for example, the aiki taiso will help you to develop,
exercise, and test practically your fundamental centralization (in the beginning, at
least, at the hara, or Centre); the extension of ki, or Inner Energy, from and through
this Centre (which will eventually expand to include your whole body); and the mental
alertness and keenness of perception which should be the natural result of this
extension of centralized energy.
In the physical dimension, the aiki taiso will also help to develop and stabilize
that relaxed suppleness which is the main purpose of the preliminary exercises, as
well as improve the rhythm of both your respiration and circulation. The weight of
your whole upper anatomy will fall naturally into a central, supported position,
vertically balanced upon your Centre without excessive muscular contraction or
"hunching" of your shoulders, etc.
Your breathing will become calm and deep (abdominal breathing); your
circulation will be enhanced as evidenced by a particular glowing feeling all over
your body, and a tingling sensation will be felt at your fingertips upon the completion
of these basic exercises.
In the functional dimension, the aiki taiso will operate as the basic formulas from
which your defensive aikido strategies will be developed. They will represent the
correct execution of the individual strategic movements and techniques in a formalized
manner—much like the kata of other martial arts.
The disciplined repetition of these basic exercises is intended to register the
basic strategic patterns or formulas of the art firmly in your mind, and to achieve
through physical repetition their smooth, effective, and coordinated performance. At
first these formulas will appear to be, and will feel very strange—often awkward and
difficult. Through constant repetition and experimentation, however, your execution of
these exercises will become a unified, coordinated, and strategically rewarding
performance. Eventually their sequences of execution will be thoroughly programmed
into your psyche, and registered in your subconscious where they will be transformed
into automatic, conditioned reflexes.
As we have noted, these exercises are intended to develop total coordination of
power (Inner Energy, or ki), of functionality (both dynamic and technical), of supple
reactivity and awareness (centralization).
All the various factors of your defensive strategy of neutralization, however, must
be brought into play simultaneously: mental exercises, physical exercises, functional
exercises, must be fused together in a single formula of performance. Through the
constant integrated repetition of the basic exercises, you will learn not only how to
position and move your body, but how to be centralized in the lower abdomen or
Centre, and how to extend your energy until this energy will flow outward
automatically, enabling you to deal with any attack in a coordinated manner.
Aikido instructors may employ several methods to test the degree of your
coordinated development in the execution of these basic exercises, ranging from the
purely psychological: a sudden flick of the hand, to the physical: a strong pull or push.
A few of these methods are indicated where they apply in the sequences which follow.
Some general recommendations for the correct execution of the basic exercises
are:

1. Maintain correct posture throughout the practice of the basic exercises, with your
Centre properly positioned in a condition of balance aligned with the
perpendicular force of gravity.
2. Begin and practice every exercise in a centralized position for static exercises
such as nos. 1, 2, and 3 for example, moving from the Centre (from the hips) in
all the others.
3. Extend ki, or Inner Energy, from the Centre in the specific direction of each
exercise at all times.
4. When you turn your body or pivot (moving from the hips), remember to turn your
feet (toes too) all the way around, so that your body will be in total alignment.
5. Start every exercise on the left, either with the left hand in exercises nos. 1, 2,
and 3, or the left foot in all the others. After the required number of repetitions on
the left side, change to the right and repeat the exercise.

BASIC EXERCISE NO. 1 (nikyo, nikajo, kote mawashi-ho, wrist turn-in)

Stand in a natural, relaxed, and well-centralized position (shizentai, left kamae

or right kamae). Grasp the back of your left hand with your right hand, your right
thumb circling your left thumb. Now draw both hands up close to your upper chest
(keeping your elbows down), flexing and stretching your left wrist inward until the
fingers of your left hand touch your left forearm if possible. Some pain may be
experienced at first, until your wrist ligaments develop the necessary strength and
elasticity.
You should extend ki from your Centre at all times through that flexed wrist, thus
considerably reducing the pain which you may feel initially, and increasing the index
of curvature as well as that of rotation through the relaxed suppleness which
centralization arid extension will automatically produce.
This fundamental exercise will help you to develop a feeling for the correct hold
upon the hand of uke (your opponent) in immobilizations nos. 2 and 3 through
experimentation upon yourself. It will also teach you in a direct and personal manner
how pain may be activated and where it will be centered in the wrist so that you will
be able to locate and feel the right spot when necessary in combat.
 You may perform this exercise—either at home or at the beginning of a class in
the dojo—five times with the left hand, and five times with the right, then left and right
hands alternated again.

BASIC EXERCISE NO. 2 (kote gaeshi, kote gaeshi ho, wrist turn-out)

Raise your left hand as high as your chest and rotate it outward at the wrist to
your left with the knife-edge (tegatana) toward you, and your palm facing your left
side. Place your right hand around your left hand with your right thumb between the
ring and little finger knuckles of your left hand. The other four fingers of your right
hand should circle your palm around the thumb mount near your wrist.
Now rotate your left hand outward, pressing down and around your fingers with
your right thumb and using pressure on your ring and little fingers to increase the
rotation. Your left elbow should be drawn gently in toward your body—your left hand
thus bent toward the inside of your left forearm, and turned outward away from your
body at the same time.
There may be some slight pain at the beginning. Extension of ki and correct
centralization, however, will help to reduce this initial discomfort, as well as avoid
excessive muscular tension in your arms and shoulders.
This exercise may be performed five times with each hand and then repeated at
least five times more.
BASIC EXERCISE NO. 3 (tekubi shindo, wrist shaking)

FIRST VARIATION—Dropping your arms, let them hang relaxedly at your sides, no
tension in your shoulders. Shake your wrists rapidly and limberly, extending ki from
your Centre as if you were spraying the ground around you.
SECOND VARIATION—Hold your arms out in a horizontal position, hands relaxed.
Shake them rapidly and intensely as noted above. When tired, drop your arms and rest
before resuming the exercise.
THIRD VARIATION —Combine both the vertical and the horizontal variations of
basic exercise no. 3.
This exercise, with its evident emphasis upon centralization and extension, is
invaluable for stimulating your circulation and should result in that pleasant tingling
sensation mentioned above.
This exercise is also used as an introduction to and preparation for the much
sterner practice of aikido during the kangeiko, or winter months, when students in
Japan often perform basic drills outdoors in the snow, or in the mountains. Its roots
can be traced to Tibetan culture, through China and India, and it is often referred to in
the martial arts as a basic way of producing "inner" heat.
BASIC EXERCISE NO. 4 (rowing exercise)

One great dilemma in relation to the Centre and Inner Energy in the martial arts
has always been how to render that centralized energy operative in real action in
combat. The literature available on the subject amply documents the conflict between
the static and the dynamic or operative schools of thought. The more contemplative
discipline of Zen is typical of the former, while the latter has always been espoused
by exponents of the martial arts.
In fact, as has been pointed out by many aikido instructors, it may be
comparatively easy to be centralized in the lower abdomen and to keep extending ki
while sitting in meditation (zazen) or standing still in a natural position. It is another
thing entirely to maintain that condition of centralized extension while in motion, when
there is real involvement with the highly distracting reality of everyday living—
especially when you are dealing with a real attacker in the dramatic reality of combat.
In order to make that condition operative and constant, whether you are at rest or
in motion/action, you will regularly practice an exercise which is known as the rowing
exercise.
Assume a relaxed stance with your left foot ahead. When your instructor says
"one," thrust your hips forward, shifting the weight of your body from your right leg
onto your left—your right leg behind will straighten and your left leg ahead will bend
at the knee.
 Your arms will describe a small circle (as your shoulders are rotated) and then
they will descend strongly, in full extension, following the forward motion of your
hips, wrists bent inward so that your fingertips are pointed toward your body. Your
trunk or upper body must be kept erect, i.e., you must not lean forward, since this
exercise is primarily intended for the development of hip motion and at the same time
the maintenance of balance.
When your instructor says "two," you will draw your hips back, straightening
your left leg and bending your right one behind, as the weight of your body shifts back
upon it. Your arms will again follow the motion of your hips, being drawn back easily
to the sides of your body, fingers closing now to form a half-fist.
The accompanying motion of your arms will necessitate, as do all arm
movements in aikido, the maintenance of an unbendable arm but there must be no
sensation of pulling, since your arms will only be following the surging motion of your
hips (forward and back again), playing their necessary but subsidiary role.
Your instructor may test your degree of coordination in several ways. He may
stop you at the count of "one," and try to push your extended arms up from underneath
in the direction of your shoulders, or push you from behind at the hips. You should be
immovable. Or your instructor may stop you at the count of "two," and push your
shoulders back. He should not be able to upset your vertical stability.
 BASIC EXERCISE NO. 5 (shomen uchi ikkyo, ikkajo, high parry, high extension)

Taking a half-step forward with your left foot, you will let your hips surge
forward at the count of "one," bending your left leg and straightening your right leg
behind as illustrated, trunk straight and in full balance. You will swing your arms
forward and upward, fingers extended and ki flowing outward to the little finger edge
of both hands and beyond. Your arms should stop naturally at about eye level. Your
elbows should bend naturally according to the circular pattern of the centrifugal force
flowing from your Centre, which should make your arm unbendable.
At the count of "two," you will shift your hips back, the weight of your body
descending upon your right leg which will bend, while your left leg will straighten
again. Your arms will swing back to your sides, following your hip motion, fingers
closing into half-fists.
Your instructor may test the degree of your centralization and extension in several
ways. In phase no. 1, in full extension, he may grasp your wrists and push against you,
trying either to force your arms to bend or to move you backward. He may also step
behind you and push your hips forward in an attempt to disturb your balance. In phase
no. 2, he may place the knife-edges of his hands upon your chest near your shoulder
joints and try to push you backward.
This exercise is intended to help you develop the centralization and extension
necessary if you are to cope with blows coming from above toward your forehead or
face.
In the dojo you may perform this exercise five times with your left foot forward
and then five times with your right foot forward, repeating it five times more on each
side.
 BASIC EXERCISE NO. 6 (skip advance)

At the count of "one," you will take a half-step forward with your left foot,
sliding your right foot up close behind it, while your arms swing upward as described
in basic exercise no. 5.
At the count of "two," you will take a half-step backward with your right foot,
your left foot sliding back to join your right. Your arms will swing down again to your
sides.
The purpose of this exercise is to coordinate your centralized extension with your
forward stepping (the straight motion in advance in tsugi ashi; see Chapter VII,
"Follow-Up Step") and with your backward stepping.
You may perform this exercise five times with your left foot leading and then five
times with your right foot ahead, repeating it five times more on each side.
Your instructor may test you by stepping in front of you and acting as either an
obstacle which your extension will deflect, or as an attacker whose line of attack will
be spun back to its source.
BASIC EXERCISE NO. 7 (zengo undo, static pivot)

This exercise is an amplification of basic exercise no. 5. You will perform phase
one and phase two of basic exercise no. 5, and then, bringing your hips back and your
arms down to your sides, you will wait for the count of "three" and "four."
 At the count of "three," you will turn your hips 180 degrees to your right side
(half-circle), pivoting on both feet but without taking a step. You will now be facing
the wall, in the initial position of basic exercise no. 5, the only difference being that
your right leg will be extended in front of you. From this position, you will let your
hips surge forward, swinging your arms upward, as you did at the count of "one." At
the count of "four," you will bring your hips back and your arms down again to your
sides. At the count of "one," you will turn and repeat the entire series of phases and
turns until full coordination is achieved.
The purpose of this exercise is to develop your application of centralization/
extension against high attacks to your head, whether launched from in front of you or
from behind you.
BASIC EXERCISE NO. 8 (dynamic pivot)

This exercise is another amplification of basic exercise no. 5 but this time
combined with other types of motion—straight motion in alternation, and circular
motion for the half-circle.
At the count of "one," you will slide your left foot a half-step forward, keeping
your hips low (knees bent) and staying well centralized, while your arms swing in
centrifugal extension up and out. At the count of "two," you will bring your arms down
in an arc passing close to your sides, while your whole body turns 180 degrees (in a
half-circle) to your right and you take a step with your right foot, your left acting as the
supporting and pivoting fulcrum for the circular motion. You will swing your arms up
and then back down again as before. At the count of "three," you will pivot 90 degrees
(a quarter-circle turn) to your left, taking a short, sliding step forward with your left
foot, while you bring your arms up. At the count of "four," you will bring your hands
down while you pivot on your right foot swinging your arms up and out once again.
You will thus have covered four sides, pivoting on your left foot and then on your
right, alternately.
 This exercise may also be performed by stepping always with the same foot in
the four directions indicated above, pivoting continually on the other foot.
BASIC EXERCISE NO. 9 (happo undo, eight-direction exercise)

The final amplification of basic exercise no. 5 is this exercise where straight motion
(in tsugi and ayumi ashi) will blend with the circular motion of both the spin and
pivot forms. The directions of your defensive extension will increase here from two
(as in basic exercise no. 7) and four (as in basic exercise no. 8) to eight, as shown in
the illustrations which follow.
At the count of "one," you will slide your left foot forward in direction one,
drawing your right foot up behind in tsugi ashi as your hips surge forward and your
arms swing upward in frontal extension. Then you will bring your hips back and let
your arms fall naturally in an arc to your sides. At the count of "two," you will turn
your hips 180 degrees to your right, pivoting in a half-circle on both feet. You will
slide your right foot forward, bringing the left foot up behind in tsugi ashi and face
direction two, as your hips surge forward and your arms swing upward. Then you will
draw your hips back and bring your arms down again to your sides. At the count of
"three," you will turn your hips 90 degrees to your left side, in direction three,
stepping in that direction with your left foot (ayumi ashi), bringing your right foot up
behind in tsugi ashi. Your hips will surge forward and your arms swing upward as
indicated. Then you will withdraw your hips and allow your arms to fall back to your
sides. At the count of "four," you will swing your hips in a 180-degree circle to your
left, pivoting on both feet and facing direction four. Your hips will surge forward and
arms swing upward. Then your hips will be drawn back and your arms will fall back
to your sides.
At the count of "five," you will turn your hips in direction five—obliquely
between directions four and two—taking a step in that direction with your left foot in
ayumi ashi, your right foot being drawn up behind in tsugi ashi. As before, your hips
will swing forward, your arms upward and outward. Then your hips will be drawn
back, arms following, back and down to your sides. At the count of "six," you will
pivot on both feet in a 180-degree circle, facing direction six, between directions one
and three. Hips will surge forward and arms swing up in an arc. Then you will swing
your hips back, and your arms will fall naturally once again to your sides. At the count
of "seven," you will turn your hips 90 degrees to your left side, stepping in direction
seven—ayumi ashi—between directions one and four, your right foot following as it
slides up from behind in tsugi ashi. Another surge forward with your hips, arms
swinging up, and then you will swing your hips back, your arms curving down again to
your sides.
 BASIC EXERCISE NO. 10 (kokyu ho undo, wrist lead)

At the count of "one," from the left natural posture (hidari gamae), you will
extend your left arm in front of you, wrist bent inward and fingertips pointing toward
you. You will slide your left foot a half-step forward, spin on it, and turn your body
180 degrees to your right (half-circle), withdrawing your right leg circularly behind
you. Your hand will remain where it was at the beginning of the extension; you will
simply turn it so that your palm faces upward.

At the count of "two," you will bring that hand back to your side and extend your
right hand forward, wrist bent and fingertips pointing toward you. Taking a long step
forward with your right foot, you will pivot on that foot and withdraw your left foot
circularly behind you. Your right hand will not move—you will simply turn it palm
up.
Your instructor may test you in various ways. In phase one, he may push your
bent wrist in the direction of your shoulder, which should not be raised. He may push
your hips from behind, and you should not be moved. In phase two, he may try to pull
your extended wrist from behind, but he should not be able to move or unbalance you.
The purpose of this exercise is to coordinate your defensive circular motion with
an attacker's motion of convergence. When he grabs (or attempts to grab) your wrist,
his movement will follow yours in the direction of your extended fingers while your
Centre of power controls that movement. You will then be able to lead him into any
one of a number of Circuits of Neutralization.
BASIC EXERCISE NO. 11 (tekubi kosa undo, double-wrist break)

You will stand, well centralized in the natural position (shizentai), feet apart and
arms fully relaxed at your sides. At the count of "one," you will turn both wrists
inward so that the fingers of both hands are pointing toward one another, and swing
your arms in front of your Centre, your hands crossing each other. You will return-
your hands to your sides and repeat five times with your left hand outside, and five
times with it inside. Ki should be extended through your arms, down the back of your
hands.
Your instructor may test you when your arms are at your sides or when they
swing across. In the first case, to see if you are extending "down," he may push your
arms up, trying to break your vertical balance. Or he may try to hold your wrists apart
as you swing them back and forth. You must lead his own strength circularly
underneath, following the turn of your wrists. Finally, he may stop you when your
hands are crossed in front of you, and push them from underneath, toward your
shoulders. You should remain immovable.
The purpose of this exercise is specifically that of training you to transform a
hold on your wrists into a lead which will bring an attacker into position for the
application of an immobilization or a projection.

BASIC EXERCISE NO. 12 (tekubi joho kosa undo, high wrist break)

This exercise is an amplification of basic exercise no. 11. You will turn your
wrists with palms up, fingers pointing ahead. Then you will swing your arms upward
to eye level, crossing your hands at that point, one cupping the other, palms facing you,
fingers inclined ever so slightly inward.
Your instructor may try to stop the upward swing of your arms, or push directly
against your wrists in the direction of your face. In either case, you should complete
the swing and/or stand immovable, in full centralized extension.
BASIC EXERCISE NO. 13 (sayu undo, lateral swing)

Setting your feet comfortably wide apart, relaxing your whole upper frame, and
centralizing yourself well, you will extend your arms in front of you palms upward. At
the count of "one," you will swing your arms to your left side—your left arm
projecting out (always unbendable)—your right arm extended across your chest, with
the weight under. At the count of "two," you will bend your left leg and straighten your
right. Your trunk must remain erect and in full balance (you must never lean to one
side), and your head should continue to face forward. At the count of "three," you will
straighten your legs and swing both arms from the left to the right—your right arm
projecting out, unbendable, and your left arm extending across your chest also
immovable. At the count of "four," you will bend your right leg and straighten your
left; descending with your whole body, centralized and well balanced.
 Your instructor may test both your centralization and your extension by pushing
your hips from the side over the straightened leg toward the side of the bent leg; or by
trying to bend the arm projecting out; or by trying to lift the arm stretched across your
chest. Mr. Tohei recommends that you "think heavy" under your arms, thus settling
them so that a heavy concentration of descending power will develop which will later
be unleashed in defensive action against an attack, when and if necessary.

BASIC EXERCISE NO. 14

This exercise is a dynamic variation of basic exercise no. 13. At the count of
"one," you will step to your left with your right foot, sliding it behind your left foot.
You will let your weight descend and then take an extended step with your left foot
sideways, in the same direction, swinging your arms sideways as in basic exercise no.
13. At the count of "two," you will bend your left leg and straighten your right. At the
count of "three," you will swing your arms sideways from your left side to your right,
taking a step with your left foot which, this time, will pass behind your right foot. As
your weight descends, you will slide your right foot sideways, along the same general
line. At the count of "four," you will bend your right leg, straightening your left leg.
 This exercise may also be performed by stepping across in front instead of
behind your central supporting foot. The coordination required will, however, be
much greater because of the dynamic contrast with the movement of your arms, as
illustrated.
BASIC EXERCISE NO. 15 (udefuri undo, spin)

At the count of "one," standing in the natural position (shizentai), you will extend
your arms in an ample circle and swing them to your left side. At the count of "two,"
you will swing them to your right side, always maintaining your body (i.e., your trunk)
in the correct vertical posture. At the count of "three," you will swing your arms back
to your left side. Then, at the count of "four," as your arms swing back to your right
side, you will take a short step with your right foot to your rear and prepare to spin
forward.
At the count of "one," this time, you will take a long, sliding step ahead with your
right foot, then pivot on it to your left, allowing your entire anatomy to spin, both arms
whirling in the same circular direction and following the same circular pattern.
Withdrawing your left foot circularly behind you, you will allow your weight to settle
on that leg at the completion of the spin. You should now be facing the direction from
which you began the initial, whirling motion. At the count of "two," you will swing
your arms to your right side, then take a long, sliding step with your left foot straight
ahead, and pivot, turning your anatomy in a full circle. Your right foot will be
withdrawn in orbital motion around you, your right leg settling down at the completion
of the spin to receive the descending weight of your body.

In this movement (of fundamental importance to the practice of aikido), the

following points must be observed:

Centralization must be maintained constantly throughout the dynamic

phases of the exercise, in order to counteract the natural buoyancy of the
spin which might result in a condition of unbalance or a sudden attack of
dizziness.
The movement of your arms must be coordinated from the very
beginning with the forward stepping or sliding of one foot and then with the
retreating stepping or sliding of the other, thus making the entire exercise a
single, unified, dynamic spin.
Your instructor may test the stability of your centralization at the very beginning
—when you are simply swinging your arms—by pushing your hips in the same
direction as your arms are swinging. Your body, regardless of the centrifugal effect
imparted to it by that upper movement, should be firmly stabilized but at the same time
relaxed. Your instructor may also attempt to stop your spin by moving directly across
your path, or by gesturing in such a way as to break your concentration. You should
continue to spin across the mat, back and forth, no matter what form his attempted
interference takes. Finally, when you settle down momentarily at the completion of a
spin, your instructor may push your advanced shoulder in the direction of the leg
straightened behind, or push your hips from behind, in the direction from which you
came. You should not "tense up," but you should not be thrown off balance either;
instead you should remain in the correct position, secure and centralized.
The purpose of this exercise is to help you develop that subtle capacity to move
circularly in any direction, which will allow you to deflect multiple attacks and to
centralize yourself prior to their neutralization. As Mr. Tohei so aptly puts it, the
principle involved is that of "a spinning globe."
BASIC EXERCISE NO. 16 (ushiro tori undo, forward extension)

At the count of "one," starting from the frontal posture (shizentai), you will take a
step forward with your left foot, letting your arms surge up, describing a half-circle in
front of you. At the count of "two," you will bend your left knee, swing your left arm
down close to your left toes and swing your right arm up behind you, turning your body
slightly upon its own axis and straightening your right leg behind. Then you will
resume your initial position, bringing your left foot back into shizentai and swinging
your arms back to your sides. At the count of "three," you will begin the motion again,
but this time with your right foot advanced; and at the count of "four" (as in "two"
above), you will project your movement ahead but with your right side leading.

The points to be carefully observed are the following: Intrinsic or Inner

Energy should be channeled from your Centre through both your extended
arms; the inclination of your body over your bent leg should be as straight as
possible, thus avoiding any exaggerated movement which would cause your
hips to jut out directly across the path of an attacker's motion and thereby
interfere with your techniques.
Your instructor may test your extension by trying to push your open arms back
close to your body as you begin your motion or by pushing your hips from behind at
the completion of the downward swing. Your arms should remain immovable and
unbendable in the first instance, and your body should not be moved forward in the
second.
The purpose of this exercise is to train you to capture an aggressive movement of
encirclement from behind, and to lead it forward and then down through a dynamic
"slide" or "chute," leading an attacker into open un-balance and down to the ground.
(He should not be "loaded up," i.e., brought to lean heavily on your hips.) This
movement will be especially effective against sudden attacks from behind consisting
of a type of "bear hug" or high encirclement around your biceps, as an attacker
attempts to pin them to your body. In case of a low encirclement at the height of your
elbows, which would make the necessary extension of the arms impossible, the
general movement of your body will be the same—the forward surge of power from
your Centre, and the stepping. However, your hands will clasp his hands and arms,
securing a firm grip so that he will be paralyzed as you use your hip (i.e., total body)
motion to throw him.

BASIC EXERCISE NO. 17 (ushiro tekubi tori zenshin undo, downward extension a)

At the count of "one," you will take a step forward from the shizentai posture
with your left foot, turning your wrists inward so that your fingertips are pointing
forward, palms up in a sort of cup. Sweeping your arms up to your forehead
(fingertips pointing toward your face), you will then reverse your wrist position so
that your fingers will be pointing toward the ground, palms down. At the count of
"two," with a single motion, you will bend your body forward, describing a large
circle with your hands as they descend toward the ground over your bent left knee.
You will return to your initial position with your left foot drawn back into shizentai
and your arms at your sides, wrists bent as illustrated. At the count of "three" and then
"four," you will repeat the above, but taking a step forward with your right foot this
time.

Your instructor may test your centralized extension at the beginning, by

pushing your wrists up, to see if your extension is flowing, if you are
"projecting" or not. If you are not, your shoulders can be raised and your
balance broken. When your hands are up, he may attempt to push them down.
When you are bending forward, he may push your hips from behind to see if
you will be thrown off balance.
In all these instances, your arms should not fold or bend, and your body should remain
firmly in the chosen position.
The purpose of this exercise is to help you develop proper control over a motion
of attack from behind—consisting of a wrist seizure. Your attacker's action will be
captured and led first in extension upward, and then down to the ground, in a circular
pattern which will neutralize his attack.

BASIC EXERCISE NO. 18 (basic exercise no. 17, downward extension b)

This exercise is similar to the preceding exercise, the only difference being that
you will move backward this time, instead of forward. The extension will, however,
still be channeled up, around, and down, as in basic exercise no. 17.
At the count of "one," you will take a step with your left foot, either directly to
the side or slightly in diagonal behind you, and bring your right foot back, sweeping it
behind your left and kneeling down on your right knee. The related movements of your
hands, arms, and body will be the same as in basic exercise no. 17.
The functional differences between these two variations of the same basic
movement will be represented by your centralization which in the first variation, basic
exercise no. 17., will be positioned below your attacker's Centre of gravity in front of
him, while in the second variation, basic exercise no. 18, the positioning will still be
below his center of gravity, but to his side or slightly behind him.

Rolls and Somersaults (ukemi waza)

In aikido, your freedom of action and movement will not be restricted to the
vertical dimension of defense, but will be extended to include (often primarily) the
horizontal one, wherein you must learn to move and operate with equal ease and
efficiency. The following exercises are intended to develop and stabilize this skill and
control. They consist of rolls and somersaults in which the fundamental principles of
centralization, extension, suppleness, and, above all, sphericity will be particularly
evident and operative. The Dynamic Sphere will be functionally applicable here,
because that freedom of action and movement insured in the vertical dimension by the
unobstructed sphericity of your performance will be insured in the horizontal
dimension, to perhaps an even greater extent by the sphericity of your body when
contacting the surface of the mat, whether you are rolling backward or forward.
The sphere has always been considered by the ancient masters of martial arts to
be the perfect figure. It has no protruding edges or angles which can clash against
other surfaces, and it is intrinsically dynamic because its curved surface can meet all
other surfaces tangentially and roll naturally along and/or around them. Your body
must, when the occasion demands, become such a sphere, thus making your rolls and
somersaults mechanisms of motion which you choose to perform for strategic reasons
and for your own convenience.
Consequently, it is important to remember that these rolls and somersaults will
not be "falls" in the strict sense of that word, i.e., mere methods for landing safely on
the mat or the ground, and nothing more. In aikido, they will be forms of motion which
will enable you to regain your vertical position by passing through the horizontal
dimension.
BASIC EXERCISE NO. 19 (koho tento undo, koho ukemi undo, backward roll)

SITTING. You will sit on the mat as illustrated, with your left leg folded under
your right leg (bent in front of you). At the count of "one," without changing this initial
position, you will roll or rock backward, keeping your body "round." At the count of
"two," you will return to your original position.
 STANDING. From a left natural position (your feet in the triangular position of
defense) you will descend to the mat at the count of "one," folding your back leg
underneath you, so that you will not fall directly on your spine with possible jarring
consequences, but will rather roll down and over that back leg. Once down on the mat,
you will roll backward as in the sitting variation above. At the count of "two," you
will roll forward again and in a single motion roll up and over your bent leg, stepping
up onto the foot ahead and rising to your original position. This entire sequence should
be repeated many times.
Your instructor may test your centralization and extension by trying to stop you
either when you are "going down" or "coming up." Usually, he will pull your
shoulders toward him from behind as you try to roll forward in the sitting variation, or
as you try to get up in the second variation. In either case, you should complete the
movement by extending your ki forward.
He may tell you to stop in the sitting position and then try to push you back or as
you come up in the standing variation he may push strongly against your chest. In either
case, as before, you should sit or stand immovable and relaxed, with your mind
centered and extending ahead beyond any possible obstacles.
In both of these variations you may roll over your shoulders backward or
forward as in basic exercise no. 20.
BASIC EXERCISE NO. 20 (zempo kaiten undo, zempo ukemi undo, forward somersault)

The forward somersault is performed in aikido in one of two basic ways:

consecutively and/or rising up (the latter in short or long extension).
CONSECUTIVE (HORIZONTAL) SOMERSAULT. You will take a long step forward
with your right foot, bend your trunk low with your right knee bent, while your left leg
will be stretched out behind. Placing your left fist on the mat in front of your left foot,
you will stretch your right arm in a curved extension alongside and over your head.
With a single, circular motion you will insert your head and right arm between your
left fist on the mat and your right foot. You will surge (don't throw yourself
indiscriminately) forward, rolling along the arc formed by your unbendable arm, right
shoulder, your back, and left thigh. Remember to keep your body round and your legs
folded under you, in order to avoid hitting the mat heavily with your ankles (slapping
the mat) at the completion of the circular movement along its surface. Using the same
forward momentum generated by this roll, without getting up you will roll over again,
and then again, following the same pattern. Alternate shoulders until this lower
somersault becomes supple, relaxed, fluid, and natural.
It is important, in order to avoid soreness or injury to your shoulder, back, hip, or
foot, that contact be maintained with the surface of the mat at all times. Pain is the
result of a shock, of a direct frontal collision between two entities separated from
each other. If there is no separation between them, there cannot be any shock, as
boxers well know; i.e., when they "clinch," there is no room for maneuvering. Your
body must roll along, not fall against the surface of the mat. And "roll" implies
continuous contact with that supporting surface from the moment that your right hand
touches the mat. Contact will be transmitted from your hand to your forearm curved
below, then to your biceps, shoulder, back, and thigh, without any interruption. Usually
the beginner sets his hand down, and then forgetting the rest of his arm, throws himself
forward, landing heavily on his shoulder or back so that the entire weight of his body
descends sharply upon those bones and muscles instead of rolling smoothly along an
unbroken arc as indicated above.
At the beginning of this practice, some difficulty—both physical and
psychological—may be experienced. The horizontal dimension is alien to man. It
usually represents, in fact, some kind of inactivity: accepted in the case of sleep or
rest, rejected in combat or in everyday living because of its possibly paralyzing
qualities of inertia. But it is a dimension which, like any other, man must conquer and
utilize for his own progress.
In aikido, therefore, you must overcome any physical block by concentrating upon
your Centre, thus relaxing your entire anatomy and helping it to become, when
required, a supple adaptable sphere. You must deal with the psychological problem by
extending your Intrinsic or Inner Energy in the direction of the roll along the surface of
the mat, thus using the somersault as another type of displacement (like walking), and
not accepting it as an end in itself—as a fall, which would interrupt your movement
and interfere with your motion. You must extend your mind in the direction of the
somersault ("go beyond"), make yourself round and keep close to the surface of the
mat at all times, rolling where and as you will.
VERTICAL SOMERSAULT. When you have become thoroughly familiar with the
consecutive (horizontal) somersault, you may attempt the vertical, which will be
technically identical with the former at the beginning (bending low) but will differ at
the end, inasmuch as you will rise to your feet to face your uke once more. In other
words, you will protect your central body by rolling down one unbendable arm onto
the mat, across your back, and up again along the other arm; in effect, your roll will
come "full circle" and you will spring up facing uke at the completion of this form of
ukemi.
In this vertical form of the somersault you will notice the ample swing of your
right arm over your head, circling toward the mat, contacting it with the outer edge of
your right hand. Your arm and body will follow in continuous, tangential, circular
contact, until your feet take charge once more as you roll back up again and into an
upright position.
This somersault may be performed at a normal angle as described, always
maintaining some physical contact with the surface of the mat (your feet first, and as
they leave the ground, your arm). In the advanced stages of your aikido practice,
however, the somersault may also be performed from an even greater height, your
entire body flying through the air but even then extended in a semi-circle, unbendable
arm ready for contact with the mat.
 CHAPTER VII
The Posture and Motion of Defense
Stages and Unity of the Aikido Process of Defense
THE INNER Factors of your aikido practice—centralization, extension, leading control,
and sphericity—which we have examined in Chapter V, and the physical preparation
of your soma (see Chapter VI), will be finely and fully coordinated in and through the
practical application of aikido techniques and strategies. In this chapter, we will
discuss how and in what characteristic ways your body will function; how that
physical instrument (not weapon) of defense will be employed in the process of
neutralizing an aggression.
We will begin with a survey of those factors of your aikido practice which we
call "functional" because they are directly related to the particular operations, the
postures, the motions, and the actions. By them and through them, whether as regularly
executed exercises or as a disciplined response to a specific and concrete problem,
the goals of this art are to be attained.
Your strategy of defense in aikido will develop through three stages or strategic
moments which, when performed properly, will become a unified, smooth and
efficient process of defense. These stages will be: (A) the posture, (B) the motion, and
(C) the techniques of neutralization.

The Posture
Your strategy of defense will begin with an initial posture typical of aikido, and
with characteristic features of balance and verticality which, again, will be
unmistakably aiki.
The Motion
The second stage of your strategy will be characterized by the predominant role
of motion in space and along the surface of the mat. This motion is intended to
simultaneously evade the direct line of convergence of uke's attack and to achieve a
position of centralization (dynamic and technical) from which you will be able to
successfully apply the technique most suitable for the neutralization of that particular
kind of attack.
Taken together, evasion and centralization will become the foundation of, and
establish the appropriate conditions for, the third and final stage of your defensive
strategy.
The Technique
The third and final stage of your strategy of defense will be characterized by the
predominant role of a particular technique of neutralization. Once having secured the
necessary position of centralization which together with evasion was the purpose of
your preliminary motion in the previous stage, your defensive strategy will flow from
the dynamic stage (general) into the technical stage (particular). In this final stage you
will:

Apply the technique of neutralization chosen from among those most

appropriate to the type and circumstances of the attack launched against you
(these techniques of neutralization are grouped under three main headings in
Chapter VIII, immobilizations, projections, and combinations); develop that
technique in the manner (irimi or tenkan) most suitable to the direction and
speed of the attack launched against you, the number of assailants, the space
available for maneuvering, etc.; and conclude that technique with either total
immobilization of uke or his projection down onto the mat.
These three aspects of a singular, defensive process—posture, motion, and
technique—must be first studied individually if they are to be understood ultimately as
a whole.
Our analysis of these strategic moments of your defensive strategy, especially in
its dynamic and technical stages of development must not, however, lead you to
assume that any one of them can have a determinant relevance in either the theory or
practice of aikido if taken out of context of the total action.
Motion, for example, with all of its dynamic characteristics, directional patterns,
steps, etc., is only possible and characteristically smooth and rapid if your initial
posture is correctly balanced between rest and motion, in full alignment with the
perpendicular axis of gravity, coordinated and stabilized in the Centre. From this
posture, motion can develop fully and characteristically, thus preparing the way
through evasion and centralization for the particular technique of neutralization you
wish to apply.
Conversely, this technique of neutralization, without the proper dynamic
foundation, becomes meaningless in theory and very difficult to perform in actual
practice.
We will study these areas separately here, with the understanding that it is only
through the eventual synthesis and interrelation of the three stages that the process of
defense in aikido will become relevant and effective.

The Posture
In the practice of aikido any study of the strategies of neutralization must begin
with a consideration of the basic posture you should adopt when facing an attack, the
basic distance which should be established and/or maintained between yourself and
uke, and the basic positions or guard you should assume—all fundamental premises
for an effective defensive response.

The Basic Posture: Natural (Kamae)

In an aikido dojo, you will be taught to assume and to maintain a fundamental
posture defined as "natural" (shizentai gamae) which has two variations, related to
the positioning of your feet: right natural posture (migi gamae) and left natural posture
(hidari gamae).
This natural posture will be characterized by the normal alignment of your body
with the axis of gravity, thus achieving the first basic coordination of your physical
self with the most important magnetic law of your environment. This identification of
your anatomical centers (upper, central, and lower—each resting in full balance upon
the one structurally below) with the axis of gravity begins with the positioning of your
head. Hardly a single reputable martial art school has failed to point out—often in
great detail—the importance of keeping the head in full vertical alignment with the
spine. Many masters considered a correct positioning of the head the essential
condition for maintaining the body's equilibrium, since even a slight deflection of the
head from its vertical axis of balance will affect the muscles of the neck and
shoulders, this tension being transmitted, in turn, to the central and lower parts of the
body.
Head, spinal column, and lower abdomen, therefore, are the three anatomical
centers which must always be kept in vertical alignment with each other and with the
perpendicular force of gravity. This condition of natural balance should always be
maintained regardless of the position of your feet, which may be side by side
(shizentai gamae) or in combat stance, with your right foot leading (migi gamae) or
with your left foot ahead (hidari gamae). In any position, vertical alignment must
always be maintained, without any self-conscious straining to keep your balance.
The adoption of the triangular position or stance (sankakutai) is typical of
aikido, and introduces the potentiality of mobility into the natural posture.
This posture is a relaxed one, easily adaptable to normal daily life as well as to
combat. But there is nothing static or intrinsically immobile about it. You will not be
"firmly grounded" to the mat, nor anchored to its surface, but rather relaxed and ready.
Actually, the so-called defensive postures so frequently employed in any combat
arts (both feet firmly planted on the ground) are often strategically negative and
passive in conception because of their intrinsic immobility and rigidity.
The coefficient of friction between both feet and the ground is exceedingly high in
such a posture and the full concentration upon vertical support implicitly negates
mobility.
Ancient martial art masters often used the now-famous expression "motion in
rest" to describe the desired state of balance. This expression, a philosophical
interpretation of the principle of ultimate unity embracing all opposites or alternates in
harmonious balance, was interpreted more specifically in the martial arts as a
functional and fluid balance between rest and the dynamic possibilities of motion (in a
potential state), or between motion and the vertical stability of rest (in a static
position). From this centralized position in the lower abdomen—"floating" in a
condition of dynamic rest—the weight of your body can be shifted at a moment's
notice from one foot to the other, leaving the first foot free to glide swiftly in the
desired direction, and to provide a new platform of balanced support for that weight
(see "The Motion"). The choice of directions provided by this position is almost
unlimited.
 In conclusion, in the event of real combat, a sudden aggression may be launched
against you at any time, from any direction, and from any distance. Therefore, it might
appear superfluous to discuss a formal posture in the face of such a volatile and
unpredictable event. But the problem of posture is not specific to combat alone, i.e., it
is not related to the posture you must assume in the event of an attack and thus confined
to this dimension alone. It is, rather, a general problem of the balanced, relaxed, and
yet potentially dynamic posture which an aikido student should maintain under all
circumstances. Thus, whether you know you are about to be attacked or not, whether
you are walking or standing still, the balanced verticality of your posture and of your
body should always be the same—centralized and ready to spin or to shift smoothly
from one leg to the other in the desired direction, hands low or high as circumstances
and/or events require.
Basic Distance (ma-ai)
This idea of distance is related to the natural measure of space maintained
between men anytime they meet, for any purpose including that of combat. Disciplined
aikido practice will help you to develop this sense of distance which should be
maintained between yourself and other men, consciously at first, until finally it will
become automatic. This natural distance will be exactly proportionate to your
possibilities and capacities for reacting defensively to a sudden attack.
For training purposes, a particular method for developing this sense of distance
has been devised and adopted. According to this method, the correct distance between
you and your partner (uke) will be established by stretching your arm out so that you
can touch his outstretched fingertips with yours. Given time and practice, maintaining
this distance will become automatic and completely natural.
The Basic Stance (hammi or hanmi)
The natural posture (shizentai gamae), with its two basic forms—the right and
the left stance—will finally be related to the positions of attack which may be
assumed by an assailant. In this context, it will be identified as hammi or hanmi which
the authors translate as "guard" or "stance" (initial position of defense), in order to
distinguish its strategic application from the more generalized dimensions of posture
examined previously.
Your initial defensive position in aikido will usually involve one of two basic
stances with appropriate directional variations.

MUTUAL STANCE (AI-HAMMI)

When uke assumes a right posture, with his right foot forward, you may adapt
your posture accordingly (migi gamae) with your right foot leading. This position is
referred to as "right hammi."
Or, when uke assumes a left posture with his left foot forward, you may switch to
a left posture (hidari gamae), your left foot leading. This position is called "left
hammi."
REVERSE STANCE (GTAKU GAMAE).

When uke assumes a right posture, you may also face him with a left posture
(hidari gamae), and when he takes a right position, you may assume a right posture
(migi gamae).

The position of your hands, depending upon the circumstances of combat, may be
low (gedan), natural (chudan), and high (jodan).

The Motion
In aikido strategy "motion" identifies the total displacement of your own body in
space and along the surface of the mat. This general motion represents the prerequisite
for any technique of neutralization which, accordingly, cannot be performed properly
without it.
This initial displacement of your body can be of two basic types, straight or
circular (with a third resulting from their combination). Whichever type of motion is
chosen, however, and whatever style of stepping is selected, the aikido step will be
unusually light and fast, feet gliding, toes turned outward, moving lightly along the
surface of the mat, never dragging or hesitant.
This style of stepping about with the soles of your feet gliding very close to the
surface of the mat "skimming along it" is also mentioned frequently in ancient martial
art texts. It was said that a "solid" step settling heavily on the mat increased the
coefficient of friction between the sole of the foot and the surface of the mat, thus
simultaneously decreasing the coefficient of motion, and speed. By the same token, a
"high" or raised step, while increasing the coefficient of motion considerably,
decreased the coefficient of vertical stability and made the body extremely vulnerable
to any push or pull however slight.
 In aikido, therefore, you will not "drag" your feet, you will "glide," and you will
resort to a leap only in the event of an unusually fast or close attack.
Straight Motion (shintai)
This straight motion will develop along a single line without curvature or
angularity. The directions of straight motion are many, but the doctrine of aikido has
broken them down into eight fundamental patterns, as shown in basic exercise no. 9
(Chapter VI).
A straight displacement along the surface of the mat may be performed from the
natural aikido posture in three ways: the follow-up step (tsugi ashi), the alternated
step (ayumi ashi) and a combination of both.
BASIC DIRECTIONS OF MOTION
 The follow-up step (tsugi ashi) is fundamental in all the martial arts of Asia, and
in the most popular martial arts of the West—boxing and fencing. It consists of
stepping with one foot (the one leading) in the desired direction, toes pointing slightly
outward, shifting the weight of your body onto that foot and then bringing the other foot
(the one following) up close behind it.
The alternated step (ayumi ashi) is normal stepping: one foot glides freely in a
given direction, settles down beneath the shifting weight of the body thus leaving the
other foot free to glide over and beyond the former with a rhythmic alternation of
function (support and motion) and operation (stepping).
The alternated step can be normal or crossed. It is normal when the whole body
aligns itself with the leading foot, thus changing posture and stance at each step. It is
crossed when the body does not shift but maintains the same side forward in the
direction of the displacement.
As shown in the illustrated sequences, crossed alternated stepping may be
performed with the leading foot crossing in front or behind the supporting foot.
Circular Motion (tai sabaki)
By far the most important type of motion in aikido is the circular displacement of
your body when under attack. This displacement will develop along a single curved
pattern, every point of which will be equally distant from the center of the pattern.
 This type of motion has always been of fundamental importance to those martial
arts applied in counterattack because it allows a man to evade the direct force of an
attack, while strategically positioning himself for the launching of his response.
But it was in the arts of pure defense that circular motion became almost an
absolute, and in aikido it assumed a distinctive form (see "The Principle of
Sphericity," Chapter V).
The circular motion used in aikido may be performed in two basic ways: either
by keeping both feet in light contact with the mat as you turn your hips (pivot), or by
using one foot as the central fulcrum of a dynamic circle as the other foot glides
smoothly around it, either forward or backward (spin).

THE PIVOT

Turning on the spot to your right or left or to your rear may be accomplished, as
explained in basic exercise no. 7, by pivoting on the balls of both feet, without lifting
them from the mat. This pivot may be a quarter, or half-circle turn.
THE SPIN

The spin in aikido represents the ultimate in circular motion. It may be performed
by leaving or setting one foot of the defensive triangle on the mat to act as the central
element of support for your whole body and as the central axis of motion, while your
other foot glides in orbital motion around that central support, either forward or
backward.
 The range of circular displacements is immense, regardless of whether the foot at
the apex of the defensive triangle or the one at its base acts as the pivoting fulcrum,
and regardless of the direction in which the orbiting foot will move (forward in
advance or backward in retreat).
Combination of Straight and Circular Motion
If you combine straight motion (the follow-up step, the alternated step, the
combination of the two) with circular motion (the spin and the pivot) the choice of
possible displacements in aikido becomes almost limitless.
It is important to practice each type of motion separately and with attention,
before attempting to blend or combine them. However, it is this blending which will
characterize the advanced practice of the art, as the various forms of motion are
alternated and combined, fluidly, lightly, in full centralization, until finally they will
become one—indivisible parts of a single, dynamic displacement.
Purposes of Motion
The purpose of your initial motion when faced with a real attack, will be: to
avoid being overpowered by the direct, frontal stream of an attack by allowing its
unified power (aggressive, negative ki) to flow past you, thus diminishing or
dissipating itself in a vacuum of unbalance; and to slide simultaneously into a
centralized position from which you will be able to operate (in full control) upon an
attacker's weakened position, and lead him into the circular pattern of a technique of
neutralization.
These purposes—both fundamental (evasion and centralization) and
consequential or implicit (dissipation of aggressive ki and leading it into
neutralization)—will constitute the dynamic premises for your conclusive defensive
action or technique (see analysis in paragraphs which follow).
But again we must caution you to remember that the defensive motion of aikido is
a singular phenomenon and that its various purposes are only individual aspects of a
single unified goal, i.e., paving the way for the smooth application of an irresistible
technique which will neutralize an unjustified and violent aggression.
EVASION

Evasion in aikido may be considered as an end in itself with the aggressive

convergence of an attack being dissipated into nothingness; or the preliminary step to
centralization for the purpose of neutralization. (In this second case, the aggressive
convergence of the attack will actually be utilized to achieve the neutralization.)
In both cases, evasion does not mean trying to escape, in the sense of "running
away" from that aggressive convergence of power, because if you retreat in this
manner, you remain the "target," the passive, intended victim of an attack, which
would continue to be pursued.
To evade in aikido means—and this is true of everything you attempt within the
framework of the art—to "lead" in the sense that the unified power of an attack being
discharged against you will actually be directed by you (through your own motion or
action). You will lead it away from the intended target either into nothingness (pure
evasion) or into a Circuit of Neutralization (evasion for the purpose of centralization
preliminary to neutralization).
Simple evasion may be pivotal in aikido. Master Uyeshiba, whose smooth and
fluid use of "pure" or pivotal evasion never fails to amaze and enthrall observers, has
made an art of this form of displacement. It has even been said that if aikido were
based entirely upon this initial motion it would still contain sufficient elements to cope
with any attack, whatever its form, direction, or speed (see Chapter IX).
CENTRALIZATION: inside (irimi) or outside (tenkan)
Evasion as a preliminary step to centralization may be performed in aikido either
by moving in toward the central source of aggressive power or by whirling away from
that power, thus extending it beyond its natural limits. In both cases, this will be the
point where that power will be weakest and where it may be controlled for the
purpose of neutralization.

Examples of the first strategic dynamic possibility are offered by those

displacements which bring your body very close to uke before he has been able to
fully launch his attack. These displacements are called irimi or omote (entering
motions).
Examples of the second dynamic possibility are those displacements which will
shift your body circularly away from that attack, leading the aggressive convergence of
uke out beyond the point of intended contact (either inside or outside his line of
attack). These displacements are called tenkan or ura (turning motions).

In both cases, whether moving toward the source of power or leading it beyond
the outer limits of its effectiveness, the purpose of this motion will be to achieve a
position of dynamic centralization from which you will be able to control uke's
weakened attack and lead it toward its own neutralization.
As indicated in Chapter V "The Principle of Leading Control," it is a classic
tenet of the most ancient schools of the martial arts that an attack should be deflected,
i.e., not stopped directly through a frontal clash. Such a frontal, direct response to an
attack would either be a strategic mistake, or, at best, a primitive, unsophisticated
approach to the problem of self-defense.
There are certain irimi movements in aikido which to the untrained eye may
appear to be direct frontal clashes. However, upon closer scrutiny it will become
apparent that when performed properly these motions are always slightly lateral,
either to the left or right of the direct, oncoming motion, or almost underneath it. An
aikidoist's extension will then usually lead the attacking motion down or back to his
attacker with a circular, defensive impulse imparted to the original motion of attack.
The lateral stepping may be almost imperceptible; the circularity of the leading
motion also is barely noticeable, but anyone who tries to perform a technique without
grasping the importance of this slightly lateral entering will find the technique
exceedingly difficult to perform and—if his attacker should be stronger than he—
perhaps even impossible.
But however complete or successful an evasion and the correlative dissipation of
aggressive power, the primary aim is still that of positioning your body in the very
center of the action, in a position from which you will be able to control, lead, and
neutralize any attack. Whether you slide below the line of the motion/action of uke as,
for example, when he attempts attack no. 13 (shomen-uchi) which you will counter
with immobilization no. 1 (ikkyo—irimi), or whirl behind him in a tenkan variation of
that technique, you will be establishing the same position of centralization and acting
upon the necessarily extended and unbalanced body of uke. Whether he is preparing to
attack or has been led past his intended target, his momentum is captured by your
motion. It is from this point in space and place that you will launch your technique of
neutralization.
A glance at the techniques of neutralization in Chapter VII I will be sufficient to
indicate the functional relevance of this motion of centralization which will blend
completely with the motion of evasion in every technique.
In using the word "centralization" one may think that it applies only to those
techniques of neutralization which involve leading the aggressive power of an attack
around your own body, in a circle parallel to the surface of the mat. But this term has
an infinitely richer, more diversified dimension.
 According to the operational principle of sphericity, that aggressive power (led
beyond its intended target or cut off at its source) may be spun around you in a circle
vertical to the ground, or in diagonal, etc., even in various combinations of complete
circles, or in spirals developed in space in a series of infinite progressions. But in any
and every case you will be the Centre while your attacker either floats in unbalance
(static) if you have moved in toward him, or spins around in dynamic unbalance if you
have moved away and led him out beyond his intended target.
In the case of pure evasion, the principle of centralization will be operative in the
relationship established between the frame of uke converging upon you, and your own
frame sliding inside his line of aggressive convergence, either laterally or underneath.
In the case of motion acting on the source of aggressive power, centralization
will be acquired at the expense of the unbalance of uke; your body, well centered and
in full balance, will be properly positioned for the extension and channeling of ki as
you lead uke into a circular pattern of neutralization.
In the case of motion at the outer limits of aggressive power, centralization will
be established more dynamically between your balanced and vertical spin and the
dispersed motion of uke being led around in orbital motion.
 CHAPTER VIII
The Basic Techniques of Neutralization

WITH YOUR motion of defense and the achievement of its main purposes—evasion and
centralization—the process of defense in aikido enters its third and final stage, the
stage in which an attack will be neutralized swiftly and efficiently. This neutralization
may be achieved in one of three general ways: (1) through an immobilization which
will make it impossible for uke to continue his original attack or initiate a new one
unless you release him; (2) through a projection which will send him whirling away
from you; or (3) through a combination of the first two categories. Each of the three
general ways or methods has innumerable mechanisms for achieving the desired
neutralization called "techniques." Each technique, in turn, contains a specific
sequence of dynamic and technical actions that follows a pre-determined pattern or
scheme of performance, so structured as to insure the effective neutralization of a
specific attack.
According to some authorities, the possible number of these techniques of
neutralization and of their combinations may well be in the thousands. In this vast
arsenal of defensive mechanisms, however, there are certain techniques which recur
frequently and which you will see practiced consistently in almost every aikido dojo.
Since the present book is only an introduction to the art, the number of basic
techniques selected and illustrated here will necessarily be limited. They have been
divided into three general categories: immobilizations, projections, and combinations,
with numbers assigned to identify each technique individually.
Table 1 on page 161 offers a panoramic view of those basic techniques of
immobilization and projection, identified by number and illustrated at the precise
moment when they acquire their particular technical identity, the moment which
differentiates each one from all the others.
Each technique is practiced in response to specific forms of attack. On page 162
Table 2 lists the techniques across the top, and the attacks down the left side; it
indicates (with a check) the examples illustrated and explained in detail in the
following sections. There are over one hundred such examples in this chapter.

General Recommendations
In the descriptions of techniques which follow, you will be referred to, according
to the Japanese tradition in the martial arts, as nage (literally, the thrower, or he who
applies the technique of defense to neutralize an attack). Your partner will be referred
to as uke (the "receiver," or the aggressor whose attack will be neutralized by nage).
Refer to the Glossary at the end of the book for a list of other words and abbreviations
used.
For those readers who would like to use the descriptions which follow not only
as a theoretical introduction to the art, but also as a practical guide, we strongly
recommend that extreme caution be exercised when performing any techniques without
the supervision of a qualified instructor. As even a cursory glance at the techniques in
the following three sections will reveal, they can be dangerous both for you and—
above all—for your partner. Aikido dojo have their share of accidents, the majority of
which can be traced to uncontrolled applications of immobilizations and/or
projections. Such accidents, which may discourage many students interested in the art,
are absolutely unnecessary and almost always avoidable.
The student interested in the practice of aikido should proceed gradually by
following a program of progressive development such as the one contained in this
book. He should expand the range of his resistance, suppleness, and coordination
through the practice of the preliminary exercises, the basic exercises and, of course,
the special exercises intended to develop inner centralization, extension, leading
control, and sphericity of performance before he attempts the techniques themselves.
He should then try each technique with the cooperation of a prepared uke, at kata
speed, i.e., slowly and carefully, with emphasis not so much upon practical efficiency
at first, as upon correctness and precision of displacements, actions, holds, and
leading control. In aikido, efficiency should and will result from precision of
operations; it will be a natural consequence of the correct performance of the various
programmed motions which are the bare bones of each technique.
 Particular care should also be exercised in the selection of a partner who, as uke,
will be the receiver of your technique of neutralization. Ideally, he should have
reached your own level of development since that would mean that both of you could
practice at a compatible level of coordination.
But this ideal will seldom be possible. Your partner may be an advanced student
of the art who will willingly and expertly provide you with the momentum of attack
and the aggressive extension you will need to perform the techniques of neutralization
successfully. You may then tend to become overconfident and careless about the
control of your movements to the extent of actually hurting your partner. Experienced
aikido players who really cooperate without "pulling back" are very often subjected to
many such painful experiences due to lack of control and discretion on the part of
inexperienced nage. Therefore, if an experienced student can get hurt, it is reasonable
to assume that an inexperienced student will have still greater chances of being hurt if
nage does not exercise caution and control over every stage, every motion, and every
action of the strategy of defense.
In accordance with the fundamental principles of aikido practice in relation to
combat, i.e., centralized extension of energy and spherical lead, when you secure a
hold upon your partner (wrist, elbow, neck, etc.) you should not grip him too tightly,
letting your fingers close around and press into his flesh like a vise. Not only is this a
poor approach, but closing your fingers completely around any object will
automatically close the circuit of your power and return it to you, thus weakening both
you and your strategy. You should use your last three fingers (especially your little
finger) and your thumb to hold, but your first finger should always be extended or
pointing in order to maintain an open circuit of power so that your ki will be flowing
outward all the time.
In relation to the techniques of immobilization that you will apply with the
cooperation of uke, do not be misled by the feeling of power that may steal over you
when you realize how painful they can be if improperly applied. As explained in
Chapter IV, pain is only a transitional stage in any aikido technique (especially the
immobilizations), not its primary purpose. Pain serves the limited purpose of
dissipating the concentrated power of attack of uke by leading its force back to him for
a brief moment, i.e., only long enough to lead him into the final immobilization or
projection. Inflicting pain for its own sake has always been regarded in aikido (as is
true of any superior discipline of development and coordination) as the surest sign of,
at best, an immature, incomplete personality; at worst, a degenerate and absolutely
negative personality.
In relation to the techniques of projection, do not hang on to uke when projecting
him away from you or when bringing him down to the mat because the interruption of
his dynamic displacement (which should flow smoothly into a roll or somersault) will
inevitably cause him to fall heavily to the mat with the attendant possibility of serious
injury.
Do not hurl him away from you either, since such a frantic disengagement (as is
true of the tendency to "hang on" described above) will still be an indication of very
poor control over yourself and accordingly over your actions. The negative effects of
such lack of control will have to be absorbed by uke, and in some cases by you as
well.
The idea to be kept in mind at all times is that of leading the attack of uke, not of
interrupting it through a delayed hold or a premature "snapping" disengagement. If you
lead his attack smoothly and circularly into the Circuit of Neutralization of a
projection, you will be able to control him and his action from beginning to end.
Eventually uke will come, almost automatically, to follow that lead and to cooperate
more and more with you, thus giving you the full benefit of the unconditional
coordination of his attack with your defensive strategy until they will become one; the
practice itself will be harmoniously complete and beneficial for both.
You should also remember always to complete the technique with a follow-
through motion. This will serve to complete the circle of the throw even after you have
released uke and he is rolling away from you. This follow-through is very similar to
the way a baseball batter completes his swing even after the ball has left his bat. If he
should "check his swing," there would be a noticeable effect upon the ball and upon
the direction of its flight.
This principle is particularly valid in aikido, where your follow-through motion
will actually help uke to roll out of his fall and rise up safely, thanks to the impetus
and guiding direction provided by your completion of each technique with an ample
following gesture involving your hand, arm, and body.
As your experience in the art increases, your style will gradually become more
and more coordinated so that it will become difficult to separate an attack from a
defense and nage from uke. The two will move circularly together, without
interrupting or sharply halting their motions and actions, but rather with a lively
rhythm which will lend grace to the entire exercise. At this point your technique will
finally become what it is intended to be—an exercise in total coordination.
Enjoy the practice of aikido and the application of its techniques of neutralization
as exercises of coordination, exercises which must be perfected, polished, refined. If
you are excessively concerned with the practical results of each neutralization
(whether an immobilization or a projection), you will find that you have begun at the
wrong end of the tunnel. The achievement of any purpose always presupposes a
certain preparation leading to the achievement desired. The perfection of such a
process has always made that ultimate achievement qualitatively superior and,
eventually, natural.
Strive first to perfect the individual movements of the techniques, and the
practical result—neutralization of an attack—will almost take care of itself. This is
because, as noted earlier, it will be the result of the proper performance of the
techniques themselves.
At all times "be centralized"; extend energy or ki from your Centre; lead the
attack of uke and channel its force circularly into a circuit of dissipation and
neutralization. Every technique, regardless of its particular operational complexity, is
a concrete, specific application of those fundamental principles, which are their
raison d'etre. Without these underlying "energizers," the techniques will become
simply "outer" exercises. Notwithstanding their undeniable value as calisthenics, they
will lack that total fusion, the necessary coordination of Inner with Outer Factors.
These factors represent the primary purpose of aikido and the preliminary step for
your development on a superior spiritual level which will include ethics of conduct
applicable beyond the limits of the mat and the dojo.

Immobilizations
The immobilizations of aikido are techniques of neutralization in which physical
contact with your attacker will be maintained throughout, from your first defensive
extension to the moment when he is effectively paralyzed in one of the five locks listed
below.
There are many possible immobilizations which may be employed to neutralize
an attack. Those which are considered basic in almost every aikido dojo include:

immobilization no. 1 ikkyo

immobilization no. 2 nikyo
immobilization no. 3 sankyo
immobilization no. 4 yonkyo
immobilization no. 5 gokyo
The following two techniques, which we include here with the five basic
immobilizations listed above, mark the transition from techniques of immobilization to
techniques of projection:
 immobilization no. 6 shiho nage
immobilization no. 7 kote gaeshi
These last two techniques may be concluded with your attacker pinned to the ground
or "immobilized"; or they may be turned into projections as you launch your attacker
away from you across the mat (in the case of a multiple attack, against the other men
converging upon you).
IMMOBILIZATION NO. 1
(IKKYO)
General Remarks
Immobilization no. 1, which is called ikkyo (form one) or ude osae (arm pin), is
one of the most effective techniques of immobilization in the aikido repertoire.
You will recognize ikkyo by the position into which the arm of uke will be led
(palm and elbow turned upward). His elbow may be almost fully bent or from half to
fully extended; his arm may be turned at shoulder height or higher (in accordance with
the attack being neutralized), but always in a smooth characteristic arch.
When you are bringing the arm of uke into any one of the above mentioned
positions, you will usually be in front of him or slightly to his side. In the illustrations
here, your original extension will sweep his arm back toward his face, your right hand
guiding and/or grasping his right wrist while your left hand palms his elbow (i.e., his
elbow will rest in your palm). The importance of not attempting to grab the initial
blow can be easily understood here. And, of course, by sliding your initially extended
hand (the left here) so that the elbow of uke rests in your palm, you will be able to
rotate his arm easily without having to exercise undue pressure and without hurting
him unnecessarily, since his arm naturally bends that way.
From this position, immobilization no. 1 can be concluded in either of the two
basic ways: irimi or tenkan.
Irimi: In this variation, your extension and motion will flow in a large circle up
and then down to the ground again, so that uke will be spun around or actually turned
completely on the spot. The hand which is guiding his wrist will lead it downward in
a large circle, while the hand cupping his elbow will rotate it smoothly, as illustrated.
At the same time you will step forward (see illustrations), spinning uke around on the
spot and bringing him down to the mat. Of course, both your arms should be extended
(the unbendable arm) from the beginning of the technique to its conclusion.
You will descend in a single smooth sweep to the mat, sometimes with the aid of
a slight, half-skipping step forward which is often used by those aikido practitioners
who are not too tall.
When uke is flat on the mat you will be kneeling alongside him, pinning his
outstretched arm to its surface as illustrated, palm facing upward, his wrist well
secured, the knife-edges of both your hands controlling his wrist and elbow. One of
your knees, the one closest to his body, will be firmly braced against his shoulder.

Tenkan: In this variation, you will step behind uke, pivoting on that foot and
bringing your other foot around as illustrated. At the same time you are leading and
guiding his extended arm around you in a descending spiral to the mat where you will
secure his arm as in the irimi variation.
Let us now study a few examples of defensive reactions based on this technique
of neutralization. They are used against various types of attack once the appropriate
dynamic patterns of evasion, extension, and centralization have brought your uke into
position for the smooth and effective application of immobilization no. 1.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 3

Among the many ways of applying immobilization no. 1 against attack no. 3, we
have selected the following: at the moment when both hands of uke contact your right
wrist, you will take a step with your right foot to his left side, feigning a blow to his
face in order to distract him. Then you will pivot on that advanced right foot and turn
to your left while your right hand extends uke out, and you lead his unbalanced,
moving frame in a circle to your left. You will then take a backward step with your
right foot and bring your leading right hand downward, thus causing uke to bend
forward, with his arms extended as he seeks to hold onto your wrist. In a single
continuous movement, your left hand will grip his left wrist from the outside, while
your right hand rises smoothly along his left side, turning his palm upward and
detaching it from your own wrist with your left hand. At the point of its highest
extension, the arm of uke should be in the position already encountered in the previous
examples. From this point you will conclude the action with either the irimi or tenkan
variation.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 5

Uke moves to grab your shoulder or lapel—in the illustrated example, your left
lapel—with his right hand. At the moment when he is dynamically committed and his
hand establishes contact with your shoulder, you will retreat circularly on your left
foot, using a smooth motion synchronized with the speed of his attack. You will then
feign a blow to his head with your right hand which will move in an ample circle as it
slides along his outstretched right arm and secures his right wrist on your shoulder or
lapel, All of these synchronized actions and motions—his advance, your circular
retreat—will have broken his balance for a brief moment during which he will
literally "float" in the air. It will then be comparatively easy to turn your hips toward
him (to your right side), thus putting all your power behind your left arm and causing
the elbow of uke to rotate upward, while your right hand detaches his right hand from
your shoulder or lapel. From this point, your may conclude immobilization no. 1 by
using either variation—the irimi or the tenkan.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 7

Uke tries to immobilize you by grabbing both your wrists from behind. At the
moment when his hands begin to close around your wrists, while his dynamic
commitment is still flowing downward toward and around them, you will turn your
hands, palms upward (see basic exercise no. 8) and extend your arms initially in that
same downward direction. Fingertips still pointing upward, you will then lead uke
into a smooth extension which will soar up in front of you over your head where you
will turn your wrists again, palms now facing the ground. Your hands will begin to
lead downward again as you take a short step to your left side with your left foot,
followed by a long sweep with your right leg deep to his left-rear side, dropping to the
mat on your right knee. Uke will be led by the downward motion of your hands and
body and his initially strong position will be considerably weakened by the sudden
transposal of his target from in front of him to beside him, almost behind him. Your
left hand will grip his left wrist from the outside, while your right hand slides along
his forearm to his elbow. You establish the center of rotation which will be activated
by the whole surging motion of your body rising up again from behind. You will bring
him down in one of the basic variations of this immobilization—irimi or tenkan—
simply by leading him down, either forward or if you choose to step further to his left-
rear side, around your own body as you pivot in the center of the action.
IMMOBILIZATION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13

A straight blow is being delivered to your head (nose, forehead, chin, etc.). As
the blow is being launched your whole body will stretch fully toward it, both arms
surging upward in front of you, as in basic exercise no. 5, the right leading and
presenting an oblique surface to the blow itself. Thus, its force will be discharged not
frontally as intended but obliquely and, therefore, ineffectually. That extended right
arm, through which your ki should be flowing freely, represents the perfect set of
"rails" along which the oncoming blow will slide, thus dissipating itself. Experienced
aikido practitioners, as indicated earlier, continually practice this extension of their
mental/physical powers in the direction of an oncoming attack, which—especially
when a blow is involved—is thus psychologically deprived of its primary asset: the
unilateral imposition of the attacker's will, and his initiative.
Upon contacting the forearm or wrist of uke, you should apply immobilization no.
1 in either of its two variations without the slightest hesitation or dynamic interruption.
If you should choose the irimi variation, your right forearm will turn toward his
attacking right wrist and you will grasp it, not at the moment when he actually hits or
contacts you, but an instant later when the power of his blow has been dissipated
along your obliquely extended right arm. Your left hand will contact his elbow and
grip it as illustrated.
Care should be exercised at this point not to attempt to stop his blow with either
or both hands as many beginners are inclined to do; i.e., trying to stop the blow with
their outstretched hands, thumbs dangerously protruding across the path of the
oncoming blow. Needless to say, a real chop or a straight right would crumple these
flimsy barriers and the defender. The preliminary extension of your right arm and of
your whole body surging upward toward the blow in a single powerful alignment will
serve to "nip it in the bud" if it is still quite high, or parry, capture, and divert its force
if it has already begun to descend. (Ideally, you should respond at the very moment
when an attack is being launched: in this instance, when his arm is still raised high in
the air.) In the irimi variation, you will parry first and then your hands will establish
their respective holds on your attacker's wrist and elbow. From this point, as shown in
the illustrations, you will step forward, bringing the arm of uke down firmly in front of
you and leading him down to the mat. In the tenkan variation, the dynamic involvement
of your body will be definitely greater because at the moment when the blow is being
launched and/or begins to travel toward your head with blurring speed, you will
extend both arms in the orthodox posture of deflection, stepping deep to his right-rear
side with your left foot and then pivoting on that foot so that your body will whirl
around, describing a large circle.
 At the same time your hands will establish a firm hold on the arm of uke (his
elbow and wrist) and lead the force of his blow centrifugally around you in an
irresistible spin uniting both his motion and your own. Caution should be exercised
during practice in order to avoid hurting a cooperating partner who really attacks you
and does not pull back, because it is extremely easy to generate such momentum in the
tenkan variation that your partner may be sent crashing to the mat. This variation
should be practiced at moderate speed, paying close attention to details of extension,
pivoting balance, and spiraling descent toward the surface of the mat. Do this in a
smooth tangent and in a single sweep without pulling uke, but rather by employing the
previously discussed "total body movement" (kokyu).
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 15

Uke is about to deliver a blow to your lower abdomen or stomach with his right
fist. As this blow travels toward its target, you will slide in toward his left side with
your right foot, and then take a large, slightly circular step to your rear with your left
foot. This will cause uke to be over-extended beyond the outer limits of his power. At
the same time your right hand will swing over his outstretched arm, falling naturally
upon his forearm and sliding along it until you secure a firm hold upon his wrist.
Unbalanced and over-extended, uke will not be able to stop your motion as you swing
his arm circularly up (see illustrations). By the time his arm reaches the apex of its
extension, you will have secured your "cupping" hold beneath his elbow, thus locking
him into immobilization no 1. You may now complete the technique with either the
irimi or tenkan variation.
IMMOBILIZATION NO. 2
(NIKYO)
General Remarks
Immobilization no. 2 is referred to as nikyo (form two) or kote mawashi (wrist
in-turn). It is one of the most powerful techniques in the aikido repertoire—one which,
when correctly executed, can bring even the strongest man to his knees. Immobilization
no. 2 (like immobilization no. 1) can be applied to neutralize almost any type of attack
swiftly and efficiently, and can be developed from a variety of opening motions of
evasion, extension, and centralization. Generally speaking, as shown in the
illustrations, this immobilization is represented by his wrist being turned in one
direction (toward his head), while a simultaneous pressure is brought to bear upon his
forearm and elbow (bent at approximately 90 degrees), thus distorting and reversing
the original force of his attack and the entire anatomical structure of his arm into a
painfully closed circuit.
Such a positioning of the arm of uke can be accomplished by locking it in one of
three basic ways: against your shoulder, with your hand alone, around your wrists. In
all of these, as we shall see, the constant feature of immobilization no. 2 will be
expressed by that characteristic form—resembling the letter "s"—which you will
cause his arm to assume, and by the consequent reversal of its natural extension, both
physical (structural) and functional.
 FIRST LOCK: AGAINST YOUR SHOULDER. The main point of reference in this first
lock will be the position of the captured arm of uke against your shoulder, the position
of your hands on his arm, and the position of your body in relation to his.
In the illustrated example, for instance, the right arm of uke is bent like an "s,"
with his hand firmly held by your left hand, his fingers kept close together within your
grip (including his thumb) and pointing upward. Your left hand will grip his bent
wrist; your forearm will rest on his. Your whole body then will be brought to bear
behind the holding action of your arms which will not operate alone, as separate
entities, but as natural extensions of your trunk. Notice, in fact, that your right elbow
will be resting relaxedly against your right side, blending with your whole frame as
you lean in, thus increasing the torsion.
The hand of uke will be held by your right hand, but the task of bringing pressure
to bear upon his wrist will be carried out by your shoulder where his hand will be
secured by your grip, his fingertips pointing upward. The pressure on that captured
arm will be exercised in two directions: your right hand will turn his wrist circularly
from your left to your right side, while your left hand turns in the opposite direction
and your elbow sinks downward close to your body. The effect upon uke will be
immediate and he will drop to his knees under the torsion. Your body will be
positioned diagonally in relation to uke, with your left leg forward, offering a physical
barrier and a protection against any possible attack he may attempt to launch (see
illustrations).
 SECOND LOCK: WITH YOUR HANDS ALONE. This second form of immobilization
no. 2 differs from the first in that you will not bring the captured arm of uke to your
shoulder in order to bring him to his knees. You will operate directly; both of your
hands will work on his hand and wrist to obtain the basic torsion without extending
your own forearm along or upon his. This is obviously a more difficult lock to apply
and execute effectively since it requires more than a passing familiarity with the
intricate anatomical structure of a man's arm and the pattern of nervous centers
imbedded there. Only prolonged practice and experimentation with the first type of
lock can fulfill those requirements. Once you have begun to feel at ease with it,
however, a tremendous range of possibilities will be opened in the area of defensive
strategies based on immobilization no. 2.
The central idea of this particular lock is closely related to that of immobilization
no. 1, i.e., you will bring uke directly down to the mat without passing through the
intermediate stage of bringing him to his knees. You could, of course, bring him to his
knees with this lock, but usually as soon as your right hand locks his right hand in the
inverted nikyo position, and your left hand is free to operate either on his wrist or
elbow, you will proceed to bring him directly down to the mat in irimi or tenkan
while keeping him extended and maintaining the torsion upon his wrist. Once uke is
stretched out flat on the mat, you may complete the immobilization in either one of the
two classic ways: the horizontal pin or the vertical torsion against your chest.
 THIRD LOCK: AROUND YOUR WRIST. A typical reaction against various aggressive
holds is represented by immobilization no. 2 in this special lock which maintains the
hand of uke in close contact with yours as you cut down across his wrist from above.
In this example of a hold established upon your left wrist by his right hand, you will
secure his hand against your own captured wrist with your free hand—the right one in
the illustrations—and your left hand over his twisted right wrist from the outside,
cutting down with the knife-edge of your hand across his forearm. The twisted position
of his arm which will result is the classic one for the application of immobilization no.
2. Care should be taken to cut down as if you were "cutting your opponent in two with
a sword, from top to bottom," a phrase used by many instructors. Needless to say, the
motion and extension of your whole body will be behind that cut.
The same lock and consequent cut can be applied against his left hand holding
your left. In this case you will secure his hand firmly with your free hand—the right
one, as before—while you slide your left hand over his twisted forearm and wrist
from the outside, cutting down as indicated above. In either case, such a cut will bring
uke to his knees. From this point you may proceed to extend him out along the mat as
explained previously, in either the irimi or tenkan variation, and complete the
immobilization with either the vertical torsion against your chest or the horizontal pin.
Bringing uke to his knees with any one of these three locks, however, is not an
end in itself, but only a preliminary step in achieving his conclusive immobilization
flat on the mat. Therefore, he must be brought down to the mat. This task may be
accomplished in one of two ways—each with an irimi or tenkan variation.

SHOULDER PRESSURE

You will maintain the captured arm of uke in the nikyo position secured against
your shoulder with one hand—the right one in this example—while you rotate his
elbow around his shoulder and downward. Either you rotate by stepping across in
front of him, typical of the irimi variation, or to his rear, spinning him around you in
the descending spiral typical of the tenkan variation. In either case, uke will be
brought down flat on the mat where you (kneeling at his side) will complete
immobilization no. 2 in one of the two basic ways: horizontally along that surface, or
vertically along the axis of your own body.
HORIZONTAL PIN. In the first case, you will remove the captured right hand of uke
from your left shoulder, and maintaining the torsion on his right wrist, you will stretch
his arm out along the surface of the mat as illustrated, in diagonal (where he has no
support whatsoever). As usual, your left hand will operate on his elbow in order to
keep his shoulder down. Once he is stretched out on the mat, your right hand will
guide his right wrist back toward his head and away from you while your left hand
pins his elbow, thus closing the circuit of his extension and increasing the pressure
until the painful sensation at the joints causes him to surrender.
In this case too, as when applying immobilization no. 1, the angle of the arm pin
in relation to his shoulder will be in diagonal forward.
 VERTICAL TORSION. In the second case, you will not remove his hand from your
shoulder, but kneel at his side and secure that hand against your shoulder. This will be
done by setting your left biceps across his wrist and forearm, thus locking them against
your chest on the left side as illustrated. Your right arm will then "cut" into his
imprisoned arm at the elbow. Thus secured, his arm will become almost part of your
trunk as you pivot slightly at the hips and lean toward his head (keeping your back
straight). You thus bring pressure and pain to bear upon that outstretched and locked
shoulder joint.
WRIST PRESSURE

More simply, in order to bring uke down flat on the mat, you may remove his
captured right hand from your shoulder while maintaining the torsion on his right wrist
with your right hand. In order to control his possible reactions, rotate his elbow
around the shoulder joint, thus bringing his face down either by stepping in front of
him in the irimi variation, or pivot to his right-rear side in the tenkan variation. Once
uke is flat on the mat you may complete immobilization no. 2 with either the horizontal
pin or the vertical torsion described above.
Let us now examine a few practical examples of defensive reactions against
various types of attack. These can be neutralized through the application of
immobilization no. 2, after the appropriate dynamic patterns of evasion, extension, and
centralization have established the premises for its success.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 2 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 1

As uke grabs your right wrist with his left hand, you will take a circular step to
your right-rear corner, leading him into a condition of extension and unbalance without
pulling out of his hold. Rather, you will descend with him in the same direction as that
of his original attack. Your left hand will feign a blow to his face, following an ample
circle from your left side to the right and sliding along his outstretched left arm to
establish a firm hold on his wrist from above (your thumb underneath).
Both of your arms will now continue to move along the same extended circular
patterns which return upward toward his head. At its apex, when your hands are
almost over your own head, you will disengage your right wrist and establish your
hold upon the left wrist of uke with your right hand (now free). From that point you
can slide into immobilization no. 2 by passing through either the first or second lock as
shown in the illustrated sequences (in either the irimi or tenkan variation). Both will
end with uke either pinned horizontally to the mat, or paralyzed completely and
vertically against your own turning, leaning chest.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 2 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 3

Uke moves to establish a hold on your right wrist, using both his hands. At the
moment when his fingers close around your wrist, you will turn that wrist so that your
fingers are pointing toward you and down, as in exercise no. 10, and step to the left
side of uke with your right foot, thus allowing his line and force of attack to flow
downward in front of you. Another retreating, circular step with your left leg to your
rear will amplify the tenkan motion of evasion. It will lead uke out into a fuller
extension through the action of your right hand which will describe a circle going up
and then, in a smooth plunge, downward between the two of you. To make room for
such a downward plunge of your arm, you will simultaneously take a long step with
your right leg to your right-rear side.
At this point, uke is extended and unbalanced and with both hands still firmly
attached to your wrist. Since you have not pulled out of his grip, you may easily apply
the third lock of immobilization no. 2 on his right wrist by securing his hand firmly to
your right wrist with your left hand, turning your right hand in a circle flowing from
your left side to the right going over his bent arm, and cutting down across his wrist,
as illustrated. You may also apply the third lock to his left wrist, of course. In this
case, still securing his hand to your captured wrist, you will turn your right hand in a
circle flowing from your right side to the left, going over from the outside of his left
arm and cutting down across his left wrist. In both cases he will immediately drop to
his knees.
If you wish, you may even apply immobilization no. 2 in the form of the first lock,
by bringing his left hand to your shoulder after the downward plunge which follows
your initial tenkan motion of evasion, extension, and centralization.
In any case, once uke is on his knees you may bring him down flat on the mat
either through wrist pressure or shoulder pressure. The immobilization is then
concluded with either the horizontal pin or the vertical torsion.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 2 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 7

At the moment when the hands of uke establish contact with your wrists from
behind, you will turn your hands—palms and fingertips facing up—and lead his line of
attack down and then up again, after a smooth plunge below your Centre. Without
interrupting the motion you will then lead his hands up over your head, where you will
turn your hands so that your palms and fingertips now point downward. At the same
time you will take a lateral step with your left foot to your left side, turning your hips
to the right and taking another deep step with your right foot. You will thus slide under
his left arm and, either kneeling on your right knee or with knees well bent, you will
grip his left wrist with your right hand and surge up again while disengaging your left
wrist, which will now secure a firm hold on his left wrist. From this position, you may
bring uke to the mat via any one of the three locks explained previously. Once uke is
flat on the mat you may conclude the immobilization with either of the two methods
commonly employed—vertical torsion or horizontal pin.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 2 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13

Extend both your arms forward and take a step with your left foot to the right side
of uke at the moment he delivers (or, ideally, is about to deliver) a straight blow to
your head. Establish contact with his forearm from the outside with your right forearm
and lead his blow downward, letting your left hand drop naturally onto his wrist. You
will now be pivoting on your advanced left foot and stepping circularly to your rear
with your right foot. Both of your hands will be on his right hand and wrist which you
will extend downward in a large circle, then lead back upward toward you and into
any one of the three locks explained above. You may then complete the immobilization
with the vertical torsion or the horizontal pin.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 2 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 17

With his left hand, grabbing your right lapel uke will attempt to deliver a circular
blow to your head with his right hand. As the blow comes toward you, you will step
circularly with your right foot to your right, pivot and sweep your left leg deep behind
you, thus further increasing the centrifugal effect of such a pivot on the whole action.
Your right arm feigning a blow to the head of uke will pass under his left arm and
drop naturally onto his extended right arm, leading it downward, while your left hand
will grasp his left hand, securing it to your lapel and turning it so that his palm and
fingertips point upward. Continuing your original motion of deflection, your right hand
will join the left on his wrist, your elbow will slide over his captured forearm. The
first lock of immobilization no. 2 may be developed in either of its two variations
—irimi or tenkan toward its conclusion in the form of the horizontal pin or the
vertical torsion on the mat.
IMMOBILIZATION NO. 3
(SANKYO)
General Remarks
The main features of this immobilization are the position of the arm of uke, the
position and functions of your hands on that arm, and the position of your body in
relation to his.
His arm, as shown in the illustrations, is bent at the elbow, with his biceps
almost parallel to the mat at shoulder height and his forearm perpendicular to the mat.
His hand will be twisted in the direction of his head, palm obliquely downward.
These indications are obviously relative in the sense that both the degree to which his
elbow will bend, and the degree his wrist can be twisted inward will vary according
to the different structure and size of each uke' s arms—differences which will
determine the degree of nervous response, and of the pain which those distorted and
distended joints will be able to withstand.

Your hands will usually be placed around his hand, your thumb and little finger
performing the greater share of the gripping task, as illustrated. Your right hand will
clasp his fingers, keeping them close together. Both of your arms will be extended so
that uke will not be able to move in toward you. The action of your hands will be one
of torsion on his wrist and arm, and one of extension of your entire body behind your
arms in the direction of his head in an ascensional movement.
Your body will be positioned, at the moment when immobilization no. 3 is
applied, either laterally to his side or diagonally, slightly to his rear corner.
The successful application of immobilization no. 3 will distract uke and divert
his Unified Power of Attack, thus enabling you either to paralyze him completely on
the mat, or project him away from you, possibly against other assailants (see Chapter
IX). We will now illustrate these two possible variations.
IMMOBILIZATION. You may employ immobilization no. 3 as a preliminary step to
the more complete and final subjugation of uke, bringing him down to the mat with
either an irimi or tenkan sankyo. In the irimi variation as shown in the following
sequences, you will twist his right wrist with your left hand up and toward his face
and then down, in a circle. At the moment when the pain forces him up onto his toes,
you will swing your right fist in a large circle, feigning a blow to his face and securing
a hold from above on his elbow, which the twisting action of your left hand will
expose for that very purpose. Simultaneously you will take a long, gliding step with
your right leg (or a leap) in front of uke. That leg will now become the pivoting center
for another circular step to your rear with your left foot. Your spinning motion,
combined with the twisting action which you will be exercising upon his wrist, and the
rotation of his elbow stretching his arm out in an extended line in front of him in
diagonal will bring him down to the mat at your feet.

In the tenkan variation, you will step with your left foot to his right-rear side and
pivot to your right, retreating circularly with your right foot. Simultaneously your left
hand will twist his right wrist up and then downward behind him, while your right
hand spins his whole body down in a circle around you. Upon the completion of the
smooth, descending spiral of the tenkan movement, uke will land, as in the irimi
variation above, at your feet.
In both of these variations, finally, uke will be pinned to the mat while you stand
next to him or kneel at his side.
 STANDING. Without releasing your left hand grip upon the wrist of uke you will
step close to his right side with your left foot as illustrated, pivot on that foot and draw
your right foot around circularly, close to his body. You will turn his right hand as
shown, with his palm and fingertips twisted around in a continuation of the basic
sankyo hold.
KNEELING. Transferring your hold on his right wrist from your left over to your
right, which will grip his hand from the outside and hold it firmly against your left
shoulder—you will kneel at his side as explained in immobilization no. 1 and "cut"
with your left forearm across his extended arm. You will pivot on your hips to your
right, leaning slightly in toward his head (but keeping your back straight) until he
surrenders.
PROJECTION. Immobilization no. 3, finally, may be employed as the technical
foundation for the projection of uke onto the mat, or you may use his body to protect
yourself against other possible assailants. He may be projected down in one of two
directions: backward or forward.
 REAR PROJECTION. In the first case, you will bring the captured, twisted hand of
uke back toward his face, taking a step with your left foot to your left-rear side, and
leading his arm in a circle up over his head and then down.
FRONTAL PROJECTION. In the second case, taking the same step to your left-rear
side, you will swing his hand back and up, causing him to bounce up onto his toes.
Then, turning your hips to your right side again, you will swing his captured arm
around you with a whipping motion closely resembling a baseball batter's swing. The
pivoting turn of your hips will provide the power necessary to spin uke up and then
circularly down.
Let us now examine a few practical examples of how immobilization no. 3 may
be applied in response to a variety of basic attacks.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 1

As uke grabs your right wrist with his left hand, you will turn your wrist so that
your ringers are pointing toward you as in basic exercise no. 10, thus setting yourself
physically and mentally in alignment with his line of attack. You will step to his left
side with your right foot, pivoting on that foot and withdrawing your left foot
circularly to your left side, while leading uke around your turning body. When he is in
full flight, you will step with your right leg to your right-rear corner, as illustrated,
leading his arm up and to your right. Another step with your left foot to his left side
passing underneath his upraised extended arm, and a pivot to your right will bring you
into the proper position for the application of immobilization no. 3. While sliding
under his arm, your free left hand will clasp his left hand (which is holding your right
wrist) as illustrated. You will then turn and bring both your arms in front of you,
twisting the wrist of uke toward his head from underneath with your left hand and
reinforcing this motion with your right hand which holds his fingers, keeping them
close together. From this point you may bring uke down with either an irimi or tenkan
motion, and immobilize him on the mat in either of the two ways illustrated (kneeling
at his side or standing above him).
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 2

As the right hand of uke contacts your right wrist, you will lead him down and to
your right in a circle which will extend him into a condition of unbalance—before
rising up again on his right side, as illustrated. You will be simultaneously bending
your knees and gripping his right wrist with your right hand. In a single motion, bring
his right arm up, slide under that arm, step to his right side with your right foot, pivot
on that foot and withdraw your left foot to your rear. Your left hand will assist your
right in establishing the hold typical of immobilization no. 3, which will be applied
when you swing your hips around to your left and bring both your arms up from
underneath toward his face, twisting his wrist in the prescribed manner.
Immobilization no. 3 may now be developed using either the irimi or tenkan variation,
ending with uke flat on the mat while you paralyze him from either a standing or a
kneeling position.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 5

As his right hand grabs your shoulder or lapel, you will take a large, circular step
to your left-rear side with your left foot, swinging your right hand circularly toward
your left side, feigning a blow to the head of uke and sliding your hand along his arm
to grasp his right wrist. You will turn your hips back toward your right side, putting
your whole body movement behind your left shoulder against which his right hand will
be pinned by your right hand. His right elbow will necessarily bend under this
combined pressure. Your left hand will establish its center of rotation on his elbow
and he will have to spin on the spot, while you lead his arm down in a circle in front
of you. At the lowest point of this circle, your hands will change roles: your left hand
will leave his elbow and slide down to grip his hand in the sankyo hold, while your
right hand will grip his fingers as you drive his twisted hand up and back toward his
face, as illustrated. Immobilization no. 3 may then be completed as indicated in the
previous examples.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13

As a blow is about to be delivered to your head, you will extend both arms in
front of your un-bendable arm—the right one leading—and let his right hand slide in
tangent down your forearm which will turn on its own extended axis, thus allowing
your hand to grasp his right wrist. Simultaneously your left hand will contact his right
elbow from underneath, turning his arm in a circle from your left to your right side and
downward where your left hand, sliding along his forearm, will establish
immobilization no. 3 on his right hand. Both hands will then lead his twisted hand
back up toward his face. Immobilization no. 3 may now be completed as explained
previously.

IMMOBILIZATION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 16

As the left hand of uke grasps your left wrist and his right forearm circles your
throat from behind, you will drop your chin onto your chest to prevent the completion
of the strangulation. There will then be two ways of applying immobilization no. 3:
first, on the hand holding your wrist; and second, on the hand choking you.
ON THE GRIP. You will extend your captured left wrist down in front of you,
where your right hand will be ready to grip his left wrist. You will then step sideways
with your left foot and to the rear with your right foot, sliding under his left arm and
leading his captured left wrist from underneath back toward his head. At the same time
your left hand will grasp his fingers while you complete immobilization no. 3 in the
manner described in the previous examples.

ON THE CHOKE. You will extend your left arm to distract the attention of uke, grip
his right hand near your left shoulder with your right hand, and take a lateral step to
your right side with your right foot, followed by another long step to your left-rear
side with your left foot. You will either drop to your knee, or keep your knees well
bent as you slide under his right arm. You will turn your body toward him, while your
left hand joins your right on his right hand and now brings it back in front of you and
toward his head. From this position you may complete immobilization no. 3 as
previously described.
IMMOBILIZATION NO. 4
(YONKYO)
General Remarks
One of the most painful of all the basic techniques of neutralization (when
properly applied) is immobilization no. 4, which is called yonkyo (form four) or
tekubi-osae (wrist pin).
It involves essentially the application of sudden, sharp pressure upon the nerve
centers of the forearm of uke, usually on the inside near the wrist (although yonkyo
may also be applied on the outside of the arm). The initiation of this immobilization
presupposes that you have already established a hold upon his forearm, after having
successfully evaded his opening attack. The examples which follow include
descriptions of how this technique may be applied upon the completion of your motion
of evasion, extension, and centralization. In this section, however, we are primarily
concerned with the application of the technique itself, with its development and
completion, i.e., with uke pinned to the mat.
INSIDE PRESSURE. In most of the applications of this immobilization, you will
extend you arm an instant after having established your hold upon his arm and cut
down with the inner edge of your hand across the tendons, pressing deeply into the
complex of nerves located two or three inches above the wrist.
Although this is an extremely effective immobilization, it is also one of the most
difficult to perform correctly due to the fact that the exact location of the nerve centers
mentioned above will vary according to the individual. Only continual practice will
enable you to develop the necessary "feeling" or sensitivity which will tell you when
you have contacted the proper spot, and where you should apply the required pressure
on any individual's forearm.
Of significant importance in the application of this immobilization will be the
part played by your little finger and the root of your forefinger when applying this
pressure.
The impetus for this immobilization will come from the motion of your entire
body, while your left hand, pressing upon his right wrist will bend his hand inward
toward you. Both of your arms will describe a large circle in the air in front of you,
leading uke up and then circularly down until he falls to the mat. While you are
performing this circular motion with your arms you may either move ahead, cutting
across his line of motion (irimi), or behind him, in which case you will spin him in a
spiral that will end on the mat (the tenkan variation).
 In either case the completion of this immobilization will find uke flat on his
stomach. You meanwhile maintain the pressure upon his forearm, which your left hand
keeps slightly diagonal in relation to the mat, thus permitting you to lock it in extension
between the surface of the mat and your left hand, and while the inside edge of your
right hand continues to cut down, perpendicularly.

OUTSIDE PRESSURE. Immobilization no. 4 may also be applied on the outside of

the forearm of uke; following the same general gripping procedure described for the
inside of the arm, and applying pressure at almost the same height, some two or three
inches above his wrist.
In the application of the inside pressure, uke will be led into a circle up,
forward, and then down. In applying this outside pressure, exactly the reverse will
occur: uke will be led up, backward, and then down, as he instinctively arches
backward, away from the pain shooting up his arm (see kokyu dosa, Chapter VI). This
variation of immobilization no. 4, therefore, is usually employed as a diversionary
tactic to weaken the concentration of his Unified Power of Attack. Enlarging upon and
developing the instinctive reaction of uke as he seeks to escape the sudden wave of
pain, you may then apply the technique of neutralization most appropriate to the
dynamic circumstances.
We will now illustrate some practical applications of immobilization no. 4
applied against various forms of attack.

IMMOBILIZATION NO. 4 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 5

As uke reaches out with his right hand to grab your left lapel or shoulder, you
will withdraw you left foot, describing a large circle to your rear, and thus extending
him out beyond the outer limits of his Unified Power of Attack. At the same time you
will describe another large circle with your right hand, moving from your right side to
your left, feigning a blow to his head or neck as you do so. Grasping his right wrist
with your right hand from above (your thumb on the inside), you will surge upward
from the hips and swing his arm in a large circle up and then down again, thereby
causing his entire body to turn on the spot. Your left hand will slide into position for
the application of immobilization no. 4, and you will conclude the technique as
indicated in the general description, using either the irimi or tenkan variation
according to the prevailing dynamic circumstances. The entire action should be fluidly
synchronized with the speed and power of the motion of uke, so that both the attack
and its neutralization seem to be part of a single movement.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 4 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 9

As the hands of uke establish contact with your shoulders or neck from behind,
you will take a step ahead with your right foot and then pivot on it, turning your whole
body toward uke. Your right hand will grip his left hand as illustrated, and the twisting
motion of your whole body will result in a partial form of immobilization no. 3.
Grasping his left hand near his wrist with your left hand, you will then release your
right-hand hold and slide this hand into position for the application of immobilization
no. 4. You will then conclude the technique by employing either the irimi or tenkan
variation, bringing uke to the ground with a single smooth, circular sweep.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 4 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13

As uke launches a straight blow, punch, etc., you will surge up toward it as in
basic exercise no. 5, extending both your arms (the right one leading). Deflecting and
leading the blow back toward his face with your right arm, you will establish
immobilization no. 4 with your left hand and complete the neutralization in either the
irimi or tenkan variation, as illustrated.

IMMOBILIZATION NO. 4 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 15

As uke is delivering a punch to your lower abdomen with his right fist, you will
take a long circular step to your left-rear side with your left foot, thus extending him
out beyond the limits of his Unified Power of Attack. Simultaneously you will
describe a large circle with your right hand, feigning a blow to the left side of the head
of uke. Let your hand drop naturally onto and along his extended right arm until your
fingers close around his wrist. At this point, uke should be unbalanced forward,
making it comparatively easy for you to swing his right arm up in an ample circle and
apply immobilization no. 4 with your left hand. There should, of course, be no
interruption in the unified flow of your motion/action. You may then complete the
neutralization in either the irimi or tenkan variation.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 5
(GOKYO)
General Remarks
Immobilization no. 5, called gokyo (form five), is usually taught in the advanced
stages of aikido practice, although it is a basic immobilization. This technique is
somewhat similar to immobilization no. 1 and is particularly applicable to the
neutralization of an armed circular blow aimed at your head. Gokyo has been drawn
from the ancient art of fencing in which lateral, slashing attacks with the katana were
fundamental; in fact, the extension and leading motion of your arms in the initial phase
of this technique provide a modern parallel to the samurai's extended, defending
sword. This form is also illustrated in Chapter IX.
IMMOBILIZATION NO. 5 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 14

Uke attacks you with a circular blow aimed at your head, neck, or upper chest
using his right hand. You will extend both of your arms in front of you as in basic
exercise no. 5, thus parrying the blow from the inside with your left forearm contacting
his right forearm as illustrated. Your right hand will feign a blow to his face or
midriff, in order to disturb his aggressive concentration and, continuing that motion,
will slide over your own left hand to grasp his right wrist. If he should be armed, this
hold will effectively control the weapon and limit its maneuverability. From this
point, you will lead uke out in the direction of his extended arm, turning your hips as
you swing the captured arm with a circular motion back toward uke and over his head.
Your left hand will exercise pressure upon the inside of his elbow as illustrated in
order to bend his arm slightly. The same hand will then slide under his arm (not
against it) as in immobilization no. 1 and lock it as illustrated. From this position you
may bring uke down to the mat in either the irimi or tenkan variation, by stepping
across with your left foot in front of him and leading his arm straight down; or by
stepping behind him, pivoting on your left foot while drawing your right foot circularly
around you as illustrated and leading his arm down, in a descending spiral.
IMMOBILIZATION NO. 6
 (SHIHO NAGE)
General Remarks
Immobilization no. 6, or shiho nage, which may be translated as the "four-corner
throw," is a basic technique of immobilization also clearly derived from the fencing
practices of Japan's legendary past. Moreover, it is a technique wherein two of the
essential features of aikido (the characteristic turning of the hips and the dynamic
reversal of the motion of uke back to its source) are so clear and practically
demonstrated that this technique, together with projection no. 1 (kokyu nage), has
assumed a position of primary importance in almost all aikido dojo where it is taught
as the introductory technique or form to prepare the student for the series of
immobilizations and projections which will subsequently be learned.
Immobilization no. 6 can be performed upon one or both of the wrists of uke but
at first you will only grasp one of his wrists. You will extend that wrist (and arm) in
one direction, then you will lead it circularly from above in the opposite direction and
down. Regardless of the type of attack being launched against you, once you have
succeeded in securing his wrist with both your hands as shown in the illustrations, you
may apply immobilization no. 6, extending uke out and then—pivoting on your hips—
reversing the motion and bringing his twisted wrist circled back to his shoulder.
His wrist should not be brought too far back and past his shoulder, or extended
out too far to the side, since this could result in a break or dislocation. Admittedly,
such a break or dislocation is the desired result in other methods of self-defense, but is
considered crude, primitive, and unnecessary in aikido.
 The entire body of uke at the apex of the hold will be brought into a characteristic
condition of unbalance (tilted to his rear side, in diagonal) due to the twisting action
you will be exercising upon his captured wrist.
Your own position on the other side must be observed in specific relation to your
hands, arms, the angle of your body, as well as the location and functionality of your
hips, legs, and feet.
After your initial motion of evasion, extension, and centralization, both your
hands when you begin to apply immobilization no. 6 will be grasping his wrist (the
right one in the illustrated example). Your right hand leads his extension to your right
side, over your head and back to his shoulder as you turn with knees well bent. Your
left hand follows through and closes over your right one on his wrist; it will reinforce
the hold as illustrated, its role being subsidiary in an immobilization of this type
applied against his right wrist.
Both your arms will be kept in front of you and well extended. They will move
when the rest of your body moves, not before, and they will always be directed from
the Centre. In immobilization no. 6 the functional relevance of your hips and your
Centre cannot be overemphasized. This immobilization is actually motivated by the
feeling of stabilized centralization which only a well-developed Centre can provide.
This technique is performed with a single smooth, circular motion in which no
single element—technical or dynamic—will play the determinant role. Its efficiency
depends entirely upon the "wholeness" of your motion (pivot/spin-reversal) stabilized
at your Centre. Your hips will pivot, your upper trunk will turn, your arms will be
extended in front of you—but all moving as a unit.
 At the completion of the pivot, when the arm of uke has been brought back to his
shoulder and his extension reversed, your arms will be extended in front of you and
your whole body will face his, in diagonal—arms, central body, legs, feet, even your
toes—as illustrated. This cautionary note is particularly important in view of the fact
that there is often an incorrect tendency to complete the pivot in a position too close to
uke so that your arms will bend, or to be too far behind him so that your hands will be
behind you.
Your hands and arms will have the important task of extending uke out, as you set
your body in the correct position for the execution of this immobilization. In the
illustrations we have included a dynamic series of displacements and actions cutting
across the line of motion of uke in the irimi variation, as well as outside and around
that line of motion in the tenkan variation.
Bringing uke down fiat on his back is an operation which also requires a few
words of caution. Normally such a task will be performed by bringing his hand over
your head close to his shoulder, as you lead his body around and then down to your
feet in a single smooth movement. It will be centered, as we have said, upon your
pivoting hips. But there is room for a great variety of styles ranging from a very low
immobilization no. 6 performed almost kneeling, to the circular fall of uke as he is
brought around almost to your left side. Provided there is no danger of a break or
dislocation and the whole movement is performed smoothly, they are all generally
acceptable since they still fall within the. limits of orthodoxy accepted by aikido.
The motion which will bring uke to the mat—as indicated above—can follow
two basic patterns, one irimi, the other tenkan.
In the irimi variation, once you have established your hold upon the wrist of uke,
as illustrated, you will step across in front of him with your left foot. As your weight
settles on that foot, you will bend your knees and pivot on both feet, turning your hips
completely to face uke again, as illustrated, his arm now locked into immobilization
no. 6.
In the tenkan variation, you will not step across in front of uke, but instead will
spin on the spot on your advanced left foot, bending your knees and withdrawing your
right foot in a circle which will follow the turning motion of your hips. You will thus
turn to face uke again and complete the immobilization.
Once he has been brought down to the mat, you will pin the wrist of uke as
illustrated, and, if necessary, you may feign a blow with your left hand, kneeling at his
side (or simply lean in), your whole body (left leg stretched out behind) supplying you
with the power for the downward, pinning hold.
We will now examine a few practical cases of self-defense against certain basic
types of attack which can be neutralized by immobilization no. 6.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 6 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 4

As uke is reaching out to grab your wrists you will grasp his left wrist with your
left hand and take a long step with your right foot across his line of motion, swinging
his arm into a circular extension, out and over your turning shoulder. At the same time
you will pivot and turn until you are facing him. Continuing your circular motion, you
will bring him down to the mat. The illustrated example is based on the irimi
variation. In the tenkan variation, you will spin on your right foot and lead uke out,
turning to your left side.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 6 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 5

As uke is grasping your left shoulder or lapel with his right hand, you will take a
step with your left foot to your rear, stretching him out and securing his right wrist
with your right hand (if necessary, feigning a blow to his face). Then you will bend
your knees, and taking a large step across his line of motion to your right side, you
will lead the arm of uke down and then up again around and over your head. You will
pivot on both feet until you are facing him, leading his twisted wrist back to his
shoulder and bringing him down to the mat (irimi).
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 6 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 7

As uke is grabbing your wrists from behind you will extend your arms either with
your palms and fingertips facing up in the "s" extension, or with your arms opening
diagonally in the diverging extension. Then you will slide out on your left side, take a
step with your left foot, and lead his arm down in front of you, your right hand
descending to establish the double hold of immobilization no. 6 on his arm. Then you
will take another step with your right foot across his line of motion, extend his left arm
out, up, and over your head, and pivot to your left side as you bring his wrist close to
his shoulder and lead him down to the mat (irimi).
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 6 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13

As uke is delivering a straight blow to your head you will extend both arms (the
right one leading) toward the blow, and parry its momentum in a tangent on the
outside. You will then secure his right wrist with your right hand and his right elbow
with your left hand (your palm). Taking a step with your left foot across his line of
motion, you will pivot and face uke again, bringing his right arm down between your
body and his. You will guide his motion down circularly to your right side, taking a
step with your right foot, followed by another across with your left, in front of him,
while simultaneously leading his arm up and over your head in the classic pivot to
your right side of this technique. At this point you will bring his wrist back circled
into his shoulder and then bring him down to the mat. You may merely bend your knees
deeply, or you may actually drop to one knee as you follow his motion to the mat.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 6 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 14

As a circular blow is being delivered to the left side of your head, you will step
inside its line of motion with your right foot, extending your left arm from above and
your right arm from below: the former will make contact with the arm of uke and guide
it into the latter's grip. Now you will bring his extended arm down in front of you and
apply immobilization no. 6 in either of its two variations. In the irimi form, following
the same circular line of his attack you will step across his line of motion with your
left foot leading his arm to your right side out, up, and over your turning shoulder. You
will pivot outside and face him, bringing his arm down close to his shoulder as
illustrated, and then bring him down to the mat. In the tenkan variation you will take a
step on his left side with your left foot, spinning and bringing your right foot circularly
around on the outside near his foot. You will lead his arm as specified above, and
bring him down to the mat. Of these two variations, the former (irimi) is recommended
because of its dynamic affinity to the directional pattern of the circular attack of uke,
which will be led uninterruptedly around you as he flies along the perimeter of your
dynamic circle in a descending spiral toward the mat.
IMMOBILIZATION NO. 7
(KOTE GAESHI)
General Remarks
As is true of immobilization no. 6, immobilization no. 7, or kote gaeshi (wrist
turn-out), can end in either an immobilization or a projection. Its functional
characteristics, however, as uke is being brought down to the mat, will be
substantially the same. The illustrations show your basic position upon the completion
of the preliminary motion of evasion, extension, and centralization. The hand of uke
(the right one here) will be gripped as illustrated. Your left thumb will apply pressure
upon his knuckles between the fourth or ring finger and the little finger. Your other
fingers will close around his thumb and palm. From that position you will extend his
hand back and over his forearm; this torsion upon his arm will unbalance his entire
body and open the way for his fall. Particular attention should be paid to the angle of
the wrist torsion. Since too wide an angle may cause dislocation of the wrist, the aiki
method emphasizes that you should fold his fingers back toward his forearm rather
than stretch his hand out and over in a gyaku position. You should also try to keep his
right hand low so that his fall will not be a heavy one and he will be able to slide
down sideways onto the mat. Otherwise—and this is only safe for experienced
performers—he may be forced to perform a high somersault over his own
outstretched, turning arm. In either case, however, he will fall onto his back.
Immobilization no. 7, depending upon the circumstance of the attack of course,
may sometimes end with the projection of uke onto the mat. This will usually be the
case when you are engaged in a defensive action against more than one assailant.
You may, however, complete his projection onto the mat with a more involved
form of subjugation which will prevent any resumption of the attack on his part. In this
case, you must turn uke over so that he is face down on the mat. This may be
accomplished in one of two ways—the first, or dynamic method, being preferable,
since it is more in accordance with the smooth, largely painless, strategy of orthodox
defense in aikido.
 DYNAMIC. A human body falling to the ground, like any other physical body in
motion, will be subject to the laws of dynamic inertia by which it can be kept rolling
with little effort if the motion and the dynamic momentum of that fall are not
interrupted or distorted. Thus if you move rapidly, stepping with your left foot to the
other side of his falling body at the very moment when he is actually hitting the mat or
while he is still rolling on its surface, it will be comparatively easy to lead his arm
over his extended body, thus causing him to roll over with a sort of " up and over"
motion, as illustrated.
The second method of turning uke so that he will be face down on the mat
STATIC.
may be employed when his falling motion has ceased and he is lying comparatively
still.
To attempt to roll uke over under these conditions is extremely difficult and
unwise, since you will be fighting another type of inertia—static—which lends itself
to his resistance (based on gravity and friction) as a body at rest. Accordingly, your
left hand will bring his right hand down until his fingers almost brush his face, leading
it in a circle over his head from his right side to his left, while your right hand rotates
his bent elbow around the fulcrum provided by his right shoulder, very close to his
head. Excruciating pain in his shoulder joint caused by the pressure upon and rotation
of his elbow, and accentuated by the twisted position of his hand, will force him to
turn over onto his stomach as quickly as he can. Due to the danger of shoulder
dislocation which is intrinsic to this second method, and because this static form is
reminiscent of other jujutsu methods, the first method is recommended as being the
more orthodox, or aiki finish. Prospective aikido students are advised to concentrate
upon the smooth speed of the action and the timing required to throw uke down, and—
blending with and continuing the dynamic momentum of that fall—to spin to the
opposite side, rolling uke over in a single, uninterrupted motion.
Once uke has been turned face down on the mat, he must be firmly pinned to its
surface. This task may be accomplished in one of two ways, standing or kneeling.
STANDING. As uke hits the mat, you will step to the other side of his body, turn
him over, and pivoting on your advanced left foot withdraw your right foot circularly,
setting it near his fallen body. Without releasing his right hand throughout, you will
turn his wrist toward his body and press down, arms extended, as illustrated. Your left
knee will help to keep his elbow straight.
KNEELING. Once you have turned uke over, you will hold his right hand with your
right; from the outside kneel down near his shoulder and cut across his elbow with
your left forearm, as illustrated, securing it against your stomach. You will then pivot
on your hips and lean slightly in toward his head (keeping your back straight), turning
his arm vertically upon its axis at the shoulder joint.
Let us now proceed to examine a few practical applications of kote gaeshi
against various types of attack, paying particular attention to your initial motion of
evasion, extension, and centralization.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 7 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 3

At the moment when the hands of uke are closing around your right wrist you will
turn your fingertips in toward you and lead him downward in extension around you, as
in basic exercise no. 10. Your right hand will lead him up. Using the dynamic
momentum of his original line of attack plus that of his extended unbalance, you will
describe a circle which will plunge rapidly downward between his body and yours as
you take a long, deep step with your right foot to your right-rear side. At the lowest
point of this descending circular pattern, you will grasp his right hand/wrist with your
left hand and bring it up (reversed) to your right side, disengaging your right hand and
using it to apply further pressure on his twisted wrist and fingers which you are
pressing downward. To make way for his fall, you should take another deep step to
your right-rear side as you bring him down. You may then complete the technique as
indicated above.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 7 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 8

As uke is establishing his hold upon your arms (above or at the elbows) from
behind, you will extend your arms to the side and forward as if you were embracing a
large sphere, extending fully forward in order to channel his two lines of attack into
two new diverging (and dissipating) patterns. You will simultaneously take a step to
your left side with your left foot, leaving room for the turning of your hips toward uke
and for the long step which you will subsequently take to your right-rear side with
your right foot.
Now you will bend over in his direction and grasp his right hand (still holding
your right elbow) with your left hand in the manner prescribed for applying
immobilization no. 7. You will continue to step around him to your right side, turning
his right hand outward and taking a final, large step to your left-rear side as you throw
him down over his locked right arm. You may complete immobilization no. 7 in any
one of the various ways described above.

IMMOBILIZATION NO. 7 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 14

First Example (Under)

Uke is delivering a circular blow to the side of your head (ear, face, neck) with
his right hand. As the blow comes in you will step inside his line of motion, sliding to
your right side with your right foot and extending both arms to parry and guide his
blow. Your left arm in extension from above will parry the blow circularly and
indirectly, leading it into the hold prepared from below, by your right hand. Now you
will take another step to your right-rear side with your left foot and bring his arm
down in full extension in front of you as you hold his wrist with your right hand.
Without interrupting the unified movement, you will continue to slide circularly to
your right side around uke, who will have to spin on his advanced right leg. Your left
hand will establish the prescribed hold for immobilization no. 7 on his right hand, and
your right hand will assist in extending his fingers over and down. You may then
project him down to the mat and complete this technique as indicated above.

Second Example (Over)

You will follow the same basic instructions as in the first example until the
moment when your left forearm is leading the right hand of uke into the grasp of your
right hand, which will this time be over his extended arm in front of you. Then, instead
of continuing the circular motion to your right side with your right foot inside the line
of attack of a yokomen uchi, you will step ahead with your left foot to his right side,
Winging your left arm from above, pivoting on that foot and letting your left hand drop
naturally onto his right wrist (kept extended by your right hand). You will withdraw
your right leg circularly on your right side (tenkan) and when uke has been set in
motion by this spinning, you will step with your left foot to your left-rear side, reverse
your motion and project him down to the mat, completing the technique as explained
above.

IMMOBILIZATION NO. 7 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 15

As uke is delivering a blow to your mid-section (or lower abdomen) with his
right fist, you will slide forward with your left foot, turning your hips to your right side
and evading the direct force of the punch. You will pivot on that advanced foot,
withdrawing your right foot to your right-rear side and letting your left hand drop
naturally onto his extended wrist in the prescribed hold for immobilization no. 7. Then
you will lead uke in a circle around you before reversing your direction (if his initial
momentum permits) or step directly to your left-rear side with your left foot. You will
then project him down and complete the technique as indicated above.

Projections
The projections of aikido are techniques of neutralization in which physical
contact between you and uke will cease (although your follow-through motion will
continue) at the moment when he is thrown spinning down onto the mat or across its
surface.
There are, as we have indicated, a vast number of these projections in the aikido
repertoire. From those basic projections which are practiced in aikido dojo all over
the world, we have selected 28.
PROJECTION NO. 1
(KOKTU NAGE)
General Remarks
The technique of neutralization which we list here as projection no. 1 is known
a s kokyu nage or the "20-year technique." This technique is usually the first throw
taught to a beginner and is less specialized than many other projections you will meet
later on. Projection no. 1 may be efficiently and smoothly applied to neutralize almost
any type of basic attack, and can be developed from a great variety of introductory
motions of evasion, extension, and centralization.
Projection no. 1, the series of immobilizations extending from no. 1 through no. 5,
the two transitional techniques, and immobilizations nos. 6 and 7 comprise the central
nucleus of the aikido technical repertoire and the basis for the development of
numerous strategies of defense.
When you watch a high-ranking aikido practitioner (or nage) perform projection
no. 1, it appears to consist of a blurring spin which—as nage suddenly reverses his
original direction—will sweep the feet of uke from under him, bringing him down to
the mat flat on his back almost before he realizes what has happened. Moreover, the
entire performance at its best will be marked by the absence of any dynamic
discordance, choking pain, or muscular spasms, etc., on the part of uke.
It may appear to be a very simple technique, its mechanism easy enough to
operate when performed by a high-ranking practitioner of the art. When you begin to
attempt it yourself, however, even with the best of partners you will soon realize why
it has been nicknamed the "20-year technique"—in homage to Master Uyeshiba's
painstaking efforts over a twenty-year period to perfect and polish the dynamic and
technical complexity of this particular projection.
In its practical applications, as you will discover when studying the various
examples of defense against a large variety of attacks, projection no. 1 presents certain
characteristics, a number of specific features which are related technically to your
hold on the body of uke, and to his position in relation to yours. Above all it is related
dynamically to his motion around you, and to its pattern of extension which will
eventually be reversed from above, flowing in an arc downward to his rear. In every
example of a neutralization using projection no. 1, your initial motion of evasion will
bring you into the position of centralization typical of this technique. Observe the
details of this position closely. In the illustrated example, your right hand will be
leading uke around your body as you spin in the center of the action. That hand,
depending upon the type of attack being neutralized, may be grasping his extended
right arm, simply guiding it from above, or possibly not touching it at all. But your left
hand (never in a fist, but with fingers extended) will always be holding his head firmly
against your shoulder (the right one here)—firmly, but not harshly or painfully.
Your palm may rest against his left temple (ideally), over his left ear, or along
the left side of his neck; in any case this holding should be done in such a manner that
your fingers will not gouge or inflict pain, since the intended target is not a particular
area of his anatomy, but rather controlling the head to direct and then project the whole
body.
Your body will spin upon its own vertical axis as you step behind uke with your
left foot, withdrawing your right foot circularly to your right-rear side as illustrated.
Your arms—in their respective leading and holding positions—will always be in front
of you. Consequently, uke will have to spin orbitally around you, the axis of his upper
body tilted in your direction. This will, of course, produce that condition of dynamic
unbalance in his condition which is a prerequisite for the proper performance of this
technique.
Uke will also be extended dynamically in the desired direction because your
central spinning motion will be faster than his outer or peripheral motion as he whirls
around you. His head, in direct contact with the spinning axis of the action (your
body), will be extended ahead of the rest of his body following circularly behind; this,
of course, is the reason for the characteristic forward lean of his body in motion.
The ultimate purpose of projection no. 1 consists in bringing uke down flat on his
back on the mat. Starting from a motion that will lead him forward, it is clear that his
orbital motion and frontal extension must ultimately be channeled back in the direction
from which they originally came. And this dynamic reversal must be achieved
smoothly, without the slightest dynamic interruption.
At the beginning, you may note a tendency to clash frontally against his line of
motion, usually with some sort of choking thrust of your biceps across his windpipe.
But this will result in a painful interruption of both your motion of reversal going from
your right to your left side, and of his extended motion going from your left to your
right side. The important point to keep in mind at this stage of projection no. 1 is that
your dynamic reversal is and will remain throughout the technique a leading, guiding
motion. It will channel his extension into the only circuit of reversal available:
circularly upward, in a smooth arc stretching him further up and out, before returning
downward from above behind his arched, extended body to the mat.
The action of your right shoulder (the fulcrum of rotation in this technique), of
your elbow (describing the circle of extension and reversal), of your hand (leading
and pointing in the desired direction)—all will be of determinant importance in
insuring the success of this technique.
But they would all be ineffectual if they were not solidly based upon the
continuous, spinning motion of your whole body as it pivots in a condition of dynamic
balance stabilized at your center of gravity, or Centre. The dynamic motivation of the
whole projection, its unity, is determined by this abdominal centralization or extension
of centralized energy. It is an example of explosive stability which may appear to be a
paradox in theory but remains an amazing, still relatively unexplored reality in
combat.
Your motion of dynamic reversal from your right to your left side, and your
spinning hip motion will usually be accompanied by a step in the same direction with
your right foot. It will provide the following:
(1) The platform of support for your whole frame as you sink down (bending
your knees deeply) above uke as he falls to the mat in front of you or at your
side.
(2) A muscular barrier against any possible reaction (whether planned or
instinctive) on the part of uke.
 PROJECTION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 1
First Example
As uke reaches out to grab your left wrist with his right hand, you will evade his
line of attack by extending your right hand between his right forearm and your left,
stepping in to his right side with your left foot; you will then pivot on that foot while
withdrawing your right leg circularly to your right-rear side, and lead his right arm
around you (you may grasp his wrist after the initial extension, if necessary). Your left
hand will secure his head against your right shoulder, passing from behind and over
his left shoulder. You will continue to pivot around until his body is almost on your
right side and in full motion. Then you will extend your right-side shoulder first ahead
of him, leading him slightly down and out, then upward describing a circle with your
elbow around your shoulder joint. At this point your hand, fingers extended, will lead
him upward, and then circularly down. You will reverse your hip motion back to your
left side, taking a step circularly with your right leg if necessary, and guiding him
down to the mat.
Second Example
 As uke grabs your right wrist with his left hand, you will take a long circular step
to your right-rear side, leading him out in extension around you on your right side.
Your right hand will describe a circle in front of him which will return from above,
back toward his head. Your left hand will feign a blow to his face and slide under his
extended left arm, helping to lead him up until the apex of this motion has been
reached. At that point you will disengage your right hand in order to clasp his head on
the right side, while you slide (or leap) behind him with your right foot. You will
pivot on that foot to your left side, withdraw your left foot in the same direction, and
let your left hand drop onto his left wrist, leading it in a single circular sweep
downward. He will spin in dynamic unbalance around you, and when his body has
almost reached your left side, you will channel his motion upward in an arc, thus
reversing its pattern without interruption and leading it back to him. You will pivot to
your right as illustrated; if necessary, take a long circular step with your left foot in the
same direction.

Third Example
As the right hand of uke grabs your left wrist, you will turn your hand as in basic
exercise no. 10 and lead him in extension forward. Then you will turn your hips to
allow your captured wrist to pass freely, and step across with your right foot close to
his right foot. Now you will lead him out to your right side in a circle returning behind
him and passing over his right shoulder, while you take another long step with your
left foot, further back on his right side. Unbalance him in that direction. Your right arm
will slide around and over his left shoulder in a large circle and lead him downward,
while you take another deep step with your right foot behind him, turning your hips as
you do so. From here you will guide him down to the mat.
The element of apparent differentiation between this method and the other
examples lies in the employment here of your captured left hand as the "leading"
element of the projection, whereas in the more common form of projection no. 1 used
to neutralize an attack on your left side, your right hand will perform that task. Your
left hand will usually perform the task of holding his head against your right shoulder.
However, if you wish, you may lead his right hand back to his right shoulder and grasp
the collar of his jacket at the back of his neck as you spin him around, extending him
up and back to his rear, directing his reversed motion circularly down to the mat.

PROJECTION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 2

First Example
This typical defense against attack no. 2 is featured in almost all aikido dojo as a
standard introduction to the practice of projection no. 1.
 As uke grabs your right wrist with his right hand, you will leave your hand there
and concentrate on your hip motion, stepping with your left foot to his right side near
or behind his advanced right foot. You will swing your left hand circularly and
establish contact with the left side of his head which will thus be secured against your
right shoulder. Spinning on your left foot, you will bring your right leg around
circularly in a large sweep to your right-rear side. Your captured right hand, once you
have moved to his right-rear side, will lead him out and around you. When he has
reached your right side (his body still in full motion), you will rise up in a smooth
circle and lead his extended upper body backward and circularly down to the mat.
Your hips will turn back to your left side and, if necessary, you may take a step
forward (to his rear) with your right foot.
Second Example
Another extremely dynamic way of applying projection no. 1 against attack no. 2
consists in turning your right wrist with the palm of your hand toward the extended
right hand of uke and pivoting with your hips to the left side, while simultaneously
withdrawing your left foot circularly to your left-rear side and extending your arm
(and uke) toward his right-front corner. Your right hand will describe a large circle
from below. You should bend your knees deeply to further emphasize the dynamic
momentum of his unbalanced, circular extension. When the apex of this motion is
reached, you will turn your hand (palm forward) on his extended and reversed right
wrist, pivot back to your right side and step with your left foot to his right-rear side.
Swinging your left hand around from behind uke (to contact his head), you will bring
his right arm down with your right hand holding his wrist. Then you will pivot on your
left foot, withdrawing your right foot circularly to your right-rear side and spinning
uke around your whirling body by the combined action of both your arms—the right
one leading his right arm down and around, the left one holding his head against your
turning shoulder. At this point you will extend uke on your right side, leading him
down and extending him out, then channeling his motion upward and reversing its
dynamic pattern back and down, rotating horizontally at the waist, and vertically with
your right arm. Finally, you may take an additional step with your right foot, if
necessary, thus reinforcing his fall by the forward motion of your body.
PROJECTION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 3
First Example
A s uke grabs your right forearm and wrist with both hands, you may apply
projection no. 1 by evading his line of attack in either one of two basic, dynamic
ways: with an irimi motion or a tenkan motion.
 Irimi. You will lead both hands of uke downward in the direction in which he is
moving, simultaneously stepping to his right side with your left foot, and swinging
your left hand around and contacting the left side of his head. You will continue to
pivot on your left foot, withdrawing your right leg to your right-rear side in a circle,
and spinning uke around you, leading his arms with your captured right hand. When his
body is at your right side, you will extend him down, out, and then upward with your
right hand, as your elbow rotates around your shoulder. At this point, you will turn
your hips back toward the left, take a long step to his rear and guide his extended,
reversed body downward until he falls to the mat.
Tenkan. As uke grasps your right forearm and wrist with both his hands, instead
of moving in to his right side, you will move out to his left side with your right foot,
pivoting on that foot and withdrawing your left leg to your left-rear side.
Simultaneously your captured hand will lead his arms downward and out frontally,
sliding them in a smooth circle around you.
Your hands must always be kept in front of you when you are turning in a tenkan
movement. (When we say "your hands lead around," we do not mean that your hands
will move while the rest of your body remains rooted to the same spot. "Leading
around" means, more exactly, around your vertical axis; i.e., you will turn completely,
hips first, with your trunk, arms and hands in proper alignment.) Now you will take a
long diagonal step to your left side with your retreating left foot, and bring your
captured right hand down in front of you between his body and yours. He will have to
spin and expose his leaning, unbalanced right side to your defensive action. You will
step in with your left foot to his right side, pivoting to your right-rear side and
withdrawing your right leg behind in a circle. You will swing your left hand around
his head from behind, leading him out and around with your captured right hand. Then
you will spin, extend, reverse, and guide his motion downward.
Second Example
The action in this example will follow the same dynamic outlines as that of the
tenkan motion explained in the preceding sequence, up to the point where you are
leading uke out and around. Once he has been extended forward, you will spin him
around without interrupting his motion by taking a long step with your right foot
circularly to his left-rear side, thus practically moving around him. At the same time
keeping your captured hand high you will describe a circle with it around his head in
dynamic synchronization with your displacement around him. Your left hand will
contact the left side of his head, your right hand will slide upward and then circularly
down to his rear. Meanwhile, your body will be transforming your motion around him
into a spin on your right foot, turning your hips to the left, and bringing your left leg
back to your left-rear side. Now you will guide his reversed motion circularly down
over his shoulders and to his rear. If you wish, you may achieve the same results by
letting your captured hand drop down between your body and his once you have
completed the initial opening motion in tenkan and he has been extended forward.
This drop is highly dynamic in the sense that you will use the downward momentum of
that hand to wrap your right arm around his head and at the same time spin him
irresistibly on the spot. The position and motion of your feet will be the same as in the
other relatively higher method, and so will the conclusive series of extending and
reversing actions which you will perform to bring uke down to the mat.
 PROJECTION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 4
Among the many ways of neutralizing attack no. 4 with projection no. 1, we have
selected the following example, a method frequently employed in aikido dojo all over
the world. As uke grasps your wrists, you will lead and extend his left hand forward
and his right hand down, taking a cross-step with your left foot at the same time. From
this position you will take a second deep step with your right foot, as illustrated. You
will be leading his left and right arms up and circularly back over his head, his left
arm slightly ahead. Turning your hips and continuing this "windmill" motion of your
arms, you will complete the technique as described previously.
 PROJECTION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 6
Asuke reaches out to grab your upper trunk with his hands (your throat, lapels,
shoulders), you will take a large step with your right foot diagonally to your right-
frontal corner, and thus inside the line of motion of his right arm. Then you will pivot
on that foot, withdrawing your left foot circularly behind you to your left-rear corner.
As you are taking the first step, your right arm will swing upward between his
outstretched arms, feigning a blow to his face as a diversionary tactic, and then sliding
down along his right arm, leading it down in front of you to your right side. Without
any interruption of the movement, you will slide or leap to his right-rear side on your
left foot, swing your left hand around to clasp his head against your right shoulder,
pivot and step circularly to your right-rear side with your right foot. Then you will
spin him around, and reverse his motion, leading him upward and then down to the
mat. You may take a step with your right foot, if necessary, as you accompany him
down to the mat.

PROJECTION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 7

As uke grabs your wrists from behind, you will bend them, palms and fingertips
upward, and lead his arms downward and forward as in basic exercise no. 17, then in
a smooth circle flowing up and over your head and opening a path for your pivot of
evasion. Or you may extend both your arms in front of you diagonally to the sides,
rotating your wrists inward and bringing your elbows out, thus extending his arms over
yours (this is the method illustrated here). In either case you will bend your knees
deeply while turning your hips to the left. Once you have completed this pivot which
brings you around to face uke, you will extend his left wrist (his left hand, remember,
was formerly holding your left wrist) to your left side, slide or leap to his left-rear
side with your right foot, swinging your right arm to contact his head and bring it close
to your left shoulder. Continuing your pivot, you will withdraw your left foot behind
you, spin uke around, reverse his motion, leading him upward. Then, turning your hips
as you step forward with your left foot, bring him down to the mat.

PROJECTION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 8

Held firmly from behind by uke who is clasping your arms at the elbows with
both his arms, you will bow deeply as illustrated, almost touching your right knee with
your forehead, and take a circular step to your left side with your right foot. Then you
will bring your left foot outside and near his left foot, spinning on your left foot and
sliding or leaping to his left-rear side (your right foot leading). The deep bow by its
sheer weight, suddenness, and momentum, should have freed your right arm. You will
now swing this arm around and secure his head, while your left leg is withdrawn
circularly to your left-rear side. Spinning him around, you will extend his head
circularly up; return in an arc down to his rear, turning your hips and taking a step with
your right foot in the direction in which he is falling.
 PROJECTION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 9
When you are grabbed from behind at the neck or shoulders by uke who uses both
his hands, you will extend your arms out diagonally, rotating your wrists inward and
your elbows out as illustrated. Then you will take a step forward with your left foot
and slide your right foot to his left side behind you. Bending your knees, you will slide
under—your right arm rising up again between his extended arms around his head on
the left side (between his head and left shoulder). Your left hand will secure his head;
your right foot will take another step inside and around on his left side. Then your left
foot will follow with a circular stepping motion as you pivot to the left. Now you will
spin uke around, extending his motion upward in a circle returning down behind him.
Finally, you will turn your hips, taking a step with your right foot if necessary in the
direction of his fall.
 PROJECTION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13
This typical defense has also been widely adopted as a standard introduction to
the practice of this particular technique. As a blow is being delivered straight to your
head, you will extend your arms—the right deflecting and capturing the dynamic
momentum of the blow itself, as in basic exercise no. 5. You will step with your left
foot to his right-rear side, spinning on that foot as you bring your right leg circularly
around behind you. Your right hand will lead his right hand down and around, and
your left hand will secure his head. Now you will spin him around and complete the
throw by extending his head up and then backward, while you turn your hips, slide
with your right foot, if necessary, in the direction of his fall.
 PROJECTION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 14
As a circular blow is being delivered to your head on your left side, you will
step diagonally with your right foot inside the line of the motion of uke extending both
arms to parry the blow with your left arm and lead his right wrist smoothly into your
right hand as illustrated. At the same time, you will step to his right-rear side with
your left foot, securing his head with your left hand and extending him out and around
with your right hand. You will withdraw your right foot and pivot on your left foot,
describing a large circle behind you to your right side. Then you will spin uke around,
extend his motion up, back and circularly down, turning your hips and stepping with
your right foot, if necessary, in the direction of his fall.
PROJECTION NO. 2
(IRIMINAGE)
General Remarks
 Another basic technique of neutralization is projection no. 2, which like
projection no. 1 is characterized by that dynamic reversal of the motion action of uke
as you return it circularly back to him from above. This technique is referred to
generally as irimi nage, or "entering throw."
Projection no. 2 can be applied to neutralize a variety of attacks; in each one, the
main points to be observed (once you have completed your motion of evasion and
centralization and are about to project uke down onto the mat) will be the following:
uke must be spun around you in full dynamic extension; his body must be in full contact
with yours; the total weight of your body will then shift around, slide down and rise up
again in a powerful, wavelike motion, descending upon his unbalanced, upper frame;
your balanced body, therefore, must be lowered for a moment (trunk erect, but knees
well bent) and then uncoiled upward like a spring, following a spiraling pattern which
will return down behind uke; at the moment when you reverse your motion leading uke
around and down, his lower anatomy will still be in motion forward, while you are
leading his upper trunk backward, where he has no support whatsoever.
These characteristic features of projection no. 2 are better visualized in the
following examples of five ways to use this technique in response to a variety of basic
types of attack.
 PROJECTION NO. 2 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 1
As uke grabs your left wrist with his right hand, you will turn and extend your
hand (fingertips pointing upward) in the same direction as his motion, taking a step to
his right side with your left foot and removing your hips from the path of his now-
controlled extension. You will pivot on your left foot and take a circular step to your
right side with your retreating right foot, leading uke around you in the tenkan motion
as you turn with him. He will whirl around you and you will bend your knees deeply,
leading him down along a sloping pattern which will extend him forward and cause
him to lean against you. At this point you will describe a large circle with your
leading left hand, returning toward uke from above as your body rises and your weight
shifts from your right leg to your left, as illustrated. The lower part of his body
meanwhile will still be spinning around you, almost on your right side. Both your arms
—the right one extended over his head or across his neck, the left one across his chest
—will guide his motion down to the mat.
It is important that you maintain close contact with uke while his motion is being
led up and back, because at that moment he will be extended into unbalance to his
rear. In fact, it will be the dynamic use of your own body and its weight which will
increase the momentum of his reversal.
Your arms will implement the spiraling rise of your body and its subsequent
descent; they will not act alone. Your right hand may be used to feign a blow to the
throat, chest, or stomach of the extended and therefore unprotected uke. If the motion
of your body is really a total one, then its upward spiraling and powerful descent to
his rear as well as the ample swing of both your arms should be more than sufficient to
spin uke fully in the air and project him down to the mat. The function of your legs,
therefore, will be extremely important in shifting your weight up and down in
synchronization with his extension up and to his rear. The completion of the technique,
however, will always find you in a condition of central balance.
 PROJECTION NO. 2 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 5
As uke grabs your right shoulder or lapel with his right hand, you will pivot on
your left foot and withdraw your right leg circularly to your right-rear side. Now you
will swing your left arm over his extended right arm and set it in frontal alignment
with your right arm. You will keep turning and extending him around you circularly.
When he is in full motion, you will swing both your arms in a wide circle in front of
him and bring them back over his head to his rear. Your body will uncoil with a
whipping hip motion, and your left leg will slide far back behind uke. At this point you
will descend strongly on your bent legs, concentrating your leading motion upon his
unbalanced upper trunk and causing him to fall to the mat. You will complete the
technique by settling down centrally in full balance, feet spread apart, knees well bent.
 PROJECTION NO. 2 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 6
As uke grabs both your shoulders or lapels, you will take a step to your left-rear
side with your left foot, swinging your right arm between his two extended arms and
disturbing his concentration by feigning a blow to his face. Now you will turn your
hips to your right side and bring your left arm around down from above between his
arms. Keeping both your arms in front of you in a diverging extension, you will
describe a large circle to your right side as you spin and twist his body into a
condition of spiraling unbalance. At the same time, you will bring your left arm up and
then down to his rear while your right arm cuts across his chest. Your left foot will
slide deep to his rear; your whole weight will rise up with that displacement and be
brought to bear upon his unbalanced upper trunk. Then you will be settled centrally on
both legs, knees well bent, feet spread apart, as illustrated.
 PROJECTION NO. 2 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 7
At the moment when uke grabs your wrists from behind, you will lead his motion
into the pattern of a diverging extension, thus draining his hold of most of its power. At
the same time you will take a circular step to your left side with your right foot, setting
uke in motion circularly around you. As he is stepping in front of you, you will sink
down on bended knees and describe a circle on your left side, leading his movement
back to his rear from above. You will shift the weight of your body up and then down
to your right side, pressing on his unbalanced upper trunk and causing him to fall to the
mat.
 PROJECTION NO. 2 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 9
As you feel the hands of uke grasp your shoulders, neck, or biceps from behind,
you will lead his motion forward into the pattern of a diverging extension. You will
then take a step to his left side with your left foot, turning your whole body in that
direction and swinging your arms as illustrated. At this point you will turn your hips
back again to your left side, facing his left side and stepping far behind him with your
right leg. You will swing your arms up and then down to his rear, extending his
unbalanced upper trunk back and shifting your weight so that it will rest equally on
your well-bent legs.
PROJECTION NO. 3
(KAITEN NAGE)
General Remarks
 Another basic technique of neutralization is projection no. 3, known as kaiten
nage, or "the rotary throw," and employed—like projections nos. 1 and 2—to
neutralize a variety of basic attacks.
As you will note from the illustrations, the primary objective of this projection
(as in projections nos. 1 and 2) consists in channeling the motion/action of attack of
uke into a dynamic extension forward and then reversing its stream back to his rear in
a large circle. The technical difference which imparts to this technique its
unmistakable identity lies in the fact that in projections nos. 1 and 2, his dynamic
extension is skillfully diverted and caused to flow from front to rear in a circular
pattern passing over his unbalanced upper body. In projection no. 2 that same dynamic
extension will be diverted and caused to flow to his rear in a pattern also circular, but
running this time, beneath his unbalanced body, as illustrated.
We have included here three practical examples of neutralizations employing
projection no. 3, chosen from the most representative methods taught in aikido dojo
everywhere. In all of them, the following points will remain constant in the position of
uke and in your own, at the moment when this technique is being concluded.
The body of uke usually will be bent forward and very low, in a condition of
open unbalance: One of his arms (the one on the side where you will be centrally
located) will be swung in a circle going first to his rear and up, then forward again
from above and down in a full dynamic reversal launching him ahead while, at the
same time, increasing his unbalance until it becomes dynamically irreversible and
causes him to fall to the mat. The back of his head will be contacted lightly for a brief
instant, causing him to bend down circularly.
Your own position of operational centralization will be a well-balanced one and
you will shift your central weight fluidly from one leg to the other, without leaning too
far past the vertical line of support of either leg: One of your hands will grasp the
wrist which is closest to your body and swing his entire arm in a circle as illustrated,
passing from the rear and ending in a frontal extension toward the ground. The other
hand will brush his head down lightly and circularly in the opposite direction—to his
rear; you will move out of his way, as you pivot in the center of the action and lead
him down and around.
Psychologically, the intention of this technique is not to throw uke vertically
down onto the ground, but to project him tangentially away from you, possibly toward
other attackers as they converge upon you. Therefore, all of your motions and actions
as you lead him into the throw must be geared accordingly and performed from a
position very close to the ground. You will lower your body on legs spread apart and
keep yourself well balanced, extending all of your powers in a direction flowing away
from you toward the horizon. This is in order to avoid narrowing this otherwise open
throw into the ungenerous mechanism of a tight and possibly ineffective reaction.
 PROJECTION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 1
As uke grabs your right wrist with his left hand, you may achieve the necessary
position of operational centralization in one of two basic dynamic ways: irimi or
tenkan.
Irimi. According to the dynamic laws of the irimi motion, as uke touches you,
you will lead his motion down, and gaining control of his momentum, lead him out to
his left side, sliding close to him on your right foot and feigning a blow to his face
with your left hand. Then you will extend his left arm out and slide under it, stepping
with your left foot to his rear. You will turn your hips until you face the same direction
as uke, and lead his still extended left arm in a circle down between your body and
his, withdrawing your right leg, as illustrated. As you reach the lowest point of this
circle, you will withdraw your left foot to your left rear side, set your left hand on his
neck or the back of his head, and swing his left arm to his rear, up and down again,
frontally, and passing over his head as he leans forward. At this point you will spin
him down in a frontal somersault, shifting your central weight behind the action of both
your arms. You should bring uke down very close to the mat so that he can roll safely
away along the supporting arc provided by his right arm.
Tenkan. In this example as uke grabs your left wrist with his right hand, you will
lead his arm in the same direction, stepping to his right side with your left foot,
pivoting on it and withdrawing your right leg to your right-rear side, thus leading him
out and around into the centrifugal pattern of the tenkan motion. As uke begins to gain
momentum, you will lower your body into a strengthened position of balance on legs
spread apart, leading his right arm down and causing him to bend forward. You will
then set your right hand on his head, and pivoting to your right-rear side, increase the
centrifugal momentum of his unbalance and make room for his fall as you whirl his
right arm up, frontally from above, while your right hand leads his head down and
rearward. In this tenkan variation, as you lead uke around you may also glide under
his extended right arm as illustrated in the irimi variation.
 PROJECTION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13
As a straight blow is being delivered to the front of your head by the right hand or
fist of uke, you will extend both your arms toward him—right arm leading—and
contact his right forearm from the outside with your right, taking a step with your left
foot at the same time to his right side. Then you will pivot on that foot, withdrawing
your right leg behind you to your right side, letting both your extended arms drop
naturally onto his right arm and lead it down to his side, thus causing him to bend
forward in a state of unbalance. You will continue to pivot slightly to your right side
while your left hand swings his right arm up, over frontally, and down toward the
ground. Your right hand presses his head gently but firmly down and to his rear.
 PROJECTION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 15
As uke is about to deliver a straight blow to your stomach or lower abdomen
with his right fist, you will step forward to his right side with your left foot, thus
removing yourself from the direct path of the blow. You will allow your left forearm
to drop onto his extended right forearm and lead it downward until uke is unbalanced
forward. Then you will pivot and withdraw your right leg to your right-rear side, spin
him around you, lead his right arm up, over and down again in front of him—guiding
his head down in a circle to his rear with a "windmill" motion of your arms.
PROJECTION NO. 4
(KOSHINAGE)
General Remarks
 Projection no. 4 focuses upon the movement of your waist and hips as uke is
being lifted from the ground. Thus it is broadly defined as koshi nage, or hip throw.
The use of a man's hips as the fulcrum of removal and rotation of another man's body
in an effort to project him down onto the ground is almost as old as man himself. In
aikido practice, we find many technical and dynamic applications of this type of
technique in response to almost all of the basic types of attack.
The fundamental characteristics of this projection (in relation to the use of your
hips at the moment when uke is about to be lifted from the ground) are generally
related to the positioning of your hips against and across his lower abdomen as you
establish an axis or fulcrum around which his body will have to rotate. In flight he will
be turned upside down and will hit the mat reversed, on his back. This positioning is,
first, markedly lateral in the sense that you will bring your side into contact with the
frontal side of his lower abdomen, with the axis of your body cutting diagonally across
the axis of his body. It is important that you do not cause his upper body to lean
unbalanced over your upper trunk, because your main center of support will be much
lower, i.e., the powerfully articulated structure of your hips and pelvic area.
Second, your lower abdomen must be lower than his because you will not be
attempting to lift him muscularly, but rather causing his body to lean almost naturally
and effortlessly upon your lowered hips. You will then be able to roll him easily
around, over, and down to the mat. You must, therefore, sink low, bending your knees
well to prepare for the rotation of uke over your lowered hips—this rotation, of
course, being only preliminary to his fall onto the mat, flat on his back. However, due
to your lowered position and to the comparatively short distance between the ground
and his head as he falls toward the mat, there is a potentially dangerous moment in this
technique. It is important, therefore, that you straighten your legs when his body has
left the ground and is being turned upside down. At the same time you will lead his
arms or body (depending upon the type of hold which his attack necessitates) upward
in order to spin his head up and permit a horizontal fall. You should also release your
hold upon him so that he may roll away, across the mat, assisted by the dynamic
momentum of his own fall.
Now we will examine a few examples of basic attacks neutralized through the
application of projection no. 4.
 PROJECTION NO. 4 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 4
First Example
As uke grabs your wrists, you will swing your arms sideways in a large circle
leading him out on your right side and returning over your head. Then you will step
across in front of him with your right foot and slide your right hip diagonally under his
center of gravity, leading his arms over your bent body and causing him to rotate over
and around your right hip. At the same time you will lead his arms (or head) up and
over, straightening your legs as he falls to the mat.
Second Example
As uke grabs your wrists, you will take a step to your-right-rear side with your
right foot and extend him in that direction. Without interrupting the motion, you will
lead his left arm out and up circularly over his head, grasping his left wrist (reversed
by your movement) with your right hand and stepping across in front of him with your
right foot. Now you will slide your right hip diagonally under his lower abdomen and
bring his left arm over his right arm (held by your left hand). As he slides up and over
your lowered hip, you will straighten up and spin him in the air, releasing your hold
upon his wrists an instant before he hits the mat.
 PROJECTION NO. 4 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 7
As your wrists are grabbed from behind, you will lead his arms out and up as
illustrated, and when his hands are over your head you will grasp his left wrist with
your right hand. Now you will slide your right hip diagonally across and under his
lower abdomen and lead his unbalanced body around and over your lowered hips,
drawing a circle with your right hand. Finally, you will straighten up, letting go of his
wrist an instant before he hits the mat.
 PROJECTION NO. 4 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 14
As uke delivers a circular blow to the right side of your head with his left hand,
you will either extend your arms, the right arm leading (straight extension) as
illustrated, or move inside his line of motion, stepping with your left foot and parrying
the blow with that same right arm (circular extension). In either case your right hand
will grasp his left wrist from above, your fingertips contacting his palm. After feigning
a blow to his face, your left arm will slide along his left arm and lead his elbow from
underneath. This is in order to extend him over your body which will pass across in
front of him. You will step with your left foot, setting your hip diagonally across and
underneath his lower abdomen. Finally, you will lead him over and around that
fulcrum, guiding his left leg up with your left hand if necessary. You will straighten up
and release his hand just as he is about to hit the mat.
PROJECTION NO. 5
(AIKI O TOSHI)
General Remarks
Projection no. 5—known as aiki otoshi or aiki drop—also depends upon the use
of your hips in removing the feet of uke from the ground and projecting him back down
onto the mat. This time, however, the positioning of your lower abdomen beneath his
body will be different. Whereas in projection no. 4 it was your back which contacted
the frontal section of his lower abdomen, in projection no. 5 it will be your frontal
lower abdomen which will be brought into contact with his back. In both cases,
however, the technical principle of your hips acting as the fulcrum of his removal,
rotation, and projection will remain substantially the same.
This technique of neutralization can be applied against almost any of the basic
types of attack. After your initial motion of evasion, extension, and centralization has
been successfully completed, there will be a moment in which one of your legs will
slide deeply behind uke, and the side of your body will come in diagonal contact with
his body. Your upper trunk will be leaning forward, and your arms will encircle his
legs. One arm will clasp the rear part of his thigh close to the knee, your other arm
will go deep down behind his other knee.
You will sweep both legs of uke frontally, practically clasping them together;
your lower abdomen at this point will become the operational center of the projection.
There are two possible directions in which you can throw uke. One is in front of
you, a little to one side. Such a frontal projection may be accomplished by sweeping
his legs up in front of him with a powerful turning motion of your hips. This kind of
"whipping" motion, of course, must be performed in a condition of stable, centralized
balance on legs well bent and apart. This motion will take the form of a small circle
running up to one side and returning from above down to your other side. Such a
dynamic circle will activate your whole body and lend power to your arms and trunk
as they move together as a perfectly synchronized unit. You will release uke when his
feet are high in the air and his trunk parallel to the mat.
The other direction in which this technique may be performed is over your hips to
the rear, but the principles of execution will be essentially the same.
One important point: the central weight of uke must never fall on you. Your
action in projection no. 5 will be channeled against the lower part of his body from his
waist down to his feet. This part of his anatomy will be swept away rapidly, leaving
his upper body no recourse except to lean, in full unbalance, in a vacuum for a brief
moment—the moment needed to sweep his legs up in a circle.
Your total weight will always be in a condition of central balance, equally
distributed on legs well bent and apart. His total weight, at the moment when his
natural supports are being swept away, will be left floating in space (not resting on
you). Therefore, the action will be swift and effortless, since you will not be "loading
him up" onto your hips, which would be incorrect, but simply "cutting him down" from
underneath. His legs, once his central weight is no longer pressing down on them, will
become extremely light and easy to maneuver. Correct timing of his unbalance and
your circular sweep, therefore, will determine the success of this projection.
Let us now examine two examples of the practical application of projection no. 5
in response to two basic types of attack.
PROJECTION NO. 5 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 5
As uke is reaching out with his right hand to grab your left shoulder or lapel, you
will take a long step to your left-rear side with you left leg, feign a blow to his face
with your right hand and slide that right hand and arm along his extended right arm
from underneath to grasp his right wrist. Now you will extend him further into open
unbalance until his grip on your shoulder loses its power. Then you will swing his
right arm down to your right side, turning your hips and stepping with your left leg
deeply behind him. At the same time your left arm will slide under his outstretched
right arm and clasp his left thigh close to the knee. You will dislodge his right arm and
grasp his other leg as well (the right one), keeping both legs close together. Now you
will swing your hips in a small circle to your right side, up, and then down again
while your body and arms sweep his legs away in front of his (up and then over to
your left-rear side) as described earlier.
 PROJECTION NO. 5 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 9
As the hands of uke fall upon your neck or shoulders from behind, you will
extend your arms forward and out in the same direction as his hold, taking a circular
step to his left side with your left foot as illustrated, and turning your hips. Then you
will pivot on your left foot and slide your right leg deeply behind him. Both your arms
will whirl into position and descend behind his legs. They will then be swept away in
a frontal circle up and over your right hip.

PROJECTIONS NOS. 6,7, AND 8

General Remarks
The projections which follow represent interesting and effective examples of the
convergence of aggressive forces (originating from one side), which are extended
beyond their intended target in the opposite direction, and thereby weakened to the
extend of becoming easily maneuverable. In all of these projections, the force of uke
regardless of the technique of attack (a hold, a blow, a combination), will be extended
out in order to dissipate its original concentration of power and, consequently, lead it
easily into the dynamic pattern of the projection. Among the forms this leading motion
may take (each representing a technique), we have selected the following three
projections which are widely practiced in various aikido centers of instruction.
 PROJECTION NO. 6 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 4
Under-arm may be one of the following:
STANDING. As uke grabs your wrists you will step to his left side with your right
foot very close to his body, pivot on that foot, and withdraw your left foot circularly to
your left-rear side. At the same time you will be leading his right hand out, down, and
around you while your right arm slides under his left arm, cutting over and down with
the edge of your right hand as illustrated.
KNEELING. As uke grasps your wrists, you will withdraw your right leg
circularly to your rear very close to him under his extended right side, and drop to
your knees. Using his frontal momentum, you will lead his left hand down and around
you while your left hand slides under his right arm as illustrated, and cuts down in an
ample frontal circle. In case uke grabs your wrists and pulls up, you will follow him
with a strong upward motion which will alarm him and result in an instinctive reaction
(on his part) downward. You will then use that reaction, as indicated previously, to
complete the technique.
 PROJECTION NO. 6 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 7
As the hands of uke close around your wrists from behind, you will lead his
movement forward with a scooping motion, as in basic exercise no. 17. You will then
reverse that lead downward, taking a step to your left side with your left foot, pivoting
on that foot and withdrawing your right foot to your right side, thus turning your body
to face uke. You will lead both his arms down in front of you, but complete the circle
with your right hand inside and under his left elbow. While your left hand describes a
larger circle around you, you will spin uke down, as illustrated.

PROJECTION NO. 7 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 6

As uke reaches out to grab you with both arms extended, you will grasp his right
wrist or sleeve with your left hand and insert your right arm over his left as illustrated,
withdrawing your left foot circularly to your left-rear side. You will bend your knees
deeply and spin uke over frontally making full use of his original momentum. Since
this "cut" may result in a heavy fall for uke, you may drop to your left knee in order to
guide his arm as close to the mat as possible.

PROJECTION NO. 8 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 14

As uke delivers a circular blow with his right hand, you will step inside his line
of motion with your right foot, extend both arms diagonally in front of you, and pivot
on that advanced right foot, withdrawing your left leg circularly behind on your left
side. You will contact his right wrist with the edge of your left hand (or grasp his
wrist from above if necessary) and lead it around you and down. Meanwhile your
right hand, swinging circularly and high, will "hook" his left shoulder or neck and
increase the centrifugal effect of your pivot. You will continue to whirl (arms always
in front of you), describing a spiral which will end on the mat. This will send uke
spinning around his own unbalanced axis before he rolls away from you along the mat.
PROJECTION NO. 9
(TENCHI NAGE)
General Remarks
The main features of projection no. 9 (known as tenchi nage, literally translated
as the "Heaven-Earth throw") are that your circular motion will extend uke out on one
side, and will be followed by that motion which you will use to cut him down on his
rear diagonal side with a single flowing motion in space resembling a horizontal
inverted "s." Your body, as usual, will lead the entire action, but your arms in
diagonal extension forward will operate like the wings of a glider, describing a
diagonal spiraling loop toward the ground.
This projection is particularly adaptable to the neutralization of almost any form
of frontal attack, as you capture its extension and lead the Unified Power of Attack of
uke into the pattern most suitable to your final aim—bringing him to the mat.
In this case the original force of his attack will be led out and back down to his
rear diagonal side. The angle of his projection will be a narrow one; his fall,
consequently, will be somewhat angular. If the technique is performed properly,
however, he will be able to roll easily and safely across the mat.
Your own action will consist of a large, lateral step to his side for the purpose of
extending him out in unbalance, followed by another large step, low and to his rear.
Both your arms, openly extended, will perform the following functions: lead his
captured arms out into unbalance, and cut the flight of his unbalanced body down, to
his rear. The entire action must be performed smoothly and without any jarring
motions.
Let us now examine the following practical applications of projection no. 9.
 PROJECTION NO. 9 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 1
A s uke grabs your left wrist with his right hand, you will take a long step
diagonally to your left side, leading his hand down and out in the same direction. (You
may grasp his right wrist, if you wish, to insure his extension.) You will spread your
arms, the left one leading uke out and down into a condition of unbalance on his right
side, the right stretching across and over his left shoulder under his chin. His lateral
extension will allow you to slide close to his unbalanced right side with a long step on
your right leg to his right-rear side. You will swing both arms out and down, extending
your well-balanced body behind them and propelling uke down to the mat. (This
projection may also be applied in the tenkan variation illustrated here.)
Do not attempt to "load him up" onto your hips. His complete unbalance and the
spin of his reversed motion should be more than sufficient to whirl him into the final
aiki roll.
 PROJECTION NO. 9 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 4
You may neutralize this attack with projection no. 9 in two ways: an irimi or a
tenkan variation. In the irimi variation you will take a long step with your left foot
deep to the right side of uke with your left hand leading his right downward, and your
right hand circling up in full extension. You will then take a second step with your
right foot deep to the rear of uke, continuing the downward extension with your left
hand and circling over and down with your right as illustrated, thus bringing uke down
to the mat.
In the tenkan variation, while your left hand is extending downward and
establishing the fulcrum for his centrifugal motion, your right hand will lead uke out
and around you as you pivot on your left foot. His circular movement around you will
permit you to step deep to his rear side with your right foot. As in the irimi variation,
both your arms will extend uke and lead him down to the mat.
 PROJECTION NO. 9 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 5
As uke reaches out to grab your left shoulder or lapel, you will grasp his right
sleeve with your left hand and take a large, lateral step to his right side with your left
leg, extending him out into a condition of unbalance on his right side. You will slide
your right leg to his right-rear side, your right arm extending across his chest and over
his left shoulder. Then you will lead his right elbow as illustrated, and spin him down
to his right-rear side employing the whirling motion of your whole body to complete
this technique.
PROJECTION NO. 10
(SUMI OTOSHI)
General Remarks
Projection no. 10 known as sumi otoshi, or "corner drop," is based on the semi-
circular extension of your arms positioned beneath one or both of the arms of uke as
you guide him up and then whip him down onto the mat.
In relation to the motion and eventual position of his body, you will channel the
force of his attack on one side of his anatomy, that side becoming the axis around
which he will rotate in unbalance until he falls to the mat. This motion involves a
particularly delicate, spiraling pattern into which you must channel his original motion
of attack. A well-developed sense of timing and dynamic synchronization will be
necessary to blend his momentum with your own and spin him around your extended
axis of projection (the arm closest to his body), which will be closely identified with
the axis of his body. In fact, as you will notice in the examples which follow, the two
will be almost one and the same—one is your arm, extended diagonally under the
other, his leaning body.
There should be no anatomical pressure on his elbow joint in a misguided
attempt to force him down. Instead, your entire action will be directed toward
spinning his whole body down. Therefore, you will operate on and amplify his motion,
rather than act upon any particular part of his body.
Your leading hand may grip his extended wrist in order to secure that lead.
However, if your timing and coordinating are sufficiently developed this will not be
necessary, since once his body has been spun into orbital motion the rest will be
naturally consequential and he will almost seem to fall by himself.
This technique may be performed either frontally (inside) or beside uke
(outside). Of the three practical examples illustrated, the first two deal with the former
possibility, and the third with the latter. The functional or dynamic principle
underlying both, however, will be the same: extension + centralization + spin = the
projection of uke.
 PROJECTION NO. 10 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 1
Irimi. As uke reaches out to grasp your left wrist with his right hand, you will
take a diagonal step to your left side with your left foot and extend your left hand out
on that side, in order to concentrate his central weight on his right leg. Then you will
slide your right arm under his extended arm, as illustrated, and take a long step with
your right foot to his right-rear side, turning your whole body in a circle to your left
side—your left hand leading circularly down and the extension of your whole body
animating your right arm. You will keep both arms in front of you and describe a
circle with them which will descend toward the ground, turning your hips and bending
your knees as indicated. If necessary you may grip his right wrist from the inside.
From this point you will move circularly with your right side very close to and
beneath his extended right side, thus contacting his anatomical axis as illustrated. You
will then revolve his body smoothly and irresistibly in the air and bring him down to
the mat.
Tenkan. The sequence of actions described in the preceding version of
projection no. 10 will also apply here. The only difference will be in the opening
motion.
As uke grabs your left wrist, you will step to his right side with your left foot,
pivot on that foot, and draw your right leg circularly behind you on your right side.
Your left hand will lead him out and around, as illustrated, into a condition of
unbalance on his right side. You will guide his right arm down and then out to your left
side by taking a step in that direction with your left foot. He will now be vulnerable to
your defensive action—his right arm will be outstretched, his whole body will lean on
the right side. At this point you will slide your right arm under his right arm as
illustrated, take a long step with your right foot to his right-rear side, and spin him up,
around, and down.
 PROJECTION NO. 10 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 3
As uke grabs your right wrist with both hands, you will withdraw your left foot
circularly to your left-rear side, pivoting on your right foot. You will then extend both
his arms forward by leading him out and up to your left side in a circle passing over
his head and returning down on your right side as illustrated. You will step across in
front of uke with your left foot and extend your left arm under his left arm which is
being led (together with his right arm) down. You will swing both your extended arms,
turning your body against his unbalanced right side, then spin him up out, and down to
the mat.
PROJECTION NO. 10 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 5
 This is an example of projection no. 10 applied from the outside. As uke grabs
your left shoulder or lapel with his right hand, you will withdraw your left foot to your
left-rear side, swinging your right hand and grasping his extended right wrist with it
(after feigning a blow to his head). Without stopping the motion, you will keep him
extended on his right side and lead his right arm down diagonally in front of you,
allowing your left arm to slide under his arm from the outside close to his body while
you step in with your left foot. You will swing both your arms in a descending spiral
using your whole body to spin uke up, out, and then down to the mat.
Never push against his elbow with your arm or side. Unnecessary pain or
possible fracture are not the goals of this projection nor of any other technique in the
aikido repertoire for that matter (including the famous immobilizations, where
temporary pain is used only as a distracting device, preparing the way for the
subsequent subjugation, and not as an end in itself). As has been stated before, any
such pain should leave no permanent traces.
PROJECTION NO. 11
General Remarks
Projection no. 11 also belongs to the family of sumi otoshi, or corner drops. Its
main feature will be represented by one of the arms of uke being led straight down
while his body is spun around it. Naturally you will remain in the center of the action,
with his captured arm locked temporarily to your anatomy.
This basic technique of projection may be applied to neutralize a great variety of
attacks and its methods of application may be quite diversified, as the examples
included here will demonstrate.
 PROJECTION NO. 11 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 1
First Example
Sliding laterally to your diagonal front side with your left foot, you will lead uke
with your captured left hand into extension and unbalance to his right-rear side,
sinking down on your right leg close to uke and under his unbalanced frame with an
irimi motion. You will cut behind his right heel with the edge of your right hand,
sweeping his legs away from under him. The irimi motion, like the tenkan movement,
is based on dynamic momentum. In the irimi variation, however, greater skill will be
required and the initial momentum of uke will have to be sufficient in and of itself,
while in the tenkan motion, the momentum of his attack will be amplified by your
pivoting and extending action.
This example is characterized by the employment of your right hand to cut his
legs away from under him and to block his retreat under a frame collapsing from
above. However, skilled practitioners of the art can bring you to the mat with a single
unified motion of the body (kokyu) and a leading extension of one hand/arm.
Second Example
As uke grabs your left wrist with his right hand, you will pivot on your left foot,
withdrawing your right foot circularly to your right-rear side and leading him out into
circular extension frontally and around you in a tenkan motion. As he gains momentum
you will slide out and away from him with your left foot to your left side. This will
bring you close to his right foot and almost perpendicularly under his unbalanced right
side as you lead his right arm straight down along that side. Then you will kneel down,
leading his arm downward. With the descending power of your whole body behind
that lead, your body always being the operational center of the action. He will be spun
almost on the spot as he falls to the mat.
 PROJECTION NO. 11 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 2
As uke grabs your right wrist with his right hand, you will take a first step to your
right-rear side, grasping his now extended right wrist and taking another step to your
left-rear side with your left foot, thus extending him out even further. Without stopping
the flow of the motion you will bring his right arm into circular extension to your left
side, sliding out with your left foot and kneeling down on your left knee close to him.
You will spin uke over and then down, holding his wrist with both hands if necessary.
 PROJECTION NO. 11 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13
As uke delivers a straight blow to your head with his right hand or fist, you will
extend both arms to parry the blow externally, your right arm leading while taking a
step close to his right side with your left foot. You will pivot on the left foot to your
right-rear side with a tenkan motion, withdrawing your right foot circularly to your
right-rear side. Your right arm will guide his extended right arm down while your left
hand will either grasp his sleeve at the elbow or encircle his wrist. You will lead that
arm down in a pendular motion toward your left side. Then you will step out with your
left foot and sink down on your right knee under his unbalanced right side. You will
spin him over and then down to the mat. A final whiplike motion of your hands will
further enhance the dynamic whirl of the projection. Do not attempt to hold onto uke,
or his motion will be halted abruptly and he will fall heavily to the mat with the
possibility of serious injury.
PROJECTION NO. 12
General Remarks
 Particularly effective against blows to the head (and extremely dangerous when
violently applied), projection no. 12 operates on an opponent's extended arm by using
the centrifugal force of your spin to lead the force of his attack into a high circuit of
projection. If this circuit is too tight and close to his body, his fall will necessarily be
a sharp, almost vertical one. Accordingly, once the hold has been established and the
spinning motion of centralization completed, you will extend his arm forward and lead
his force of attack into an ample circuit of projection, which will bring his hand or fist
close to the mat and thus allow him to safely somersault away from you.
 PROJECTION NO. 12 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13
As uke is delivering a straight blow to your head, you will extend your arms to
meet it, parrying the blow and grasping his sleeve at the elbow while your right hand
slides around to grasp his right wrist. You will pivot on your advanced right foot and
slide underneath uke with your left leg close to his body as illustrated. You will then
turn your hips to your right, withdrawing your right leg and kneeling down beneath his
frame on that right knee. Your hands will maintain him extended in frontal unbalance
as you whip him down to the mat in front of you.
Practice this technique correctly and slowly, step by step. When done quickly it
can be dangerous for uke, since the fall, the unity of the motion, and the distance
between his upper trunk and the ground, as well as the power of your descent beneath
him may cause serious injury if not carefully controlled.
PROJECTION NO. 13
General Remarks
Projection no. 13 consists of a highly circular motion which will extend the
original line of attack of uke into a pattern of unbalance and frontal projection over
your body (usually lowered into a position of operational centralization beneath him).
Its essential characteristics are represented dynamically by your sliding motion in
and under the line of his motion, while you simultaneously extend that motion into an
arc curving downward to the mat. On the technical side, the "outer" characteristics are
represented by your arms leading and guiding his arms into that descending pattern.
However functionally important they may appear to be in "hooking" uke and in
leading his motion, your arms will not be the main instruments of projection no. 13.
They will be—as always—physical extensions of the central body as you whirl in the
center of the action and bend your knees in a condition of lowered, strengthened
balance, spinning uke around in an orbit over, and finally down to the mat.
Let us examine three practical examples in which this principle of perpendicular
centralization will be applied although the technical means of leading uke. The types
of attack being neutralized may differ.
 PROJECTION NO. 13 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 3
As uke grabs your right wrist with both hands, you will pivot on your right foot
and withdraw your left foot circularly to your left-rear side, extending him out
frontally. Utilizing the original momentum of his attack, you will continue to lead him
upward as you turn toward him, making room between both your bodies for your next
step which you will take across in front of him with your left foot. At the same time
you will turn your hips to your right, and slide under his extended arms. Withdrawing
your right leg, you will drop to the mat on your right knee facing in his direction. You
will shift your body beneath him, parallel to his left side, leading his arms into a
circular pattern which will descend smoothly in front of him. A slight "flipping"
motion of your hand close to the ground will help uke to perform the somersault which
will send him rolling away from you across the mat.
 PROJECTION NO. 13 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 4
As uke grabs both your wrists, you will swing your arms to your right side and
whirl them around and up in a circle flowing continuously over your head and then
down to the mat in an uninterrupted flow of circular motion. At the moment when the
circle has reached its apex over both your heads you will turn your hips to your left
and step across in front of uke with your right foot, as illustrated. You will keep
turning your hips to the left until the left side of your body faces his right side in
diagonal forward. Then you will sink down with your whole body, withdraw your left
leg, and sink to the mat on your left knee as you lead uke over and down, your hands
having grasped his wrists at the moment when the circle passed over both your heads.
The final movement will be the slight "flipping" motion which will help launch him
into an aiki somersault.

PROJECTION NO. 13 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 7

As your wrists are grasped from behind, you will sink low, bringing your Centre
close to the ground and leading the motion of uke out, frontally and up over your head
with either a perpendicular or a diagonal leading extension. Withdrawing your right
leg, you will drop to the mat, bringing your right knee close to his left foot a little to
the outside. At the same time you will describe a large arc with your hands, arm and
body, leading uke into a frontal somersault. (If necessary you may grasp his right wrist
with your left hand and/or his left wrist with your right hand when your first extension
brings them up over your head.)
PROJECTION NO. 14 General Remarks
Projection no. 14 was specifically devised to cope with an attack from behind
which consists of a body-hold intended to pin your arms to your sides. The hold may
be applied quite high—on your upper arm (attack no. 11), or lower down—at the
elbows (attack no. 12).
The central idea of this projection is to use the original momentum of uke as he
seeks to establish his hold. It is in order to extend him forward into unbalance before
"flicking him off" with a powerful turning of your hips.
You will move forward, therefore, at the same speed at which he is moving—not
faster, or you will lose him. You will slide one foot forward and extend your arms in
response to attack no. 11, or your whole body in response to attack no. 12, ahead and
down. Once your arms have been extended thusly, you will turn your hips sharply
sideways and your whole upper body, almost with a recoil action, will fling uke off to
your diagonal front corner or straight ahead if your extension is very low and his
momentum considerable.

PROJECTION NO. 14 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 11

As the arms of uke are encircling your upper body over your arms and
establishing their hold around you, you will extend both your arms diagonally forward
and slide your right foot ahead, stretching your left leg out behind. Moving with you,
uke will be brought into a condition of unbalance. At that moment you will turn your
hips, swinging your arms out and bending your right knee as you lead his extended
right arm under his left arm and against the left side of his body. Your right hand will
plunge down toward the ground, and your left arm will rise up in a coordinated
movement. The whole motion will have the effect of flicking uke over to your right
diagonal side or straight in front of you. The synchronization of your motion with his
attack is essential if this throw is to be successful.
 PROJECTION NO. 14 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 12
As his arms are establishing their circular hold around your body, clamping your
elbows against your sides, you will grasp his wrists or forearms in order to paralyze
him completely and execute the movement explained in the previous example. You
will slide your right foot forward, bending your knee and extending your whole body
in the same direction before turning your hips sharply to your right side and flicking
uke off over to your frontal corner. Be sure to release his arms at the moment when
you turn your hip so that he will be able to roll safely away.
PROJECTION NO. 15
General Remarks
Projection no. 15 is also one which was specifically devised to neutralize a hold
on your upper body and/or neck from behind. It consists of a simple deep bow
forward, which, if perfectly coordinated with the forward motion of uke, will be more
than sufficient to lead him over into the circular pattern of a frontal somersault.
Very often, however, your timing may be a bit off and uke may be able to
complete his hold, thus settling himself in a condition of balance behind you. In that
case it will be necessary for you to lower your Centre beneath uke by bending your
knees. Thus you are re-establishing that condition of slight frontal unbalance over your
lowered body which is necessary for the proper execution of this throw.

PROJECTION NO. 15 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 10

As the right arm of uke encircles your neck from behind—his forearm across
your throat—you will lower your chin in order to prevent a full strangulation, and
grasp his forearm with both your hands. Then you will perform a deep forward bow
and allow uke to fly over you and down to the mat. In many cases, a few circular
forward steps before the bow will increase the momentum of his attack, and greatly
facilitate the execution of this projection.
PROJECTION NO. 16
General Remarks
Projection no. 16 consists of a vertical pivot performed on the spot, thus
reversing the line of attack of uke so that it will flow circularly back to him. Included
here are four practical applications of this projection.

PROJECTION NO. 16 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 7

As your wrists are grabbed from behind by uke, you will extend your left arm
straight down in order to establish the center around which the entire action will
rotate. You will pivot on your left foot to your left side, stepping circularly around to
his left-rear side, while your right hand leads his right arm into a circular, frontal
extension—up and then down to his rear, passing over his head. You will bring him
down to the mat on his back, extending both your arms out and down as illustrated, and
lowering your Centre on legs well bent and feet kept apart. At the moment when you
are pivoting to his left-rear side, your right hand will be leading his right arm over his
head and will cross his wrist which you may grasp if necessary.
 PROJECTION NO. 16 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 16
As uke grabs your right wrist from behind with his right hand and slips his left
arm around your neck, cutting across your throat with his left forearm, you will lower
your chin, extend your right arm out diagonally, and grasp his left sleeve above the
elbow with your left hand. Thus you establish the fulcrum of rotation for the whole
action. You will pivot on your left foot to your left side, stepping circularly around
with your right foot and setting it down on his left-rear side. You will lead his right
arm in a circle which'will return back to his rear, straight down passing over his head,
while your left hand leads his left arm down—pinning his weight on his left leg. You
will snap your arms open as if you were tying a large knot, and allow him to fall,
unbalanced, to his rear. You may stay on his left side, or if the dynamics of the attack
so warrant, you may whirl around him in a single displacement which will bring you
to his right side.
 PROJECTION NO. 16 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 17
First Example
As uke is delivering a circular blow to your head with his left hand after having
secured a hold upon your left lapel with his right hand, you will withdraw you right
foot circularly to your rear while extending your right arm to parry the blow and
dissipate its force around you. Your right hand will then slide under his left elbow and
lead his arm in a circle upward, while your body spins on your right foot to your left
side and your right leg slides as illustrated, almost to his right side, and you sink to
your left knee. The "windmill" action of your arms will guide uke down to the mat.
Remember to release his wrist a moment before he hits the mat so that he will be able
to roll away safely.
Second Example
A s uke grabs your right shoulder or lapel with his left hand and is about to
deliver a circular blow to the left side of your head with his right hand, you will step
circularly with your right foot in diagonal forward. You will pivot on that foot,
swinging your left leg circularly to your left-rear side, and your right arm (which will
feign a blow to his head) will swing along and then under his right arm as it is in flight
toward its spinning target. You will extend him out to his right diagonal side, leading
his arm up toward his head while your left arm encircles his left arm as illustrated.
Both your arms will slide around his twisted arms and join hands on his biceps. You
will continue pivoting to your left side, spinning uke around and up, reversing his
motion as illustrated (whipping your hips to your right side and stepping to his rear
with your right leg). Finally, you will steer his arms, spinning his unbalanced body
down and away from you.
PROJECTION NO. 17
General Remarks
 An interesting, more technically complex action of defense against a hold from
behind, is represented by projection no. 17, which is described in relation to the
aggressive combination it is usually called upon to neutralize.

PROJECTION NO. 17 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 16

Uke grabs your left wrist from behind, with his left hand and slides his right
forearm across your throat in order to choke you. You will lower your chin, extend
your left hand and lead his left arm out and up, contacting his right arm with your right
hand, and taking a lateral step to your left-rear side. You will turn your hips toward
him. Then, you grasp his right wrist with your right hand after sliding your head out of
his hold. You will bring his left arm down and lock both his arms together at the
elbows as illustrated. Then you will lead his left arm down and guide his right arm
forward, taking a step forward with your right leg. This will bring him into a twisted
condition of unbalance with his paralyzed arms functioning as the center of a wheel
around which his body will spin in a somersault. You will release his wrists as he is
about to whirl away from you across the mat. Caution should be exercised when
locking his elbows together. They should be "wrapped" naturally one around the other,
rather than set one against the other—gyaku.
PROJECTION NO. 18
General Remarks
This projection, throughout its various applications against a wide variety of
attacks, demonstrates how it is possible to clearly lead an aggressor's force of attack
converging upon you, back to him. It is often referred to as the "scarf," because its
characteristic feature is that of wrapping one of your opponent's arms around his own
neck, thus causing him to rotate vertically around his own spinal axis.
In the application of this technique, the principle of centralization is particularly
evident, i.e., in the opponent's spin and in your own displacement which will begin
around him (while his arm is being wrapped around his neck), resulting in his
displacement and projection around you (when that encircling or "wrapping" motion
has been completed and he is led downward in an ample arc toward the mat).
 PROJECTION NO. 18 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 6
As uke is establishing his hold on your upper body, you will take a long step to
your rear with your left foot, feigning a blow to his face in order to extend his arms
out. Your right hand will then slide along his right arm to grasp his wrist, detaching its
hold upon your shoulder with a single movement, and bending low as illustrated.
Taking a large, circular step to his left side and bringing his head to rest against your
shoulder, you will wrap his right arm around his neck and pivot on your right foot.
You will then withdraw I your left leg circularly behind, leading him down) to the
mat.
 PROJECTION NO. 18 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 7
As uke grabs your wrists from behind, you will lead his motion forward as in
basic exercise no. 17 and, spinning on your right foot, withdraw your left leg. This
pivot will bring you around to face uke. You will grasp his left wrist with your left
hand. Leading it circularly to your left side, across his body, and around his neck (as if
it were a scarf) you will step with your left foot to your left side as your right hand
swings around to clasp his head against your left shoulder. You will pivot on your left
foot and sweep your right foot in a large circle to your right-rear side, spinning uke
around you by the combined action of your right arm—holding his head against your
spinning body, and your left arm—circling from high above to descend, rearward and
down. The success of this projection will depend almost entirely upon the dynamic
momentum created by: (1) your first step close to his body on his right side with your
left foot; and (2) the powerful spin of your whole body, accentuated by the large
sweep of your right leg whirling circularly behind you.
 PROJECTION NO. 18 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 14
As uke delivers a circular blow to your head, you will take a long step with your
right leg inside the line of his motion. Simultaneously parrying the blow from inside
with your left arm, you will lead his arm down into your right hand which is waiting
below. Grasping his right wrist, you will lead it in a circle downward and then up
around his head. Taking a long step with your right foot frontally across to his left side
and around him, you will secure his head against your right shoulder. Now you will
withdraw your left foot circularly behind you (on your left side) and spin him in the
air. Both your arms will extend him up and then down, while your hips turn to the left
side. Your right foot may slide along in the direction of his fall if necessary.
PROJECTION NO. 19
General Remarks
Another method of neutralizing a large series of basic attacks is provided by
projection no. 19, in which you will respond to an aggressive dimension above by
establishing a contrary defensive dimension below. It is always in agreement,
however, with the requirements of dynamic uniformity, centralization, and extension
which are common to all the techniques of neutralization in the aikido repertoire.
Of the many attacks that may be neutralized by projection no. 19, we have chosen
attack no. 6 since it is the one most commonly taught and practiced in aikido dojo.

PROJECTION NO. 19 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 6

As uke reaches out to grab your shoulders or lapels, you will take a step with
your right foot, describing a large circle as you lead him out and around on his right
side. Then you will withdraw your left leg circularly to your left-rear side and swing
your right arm between his extended arms.-You will feign a blow to his face, still
maintaining your pivoting motion to your left side. Then you will sink down under his
circular line of motion on your left knee. Hook his right ankle with your left hand as
your right forearm cuts across his leg from the inside in the same direction as his
original motion (which will also be the same direction in which his knee will bend,
naturally). Finally, you will cut him down circularly to your left side, and as he falls to
his right-rear side you will rise from your kneeling position.
 PROJECTION NO. 20
General Remarks
Another "spinning" technique typical of the aikido repertoire is projection no. 20
which is usually performed in defense against a low blow, but may be applied with
appropriate dynamic adaptations of evasion, extension, and centralization to neutralize
a variety of basic attacks.

PROJECTION NO. 20 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 17

Uke, having grabbed your left shoulder or lapel with his right hand, is delivering
a straight or circular blow to your solar plexus or lower abdomen. You will turn your
hips to the right, stepping in the same direction with your left foot. You will pivot on
that foot, withdraw your right leg circularly to your right-rear side, and allowing your
left arm to drop naturally onto his extended left arm, swing it down to your left side.
As he is unbalanced and twisted to his right side, you will slide or leap in with your
right foot to his left-rear side, and hook his head with your right hand as explained in
projection no. 1 (kokyu nage). You will then pivot on your right foot. Grasping his left
wrist and holding his head down, you will spin him around you in an orbit, and fling
him off in diagonal forward, guiding his left arm up in order to allow him to roll down
and over onto the mat.
PROJECTION NO. 21
General Remarks
Projection no. 21, performed as a training exercise, is one of the best methods for
developing your powers of perception, your sense of timing, and your coordination
since its main characteristic will be your circular motion leading the force of an attack
back to itself from above.
In order to achieve this reversal, you must rely almost entirely upon your past
experience which will serve to alert you to the exact direction from which the attack is
being launched, its speed, angle of inclination, etc. It has, however, as you will see in
the examples which follow, a practical aspect which makes it one of the most
powerful defensive actions in the aikido arsenal.
Projection no. 21 is usually practiced against a total attack such as no. 3, which
has been chosen to illustrate how the neutralization may be achieved.
This projection may be practiced in one of two ways: leading only or leading and
feigning a blow.
PROJECTION NO. 21 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 3
First Example (leading only)
STATIC. You will allow uke to establish a hold on your right wrist with both his
hands. Then you will take a step to his right side with your left foot, and pivoting on
that foot turn your hips to your right; facing his right side. You will extend your right
arm down in front of him and lead his arms up again in a circle passing over his head
and plunging down to the mat. You will continue to pivot behind him and complete the
projection as illustrated, or pass to his left side with a single whirling motion. Your
left hand will either grasp his collar in order to bring him down when he arches back,
or lightly touch the back of his neck in order to channel his consciousness up. Thus you
further increase his vertical extension and also his condition of dynamic unbalance to
the rear.
 DYNAMIC. As uke reaches out to grasp your right wrist or to hit you, you will
guide his hands down in front of him and then up, stepping to his side and pivoting as
explained in the previous description. At the same time you will bring your right hand
straight down to his rear.
The difference between this dynamic form of the technique and the static
performance previously described lies in the fact that in the former, uke will not have
a chance to grab your wrist. Even if he has, he will not have time to grip that wrist
tightly in full control. You will be moving your wrist, for example, in front of his
hands and ahead of his motion, at approximately the same speed (not too fast or he
will lose you and you will lose him; not too slow or he will be able to grasp your
wrist firmly). This is a peculiar, tantalizing form of motion which makes a target
appear to be so near and accessible at the very moment when that target is receding
and drawing uke out into uncontrolled extension before he realizes what has happened.
 In case he has already contacted your wrist, it will still be possible to lead him
out into unbalanced extension, because "contact" does not mean "hold." A hold
requires a few moments to become stabilized and thus transform a motion forward
(reaching and contacting the target) into a punch (actually hitting that target), or a hold
(tightening or securing control over the target). But a hold—if it is to be secure—
requires some form of stability or balance. Providing you have moved in full
coordination with the motion of his hands closing around your wrists, he will not have
this balance because you will be fading away, and he will be stretching forward. His
power will still be flowing out toward a target he cannot grasp and cannot stop.
Finally, when your right hand has completed the circular pattern of extension to
his rear, you may then contact his forehead, bringing him down to the mat (your left
hand on his neck as you do so).

Second Example (leading and feigning a blow)

Finally, a formidable and practical way of coping with a real aggression by
applying the principle of dynamic extension and reversal typical of projection no. 21
is illustrated in this sequence. This method, however, is usually taught at a rather
advanced stage of aikido practice, because the coordination required for its
application and its intrinsic dangers are greater than in the method explained
previously.
As uke rushes at you in any form of basic attack (provided he is totally committed
to that attack) you will slide quickly to his right side and bring your right hand or fist
up and sharply back, feigning a blow to his face. In the illustrated example, your right
hand will lead uke forward, without touching him, and spread suddenly out from
above before his eyes. If your coordination is correct he will arch back on the spot,
landing on the mat at your feet. You will usually remain at his side in a condition of
centralized balance.
PROJECTION NO. 22
General Remarks
Projection no. 22 in its two main variations—irimi and tenkan—is a leading
technique particularly suitable to the neutralization of a series of holds, but also
applicable to the neutralization of many blows once you have established your own
leading hold on uke.
It is widely practiced in aikido dojo because the two main features of all
techniques of neutralization—centralization and extension—are so clearly apparent in
its execution as to make projection no. 22 one of the best exercises for acquiring a
familiarity with the dynamics of those techniques, as well as with their inter-
relationship.
 PROJECTION NO. 22 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 1
Irimi. As uke grabs your right wrist with his left hand, you will extend your arm
out to your right side as illustrated, feigning a blow to his face as you step in with your
right foot. Then you will take another step with your left foot, and pivoting on both
legs, turn your hips to your right, so that you are facing in the same direction as uke.
You will lead his arm into a circular extension either frontally and down, or around
you and down. In the first example, you will slide your right foot straight forward,
sinking low and extending your whole body behind the forward motion. In the second,
you will withdraw your left foot circularly on your left side. Do not pull your hand out
of his grip. The idea is to accompany him into a forward extension, unbalance, and
projection downward, with you leading the action to its completion.
Tenkan. As uke grabs your left wrist with his right hand, instead of stepping in
and ahead under his arm, you will pivot directly on your left foot, turning your hips to
your right side and withdrawing your right foot. Then you will lead his right arm up
and by extending your whole body, project him down and away, or to your diagonal
right side.
PROJECTION NO. 23
General Remarks
A powerful projection devised to cope with an almost infinite variety of possible
attacks is projection no. 23 (hip-pull). The central movement of your hips will
generate a tremendous pull which will be remarkably effective, even when performed
from a standstill. It is absolutely devastating in its effect upon uke or those he may hit,
if the intense dynamic momentum of your pull is blended and coordinated with his
motion of attack.
The movement of your hips followed by the snapping motion of your upper trunk
and arms will resemble the recoiling of a whip—the lower abdomen acting as the
handle. You will pull your hips back first to your rear, leaving your upper trunk and
arms where they are for the moment and then taking a long step backward.
Finally, by either kneeling down or turning slightly, you will whip your upper
trunk and arms in the same direction as your hips, the direction in which you will be
throwing uke.
This projection may be performed efficiently against almost any type of attack—a
hold or a blow from the front or from behind. It is, however, usually practiced in one
of the two ways illustrated against attack no. 4: with your partner holding your wrists
until the end of the technique, or with you grasping one of his hands or both at the
moment you begin your hip-pull motion.
Naturally, against other types of attack—especially holds from behind—you will
evade them first and then, grasping his wrists in the process, establish your own
position of centralization for the effective displacement of your Centre and completion
of projection no. 23.
PROJECTION NO. 23 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 4
STATIC. When performed as an exercise, uke will hold both your wrists and settle
himself well, in order to offer some resistance to your action, and to test the muscular
relaxation of your arms. You will forget about his hold and allow your arms to remain
relaxed in his grip. You will concentrate on your Centre and swing your hips back,
taking a step with your left foot in the same direction as illustrated. Then you will
whip your body up and to your left side, snapping your arms up at the same time. Your
right hand will grasp his extended right wrist. The pull will sweep your partner's feet
from the mat and your circular lead on his right wrist, frontally and then down, will
spin his body in the air, and land him flat on his back on the mat or send him rolling
away along its surface. You will release his wrist as he sails through the air, thus
allowing him to assume the correct, round posture for the aikido somersault or roll-
out. The circular turning of your hips to your left side will have the effect of removing
your body from the path of his spinning motion and of centralizing the entire action.
DYNAMIC. As uke reaches out to grab your arms or wrists, you will swing your hips
back grasping his extended arms or wrists, and send him spinning through the air as
explained in the previous example.
PROJECTIONS NOS. 24, 25, AND 26
General Remarks
Other examples of an aggressive convergence of forces which will be evaded
and led into a dispersive circuit of projection around you, are offered by projections
nos. 24, 25, and 26. In the first of these, the dispersion will pass centrifugally over you
(from one side to the other). In the second technique, that force will be redirected in
the original direction after a turn around you which hinges upon the opponent's
outstretched arm. In the third example, the dispersion will again pass over you as in
the first technique, but this time from behind.

PROJECTION NO. 24 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 4

A s uke reaches forward to grab your wrists or arms, you will pull your hips
back, taking a long step in the same direction with your left foot and lifting his arms up
over your head. Taking another step to your right-rear side with your right foot, you
will kneel down sliding under his body as it whirls by. Finally, you will swing your
arms in an arc down to your rear, and then spin uke over frontally on his left diagonal
side. (By kneeling down, you will remove your body from the path of his motion, i.e.,
you will slide under the orbital line of his displacement and—kneeling as illustrated
—you will be slightly to the side, which is a necessary condition if you are to spin uke
over in diagonal frontally from your position of operational centralization.)
 PROJECTION NO. 25 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 15
As uke delivers a low blow to your abdomen, you will take a long step with your
left foot to his right side, and spinning on that foot, you will withdraw your right leg
behind you in a circle. Simultaneously your right hand will drop onto his extended
right wrist and your left hand will grasp him as illustrated. Keeping his arm fully
extended, you will lead him out and project him down onto the mat, continuing your
follow-through motion as he rolls away from you. (The success of this projection will
depend mainly upon the extension of his arm which will become the fulcrum of
rotation of the whole action.)
 PROJECTION NO. 26 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 9
Projection no. 26—known as a "body lead"—can be most dynamic and powerful
if you increase the momentum of the motion of attack of uke by moving circularly
ahead of him. As he touches your upper body, you will extend your arms diagonally
out to your sides and move around in a large circle returning behind him. You will not
"run away" or pull out of his grasp. As always, you will lead him into a circular
pattern of extension and unbalance before sinking down so as to be able to lead that
pattern to the mat and project uke over in a frontal somersault.
 PROJECTION NO. 26 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 17
Uke, having grabbed your left lapel with his right hand, delivers a blow with his
left hand to your face; you will spin on your left foot and withdraw your right leg
circularly to your rear. As he spins in full extension around you, take another step with
your left foot inside his line of motion, which you will then lead down onto the mat
either by bowing deeply forward from a standing position, or by dropping to your
knees as illustrated.
PROJECTION NO. 27
General Remarks
 Sometimes referred to as the "double whirl," projection no. 27 consists of a
spinning movement followed by a second spin. It can be particularly effective against
holds from behind in confined quarters, or when surrounded by several opponents.

PROJECTION NO. 27 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 9

As uke grabs you from behind, you will extend your arms and slide your right
foot out to your right, spinning on your left foot and bending low as you pass beneath
his arms. Rising up on his right side, you will bend your knees and describe a second
circle as illustrated. Rising up at the completion of this second circle, you will be
close to his left side, your left hand extended up and over his head; your right hand is
braced against his lower back, causing him to arch over and back toward the mat.
Continuing your semi-circular sweep over and down, you will bring him to the mat.
PROJECTION NO. 28
General Remarks
Among the many techniques of aikido, projection no. 28 would seem to be one of
the simplest and most effective ways of neutralizing almost any form of attack
launched against you, whether by one or more opponents. Yet, it is one of the most
sophisticated examples of that centralization coordinated with an opponent's
movement of attack, which is the focal point of all the techniques. In projection no. 28,
however, combat is shifted from the vertical dimension to the horizontal, suddenly and
in full commitment, before the opponent realizes what is happening and can adapt his
attack to the new combat circumstances. Projection no. 28, therefore, rests upon an
accurate estimation of the opponent's commitment to a real attack—an essential factor
in the successful employment of this technique.

PROJECTION NO. 28 AGAINST ANY ATTACK

As uke moves in from the front or from behind in order to either grasp or hit you
in any form of basic attack, you will slide in under him or lead him out with a few
circular steps in order to increase the momentum of his initial motion of attack. Then
you will sink down deeply, under uke as if you were a huge stone suddenly thrown in
his path. You rise up behind him, after he has soared up and over you in the somersault
necessitated by the unexpectedness of your maneuver and by his own dynamic
commitment to the attack.
 Combinations
The various techniques examined up to this point are usually practiced with
strong initial concentration upon their particular mechanisms or forms, i.e., the
individual, pre-programmed movements which distinguish one technique from another.
As you become more familiar with many of the basic aikido techniques and your
performance of them becomes ever more fluid and eventually instinctive, you may
begin to practice the combination of these techniques—an intermediate step between
the study of individual basic techniques and the advanced practice. Quite obviously,
this method of combining various techniques will test and help to develop your
coordination in a more comprehensive dimension as you begin—tentatively at first—
to work toward going beyond technique. Flowing from one technique into another,
your movements and actions should appear more and more to be natural responses to
the particular form and dynamic outlines of any attack without any interruption in the
continuity of your performance.
These combinations (used here to neutralize a single attack) will usually feature
an immobilization followed smoothly by a second, different immobilization; or an
immobilization closely followed by a projection; or a projection seconded by an
immobilization. The number of possible combinations, even if limited to the basic
techniques of neutralization examined up to this point, is staggering. It is sufficient to
observe that immobilization no. 1, for example, can be transformed into or combined
with almost any other technique (whether immobilization or projection) in the aikido
repertoire. And this can be applied equally to almost all the others.
Illustrated below, however, are four examples of combinations typical of those
practiced in many aikido dojo.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 1 AND IMMOBILIZATION NO. 3
AGAINST ATTACK NO. 16

As uke blocks your right arm with his right arm from behind and encircles your
throat with his left forearm, you will lower your chin to prevent completion of the
strangulation, and grasping his left wrist with your free left hand, step to your left side
with your left foot, turning your hips toward him. Withdrawing your right leg deep
behind you to his left-rear corner, you will kneel down in order to weaken his balance
and thus his power. You will withdraw your right arm from his now weakened hold
and set your right hand inside and underneath his elbow, establishing the hold for
basic immobilization no. 1. Rising up, you will step behind uke with your right foot
and spin him around in the tenkan variation of that technique. You will release the
leading hold of your right hand on his elbow as he completes a circle around you
without releasing the hold of your left hand upon his extended left wrist. As he spins
around you, you will glide under his captured and extended left arm, your left foot
leading. Meanwhile, your right hand joins your left on his left hand and establishes the
hold for basic immobilization no. 3 which you will complete as illustrated, rising up
at his side.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 3 AND PROJECTION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 16

As uke grabs your left wrist with his left hand from behind while attempting to
choke you with his right forearm, you will lower your chin to prevent completion of
the strangulation. Extending your captured left arm, secure a hold with your free left
hand upon his left hand. With both arms extended, you will lead his arm up in front of
you while sliding your left foot laterally to make room for the withdrawal of your right
leg. This second step will permit you to slide under his captured left arm and bring
your body into the desired position of centralization—the left side of uke completely
extended. You will bring his left hand down in front of you, controlled by
immobilization no. 3 as illustrated. Without interrupting this downward motion,
proceed to apply projection no. 3 setting your left hand upon his neck or head and
bring his left arm up again from behind as you withdraw your left foot circularly and
launch him away from you.
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 4 AND PROJECTION NO. 13 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 4

As uke grabs both your wrists, you will take a long circular step to your right-
rear side, pivoting on your left foot and withdrawing your right foot. Leading his left
arm up with your right arm, you will establish immobilization no. 4 on his left forearm
as illustrated. Still leading him around you, you will bring your right foot back to your
left side and spin on it, withdrawing your left leg and kneeling down on your left knee.
This will clear the way for projection no. 13 and his frontal somersault.
 PROJECTION NO. 26 AND IMMOBILIZATION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK
NO. 5
As uke grabs your left lapel with his right hand, you will withdraw your left foot
in an ample circle behind you, feigning a blow to his face with the right hand in order
to extend him out and unbalance him. Spinning on your left foot, you will withdraw
your right foot in a tenkan movement of leading control to your right-rear side, thus
guiding him out and around you. A second tenkan movement to your left side this time
(spinning on your right foot and withdrawing your left foot circularly behind you), will
be followed by a deep bow toward the mat, bringing uke down. As he falls you will
grasp his right hand (holding your lapel) with your left hand and proceed to apply
immobilization no. 3 in any one of its possible variations.
 CHAPTER IX
Advanced Practice

ONCE you have become familiar with the basic aikido techniques, your instructor will
gradually begin to introduce you to what we call the "advanced practice" of the art.
This will usually include: "mat" or kneeling aikido (suwari waza); the stave exercises
(jo or bo waza and jo kata); the techniques of neutralization applied against a multiple
attack; and free style (randori).
At this level of the art you will be able to test and develop your centralization
and your extension of Inner Energy, since individual technical movements will not be
as important in these forms as will be a total approach and response to any attack, i.e.,
the degree of unified and coordinated fusion of the powers of mind and body which
you have achieved. It is at these higher levels of the art that aikido begins to emerge
quite clearly as a discipline of coordination, with dominant emphasis upon a unified
and harmonized personality. Knowing how to perform particular techniques will not
be sufficient. You must move and respond in a smooth, flowing, characteristically
aikido manner which will become more natural and constant as you continue your
practice of the art.

"Mat" or Kneeling Aikido

Almost all aikido techniques can be, and often are, performed from or in a
kneeling position. This form of practice is especially useful for developing your
centralization and extension while testing your balance. At first you may find it
extremely difficult even to move about on your knees, much less perform any
particular techniques, but regular practice of what is often called "samurai walk" (see
"Motion" section which, follows) will help you to feel more comfortable in this
kneeling position until you find that you can move about quite freely, and eventually
perform various techniques in or from that position with a surging power that seems to
come from the very earth itself.
This type of aikido has been derived from ancient samurai practices and much of
the suwari waza performed in aikido dojo today is directly traceable to the Japanese
feudal forms of fighting—whether with sword or dagger, or even unarmed—in a
kneeling position.
The ancient Japanese reality was closely identified with the ground or the earth.
Formal attendance upon the emperor at court or waiting upon a daimyo required a
court attendant or samurai to remain for hours in an erect kneeling position, but always
ready to move quickly and fluidly if and when necessary. Even meals and informal
social occasions usually found them on their knees. From this heritage, the Japanese
have derived an almost instinctive and continuing identification with the ground,
which is reflected in their religions and preserved in most of their martial arts in
certain formal exercises, or kata.
MOTION. The exercise popularly known as "samurai walk" begins from a left
hammi position on your knees. You will step up on the ball of your left foot, keeping
your trunk straight as you let your weight descend onto your left knee, pivoting on that
knee and bringing your feet together as indicated. You will thus have described a half-
circle as you moved along the mat. Your second step will be up on the ball of your
right foot, right knee up. As your weight descends onto that knee you will pivot on it,
swinging your feet together as indicated, and describing another semi-circle as you
move ahead. It is imperative that you keep your shoulders down and concentrate upon
being and remaining centralized.
In another extension of this type of practice, you will actually perform even the
most difficult exercises—such as basic exercise no. 9 for example—on your knees,
following the general outline provided in the section on the basic exercises, with the
necessary adaptations to the kneeling position. Here, you will have to "move from the
hips" if you are to move at all. And, of course, both your centralization and extension
will be much improved by regular practice of the exercises from or in this position.
 TECHNIQUES. By applying the basic principles of the samurai walk in
combination with the various ways of applying the basic techniques or forms which
have been outlined in Chapter VIII, almost all aikido techniques can be performed
suwari waza style.
In the following sequences, we have endeavored to provide representative
examples of this interesting form of aikido practice which you will observe advanced
students of the art practicing in dojo all over the world.

IMMOBILIZATION NO. 1 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13

IMMOBILIZATION NO. 2 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13
IMMOBILIZATION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13

IMMOBILIZATION NO. 4 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 13

IMMOBILIZATION NO. 5 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 14
 IMMOBILIZATION NO. 6 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 1

(This technique is performed from a position called hammi hantachi—w ith uke
standing and nage kneeling.)

PROJECTION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 1

PROJECTION NO. 3 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 15

 PROJECTION NO. 7 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 5

PROJECTION NO. 23 AGAINST ATTACK NO. 4

Various Opening Motions of Centralization

The first sequence which follows illustrates an opening motion of evasion,
centralization, and extension against attack no. 1. The second sequence shows a
motion of evasion, centralization, and extension against attack no. 5 which can then be
concluded with basic techniques of immobilizations nos. 1, 2, and 3, as well as no. 4;
or with a number of basic techniques of projection such as nos. 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and so on.
 The Stave Exercises
The derivation of aikido from the ancient arts of the spear and the sword is
particularly evident in the practice of a complex set of exercises based on the jo (or
bo)—the stave which was used in the ancient schools of martial arts as a substitute for
the long sword and the short spear, together with the hasshaku-bo and the rokushaku-
bo for the long spear and the halberd, and the hambo and tambo for the short sword
and the dagger.
The jo is used in aikido in many ways: as a visible extension of your personality,
as a weapon to be neutralized, or as an instrument of coordination.
Jo-zvaza for Centralized Extension
Using the jo, you may perform a number of basic aikido techniques by having uke
grasp the other end of the stave and leading his motion/action just as you would if he
had grasped your wrist(s).
This is a particularly useful way of testing your extension which must be
projected all the way out to the very end of the J0, as well as developing the "total
body movement" which will make the correct performance of the techniques possible.
The first sequence on page 336 shows immobilization no. 6 against attack no. 3,
performed in the irimi variation, and the second sequence above shows projection no.
21 used to neutralize the same attack—both employing the jo as the physical
instrument of leading control through which your centralized energy will flow outward
and into the circular patterns of neutralization.
Jo-waza for Defense
The stave may be employed by uke as a weapon of attack which you will be
required to neutralize with an appropriate basic technique. Such a neutralization of a
direct, low thrust (attack no. 15) may be achieved in various ways.
Projection no. 22, illustrated in the first sequence, and immobilization no. 6 in the
second, are two examples selected from the many techniques which you may employ
to neutralize this type of attack.
Jo kata for Total Coordination
From the many sword and spear cuts and thrusts developed and perfected by the
samurai during Japan's feudal period, certain movements were combined and
practiced in the slow, stylistically controlled manner of the kata, or formal exercises,
employing the stave. One such kata—regularly practiced in aikido dojo (either alone
or with a partner)—consists of a series of 22 programmed movements which are
illustrated here.
It is extremely difficult to portray these movements individually, since they flow
into one another in actual practice. It is also almost impossible to indicate the stepping
ahead, the pivoting, and the reverse stepping as they are performed on the mat. To do
justice to this kind of exercise, you would have to see it performed "live" or else on
film. We have, however, outlined these 22 movements here, because of their
importance to the "advanced practice" with certain precautions:
First of all, the sliding, "entering" extension of the first movement (and all those
which are repetitions of the first movement) does not involve a straight stepping in, but
is, instead, an ever-so-slightly circular "entering" (in the illustrations it is being
portrayed on the left side).
Your left foot will slide forward semi-circularly to the left side; your right foot
swings behind it. You will return to your original position and perform the second
movement which is a repetition of the first. When you perform the third and fourth
movements (and the seventh and eighth, which are repetitions of the third and fourth),
you must take a large sliding step to the side (first to the right in the third movement
and then to the left in the fourth movement), describing an ample semi-circle and
bringing your other foot around to join your stepping foot.
Each one of these stave forms will require you to move along the mat. You will
never just stand in one spot and swing your jo around. You will be sliding forward,
you will be pivoting, and you will be reversing or retracing your steps, but you will
always be moving.
In the passage from one form to another, the stave will whirl upon a central axis
provided by your hand/arm (which, of course, is an extension of your centralized
body) tracing in the air—the circuits of that Dynamic Sphere which is at the very heart
of the kata itself.
 The Techniques of Neutralization Applied
Against an Armed Attack
An especially demanding form of practice, one which will test the functional
power of your centralization and relaxed extension in a particular way, is the
application of the basic techniques of neutralization against armed attacks.
As was noted previously, the neutralization of this type of attack will not differ in
a functionally substantial manner from the neutralization of a similar, unarmed one,
i.e., the aikido technique employed in either case (armed or unarmed), will be
basically the same.
AGAINST KNIFE

In the sequences above and on the opposite page you will see a knife attack from
behind, a knife attack from the front at the throat, and a knife thrust at the stomach—all
neutralized by immobilization no. 7.
In each and every one of these examples, the centralized spin which disperses the
dangerous concentration of that attack tangentially, the extension of motion, and the
centrifugal lead around you and then down, will be the most important functional
characteristics of your defensive strategy (see Chapter V, the principles of
centralization, extension, leading control, and sphericity). They will help to insure the
necessary speed and efficiency of the immobilization applied.
 Two other examples of armed attack using a knife—one neutralized through
immobilization no. 3 and the other by an arm lock belonging to the advanced technical
stages of aikido practice—are illustrated in the sequences which follow.
 As we have observed in the general remarks to immobilization no. 5, this basic
technique may also be employed to neutralize circular attacks with a knife or sword.
In this example, the knife is taken away from uke once he has been brought down to the
mat with the irimi or tenkan variation of immobilization no. 5.
AGAINST SWORD

The sword is also used in an attack that must be neutralized aiki style. Almost
every aikido dojo has at least one traditional bokken (the wooden sword used today
for training purposes and once used by the samurai in relatively bloodless contests of
fencing skills).
In the first sequence a straight cut to the head (attack no. 13) is neutralized by
projection no. 1, completed through an arm lock; while in the second sequence, a
circular cut to the upper part of the body (attack no. 14) is neutralized through
immobilization no. 6.
AGAINST CLUB

Techniques of neutralization against attacks with a club are part of the training
program in most aikido dojo. Two examples have been included (see "The Stave
Exercises").
 The Techniques of Neutralization Applied
Against a Multiple Attack
The development of your inner centralization and outer extension will be tested
in the performance of techniques of neutralization applied against a multiple attack,
i.e., one involving two or more men. These techniques may be performed in two basic
ways: either statically with your partners' holds already established, or dynamically,
at the moment when they are about to converge upon you. A number of examples
follow to describe the static method; the dynamic method will be shown through free
style (randori).
The static method of defense against a multiple attack is a means of familiarizing
yourself with the inevitably greater number of impressions and increased range of
resistance which will flow from the various aggressive personalities surrounding you.
The constancy of your inner independence from the distractions of such a forbidding
reality and the continuity of your extension of centralized energy must, consequently,
be superior in quality, depth, and range.
A defense against multiple attack performed statically will usually involve one
more of the basic techniques of neutralization examined in Chapter VIII. The same
technique may be applied against two uke, or two basic techniques may be combined.
In the first example here, arms of both uke are brought into alignment through a
powerful hip-pull (projection no. 23), and then immobilization no. 6 (irimi variation)
is applied against both men at the same time, keeping their arms entwined.
In the second example, both uke will be dynamically displaced through a forward
motion, followed by the deep plunge to the mat of projection no. 22.
 In the third example, a powerful surge forward will set both uke in motion,
followed by another deep plunge, ending in the double spiral of projection no. 18,
which will spin both uke in opposite directions and bring them down to the mat at your
feet.
In the fourth example, you will detect the initial leading plunge of immobilization
no. 6 against the uke on your right side, followed by the hip-pull of projection no. 23
against the uke on your left side—bringing his outstretched arms under those of the
first uke. From that position, without any interruption in the flow of the motion, you
will lead the arms of one uke in a circle from underneath, against those of the other
uke with a "windmill" action of your arms—thus unbalancing both uke and projecting
them down onto the mat.
More complex examples of defense against multiple attacks launched
simultaneously by more than two uke, are also practiced in aikido dojo, following
substantially the same dynamic and technical rules of defense as those applicable to
two attackers; always based, of course, upon those fundamental principles of inner
centralization, extension, leading control, and sphericity, without which any technique,
any strategy of defense would be extremely difficult if not impossible, to perform
successfully.
Free Style (Randori)
One of the highest levels of practical proficiency on the mat is evidenced in
aikido by the smooth, powerful, and controlled neutralization of an unexpected attack
through free-style defense, or randori—a method of practice which has gained in
importance in contrast to the period during which the techniques of aikido (as well as
those of many other martial arts) were performed predominantly in a formal, ritualized
manner (kata).
In free style you will face the most demanding test of your harmonization/
integration of mind and body in the practice of aikido—at least on the mat. As two,
three, or four men close in upon you, as you evade, as you lead their extension (their
dynamic commitment to an attack) into an aiki throw, you will inevitably display the
degree of development you have achieved in this art.
Before attempting free style, the regular practice of the individual aikido
techniques, as well as the companion disciplines of breathing, meditation, etc., should
have brought you to a certain level of proficiency. But with free style you will enter a
more demanding and expanded dimension of this art of coordination, and only with
time and practice will individual movements and techniques which have been
programmed into your psyche separately, be unified and integrated as a whole into
your responsive personality, blending and flowing in a typical aikido manner, entirely
consistent with the principles of the art—both technical and ethical.
In free style, your uke will attack you, and you will be required to neutralize
these attacks with a technique as strategically appropriate to the circumstances as
possible. At this stage, the calm independence of your mind, your relaxed yet accurate
perceptions, the feeling of constant centralization and the dynamic continuity of your
extension, i.e., the outpouring of centralized energy should be so blended and fused as
to result in that condition of serene and impenetrable control. The ancient masters of
the martial arts often defined this as "no-mind" (borrowing the concept from the
Buddhist School of Zen), meaning a condition of centralized perfection wherein the
mind is at peace, aware of everything in general, but not hypnotized by any one thing in
particular. In this state the body is said to function on such a high level of unconscious,
yet smoothly controlled responsiveness that you will appear to have achieved the
unification, in practice, of both the power of centralized stability (immanent) and that
of active, dynamic, and transcendent motion (stillness in motion).
This type of free-style defense against multiple attack may often involve as many
as six or more uke (depending upon the size of the mat and the number of available
uke). Strange as it may seem, however, the strategic efficiency of any attack will
decrease in proportion to the increase in the number of uke, since they will tend to get
in one another's way, and—to a certain extent—neutralize one another.
The most difficult attack to control and, consequently, the most effective type of
multiple attack appears to be one launched by four men against a lone man, because
such an attack allows each man enough room to maneuver and to launch his individual
attack.
In the sequence which follows, a multiple attack launched by four uke is
neutralized statically by the employment of spinning techniques within a certain sphere
of action. The general impression derived from this form of defensive strategy is one
of dynamic convergence along a circular, centripetal pattern, transformed into an
equally circular, but centrifugal one. And the result of such a final extension in every
case will bring one of your uke across the pattern of convergence of the others or
directly into them, through projections you will recognize from the basic techniques.
Immobilizations are very seldom used in free style since their rather complicated
mechanisms of subjugation, when concentrated upon a single attacker, will tend to
slow down or even interrupt the flow of your defensive strategy. But their use upon
occasion is not absolutely excluded (as illustrated by the use of immobilization no. 3
in the second example) not only to neutralize one man's attack, but actually to scatter
all the others.
Finally, the training in free style—and the practice of aikido as a whole—reaches
a summit of perfection and plastic beauty in the neutralization of a multiple attack
achieved through "pure" motion of evasion, centralization, and extension, with hardly
any recourse to particular techniques.
Here we enter the dimension of "pure" leading—exquisitely refined and total—as
you move back and forth describing circular patterns in space, place, and time. A
Western observer of Master Uyeshiba's demonstration of this kind of aikido practice
said that the sensei seemed to have entered a different continuum. But, of course, that
is at Master Uyeshiba's level.
FIRST EXAMPLE
SECOND EXAMPLE
 CHAPTER X
Conclusion
IN THIS book, which we have qualified as an illustrated introduction, there has been a
necessary concentration upon the practice of the art, i.e., the theory of attack (that
attack which will trigger your defensive strategy); the Inner Factors (centralization,
extension, leading control, and sphericity); the Outer Factors, subdivided into physical
factors (the components of a supple, healthy, responsive body) and functional factors
(posture, motion of preparation, and the techniques of neutralization in the form of
basic immobilizations, projections, and combinations). Even the brief survey just
concluded of the advanced practice was necessarily focused upon the various
movements, the forms, and the style of performance to be developed.
However, this external practical aspect of aikido and the forms which its practice
assumes are not the only points of reference to be adopted. For, if you should become
hypnotized by the techniques, or if you should be captivated solely by their grace and
fluidity as performed by advanced practitioners of the art, you might with diligent
practice become an accomplished performer, but your very concentration upon the
technical aspect of aikido could result in an imitation of mere forms, gestures, and
actions. You would lack the necessary deeper understanding of their substance, of
their significance, of the essentially ethical motivations which should always be the
ultimate justification, the final raison d'etre of this art of coordination, from its most
introductory levels to the most advanced spheres of its practice.
Strong and effective concentration upon technique, after all, is a tendency shared
by many practitioners of many different martial arts and breathtakingly fluid
movements are found in almost every sport worthy of note, not only in aikido.
Moreover (and this may come as a surprise to some people already practicing the
art), not even the Inner Factors of aikido—the intriguing centralization in the lower
abdomen (hara), and the extension of centralized energy (ki)—should be considered
the unique factors which set aikido apart from other martial arts. Both the hara and ki
have long been considered (especially by the ancient masters of martial arts) to be
devices or instruments which should be used, just as you would use the Outer Factors
(strategies, posture, motion, technique, etc.) to achieve a higher purpose transcending
them all—a purpose linked to the most communally important spheres of man's
existence; i.e., to the ethics, the norms ruling his conduct, his actions.
Both the hara and ki, then, are not concepts discovered suddenly or employed
solely by the practitioners of aikido although—as is generally admitted—no other
modern martial art seems to stress the importance of these factors to the extent found in
aikido.
The fame of many martial schools of aiki-jutsu was based upon the skillful
employment of these factors in their strategies of combat but, to varying degrees, all of
the most reputable martial art schools, armed (kyudo, yarijutsu, kenjutsu, and kendo,
etc.), and unarmed (sumo, yawara, jujutsu, judo, kempo, karate, etc.), have both known
and used them as the hidden pillars of various strategies, usually at their highest and
most esoteric levels.
Therefore, a student of aikido who concentrates solely upon hara and ki will not
differ substantially from the technical specialist who is hypnotized by technique. The
only difference—as has been noted—will be that the former will become much more
powerful than the latter. Many aikido dojo have more than one of these powerful men
whose feats of undeniable prowess can amaze even the most blase" spectator—to the
extent that these spectacular performers are regarded with considerable awe, and
sometimes undiscriminating admiration.
That great unforeseen evils could be the result of unethical use of the power (ki)
originating from a fully developed hara was a fact well known to many of the ancient
masters of martial arts. Those masters left stern warnings to their disciples not to
reveal these "secrets of the art" to those who would use them for base purposes.
Today, however, there is often confusion between "strong" or powerful ki and "good"
or ethically employed ki. As a man may be physically powerful and use this strength to
intimidate other men, so also a man may have "strong" ki and use it to harm others or
to profit himself at their expense.
While this distinction was often made by the ancient masters, there is a seemingly
prevailing tendency today to think that "strong" automatically means "good." This is
just not true. The power itself is generic. As such, it can be used for good or evil. It
must be directed and employed by a mature personality with obvious and positive
results if it is to be qualified as good.
If, therefore, the Outer Factors (or techniques) will not be the main term of
orientation; if the Inner Factors of centralization and extension do not explain the
uniqueness of aikido—what is it that sets this art apart? What gives aikido its
unmistakable identity and qualifies it as a superior method of integration and
development?
The answer is to be found in Master Uyeshiba's "Memoirs."* It is the ethical
message which he, as a man of deep religious conviction, concerned with the
improvement of the human condition, as well as an exceptional martial art master, has
embodied in the practical method he called aikido.
 It is the ultimate motivation of the art, the striving to bring order where there is
disorder, to integrate where there is separation, to reconcile where there is strife,
which marks aikido as a unique and distinctive martial art.
Unfortunately, we cannot undertake a survey in depth of these "remote" ethics in
this brief conclusion to our introduction to the art. The subject of ethics in general and
of the particular ethics of Master Uyeshiba's aikido is a thorny and complex one—the
latter involving the spiritual dimensions of Asiatic culture from the Japanese form of
Shinto to the continental doctrines of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism in their
original or adapted forms, individually and in combination, or rather as fused by and
within Japanese culture.
Even Master Uyeshiba, quoted in a martial arts magazine,* seems to find it
difficult to communicate his ethical message clearly. Perhaps it is because the
"phenomenic" aspect of his art, the practice itself, is so hypnotizing and so visually
impressive, his techniques so beautiful arid the extension of his centralized energy so
powerful that many students cannot see beyond this dazzling "how" to the elusive
"why" which lies just beyond the screen of those superbly energized movements. This
subject, however, is being dealt with by the authors in other works presently in
preparation.
In synthesis, we may say that the ethics of aikido stress living and behaving well
at every moment, in whatever circumstances a man may find himself. If the harmony of
existence is broken—as it so often is—the aikido student should seek to restore
harmony and, moreover, to improve upon it creatively and positively. He should strive
to conduct himself well, avoiding all those excesses, whatever their nature, which
might disturb that centralized equilibrium, that integrated balance of mind/body, of the
self and the other(s)—without which "harmony" is an empty word.
The state or attitude of balance should be particularly evident in that dramatic
action which may involve him in combat with his fellow man. For is there anything
more indicative of disorder than combat? And, is there any other form of action which
can be so easily qualified as "good" or "bad" provided there are alternate ways of
dealing with the problems of combat—one of which defends but destroys, while the
other defends and saves?
Aikido is a discipline, a "way" of integration, of harmony, of coordination which
provides practical means whereby a student of the art can work toward achieving that
harmony. In every action, in every strategy, in every technique of aikido, the
practitioner will be confronted with two ways of resolving the problems of conflict, of
separation, of disorder. He may—if he wishes—neutralize his attacker, either totally
or partially. Obviously, the techniques—if so applied—can be lethal.
 However, the aikido student may and should concentrate upon the neutralization
of the attacker's action, without seriously injuring the attacker himself. And all of the
techniques in the aikido repertoire can be applied with ease and efficiency to achieve
that aim.
Of these two possible methods of applying his techniques, Master Uyeshiba has
continually emphasized the second. Only through the neutralization of an aggressive
action, rather than the aggressor himself, can harmony of existence be restored and
improved upon through that reconciliation which is impossible if one or the other of
the individuals involved is seriously injured or actually destroyed.
Whereas in many martial arts—armed and unarmed, ancient and modern—there
is really very little choice, since the techniques themselves and the methods by which
they are employed all work toward and are intended to injure if not actually destroy an
attacker, in aikido the student is given the freedom and the responsibility of choice. He
will always be able to defend himself efficiently but he can do it either by harming
another human being in the process, or (although, admittedly, this requires greater skill
as well as an ethical intention) he can achieve that same self-defense by leading his
attacker's dangerous action into a potentially harmless Circuit of Neutralization.
A choice is possible, actually unavoidable in aikido. If the student has accepted
and is in agreement with the underlying principles of the art (restoration,
reconciliation, harmony), he will endeavor to act in accordance with these principles
by trying to apply the techniques as means of neutralizing aggressions, not aggressors.
Thus he achieves simultaneously the dual purpose of self-defense and restoration of
that tenuous, living balance threatened by another man's temporary moral unbalance.
And, in so doing, he will not create the conditions for another or different type of
disorder, or of decentralization through the destruction or harming of another element,
another subject of the same vital order who because of a momentary aberration may
have disrupted the flow, the creative interaction of that order.
In this book then, we have tried to give at least an indication of what aikido is
and—at its higher levels—what it can be. As an art of self-defense with roots in the
ancient martial arts of Japan, it is an intriguing and practically effective method for
preserving your integrity and your person against any unjustified attack—moreover in
an ethical manner. Of course to become really proficient in any art takes time and
application to the practice of its various techniques and disciplines. This is the rule
whatever your field of endeavor, and it should surprise only those who seek "instant
satori" refusing to look behind the curtain of appearances, of the moment, to see the
patience and application, the ofttimes unrecognized years of toil which provide the
groundwork and foundation for any real accomplishment.
However, it is as a discipline of coordination that aikido has perhaps its widest
field of application. In this dimension, the emphasis upon integration of mind and
body, upon unity within the self, is expanded to include unity with a partner, with
fellow men, and then that final flowering of unity of man and men with their universe.
In this dimension, aikido moves from the particular and specialized to the general and
universal.
The improved physical/mental health, the deeper understanding and awareness of
the problems facing every man, the essential unity and identification of all men, their
integration with and necessity to one another, as well as a sense of "belonging" to their
times and their world—this is the potential that the theory and practice of the art of
aikido can offer all men, wherever they may be.

Footnotes
* Aikido by Kisshomaru Uyeshiba

* Black Belt Magazine, Vol. IV, No. 4, April 1966, p. 53

 Glossary
ai the principle of harmony and integration
aikido a modern discipline of harmony between opposites on a universal scale
an ancient technique of combat based upon the principle of
aikijutsu
coordination between the attack and the defense
aiki otoshi projection no. 5
aiki taiso the basic exercises of aikido
ashi leg or foot
ayumi ashi alternated step
bo stave, jo
bojutsu the technique of the stave
bo kala a formal exercise with the stave
an ideogram related to the military dimension; used in compounds such
bu
as bushi
the doctrine of enlightenment propounded by the Indian philosopher
Buddhism
Gautama Siddharta (563-483 B.C.)
bujutsu the arts of the warrior
bushi warrior
Bushido the code of honor of the bushi
chudan natural hand position, a central position
the moral doctrine of right conduct, extremely social in content,
Confucianism propounded by the Chinese scholar and philosopher Confucius (551-
479 B.C.)
dan a rank
the method, or "way," a discipline and philosophy with both moral and
do
spiritual connotations
a training hall where the martial arts are practiced; in Zen monasteries,
dojo
the hall of spiritual exercises, meditation, and concentration
gaku calligraphy or motto hung on dojo walls
gedan a low hand position
the regular uniform, normally white, used in most schools of martial
gi arts; in aikido it is worn under the hakama
gokyo
goshi immobilization no.hips
the lateral pelvis; 5 (see also koshi)
hakama a divided skirt worn over the gi
hammi
guard; stance
(hanmi)
happo undo basic exercise no. 9
hara the Centre of existence, abdominal and otherwise
haragei the art of developing the hara
hidari left
an ancient method of combat centered upon the perfection of the initial
iaijutsu
movement of the sword
ikkyo; ikkajo immobilization no. 1
irimi an entering motion
a name given in general to projection no. 1, and in particular, to
irimi nage
projection no. 2
jo stave
jobajutsu the technique of military horsemanship
jodan a high hand position
jo kata see bo kata
joseki upper side of the mat, opposite shimoza
joza another name for kamiza or the upper seat of the mat
ju the principle of suppleness, adaption, and also nonresistance
the "way of suppleness," a discipline of development devised from the
judo ancient jujutsu technique and Budo ethics by Count Jigoro Kano, 1860-
1938
kamae
posture
(gamae)
kamiza upper seat on the mat, opposite shimoza
kaiten round; wheel
kaiten nage projection no. 3
a method of combat employing the whole anatomy as a weapon of
combat, centered mainly upon the use of hands for percussion (kara,
karate empty; te, hand), and introduced in Japan by Funakoshi Gichin 1869-
1957

a formal exercise consisting of a series of slow and stylistically

kata
uniform movements
katana the Japanese sword
kata tori a shoulder hold; attack no. 5
a one-hand hold on one side, attack no. 1; or a one-hand hold on the
katate tori
opposite side, attack no. 2
katate tori a two-hand hold on one hand, attack no. 3; or a two-hand hold on two
ryote mochi hands, attack no. 4
kempo an ancient martial art related to Chinese boxing (Shaolin) and karate
ki centralized, coordinated energy considered as the energy of life itself
an ancient method of combat mentioned in connection with kumiuchi
kogusoku
and sumo in the oldest records of the martial arts
koho tento
undo or koho basic exercise no. 19
ukemi undo
koshi (goshi) the lateral pelvis; hips
koshi nage projection no. 4
koshi
an ancient method of combat
mawari
kote gaeshi immobilization no. 7
kote
immobilization no. 2
mawashi ho
kokyu total body-extension
kokyu dosa special exercise of extension
kokyu ho
basic exercise no. 10
undo
kokyu nage a name given to projection no. 1, and in general to all other projections
kumiuchi an ancient method of combat
kyu a rank below dan
kyudo the "way of the bow and arrow," the Japanese art of archery
ma-ai basic distance
the spherical symbol of completeness and integrative balance derived
mandala
from Indian metaphsics; the "wheel of life"
Mifune,
a great judo instructor, 1883-1965
Kyuzo
migi right
mune-tsuki low blow to abdomen
Miyamoto
a famous swordsman who lived in the seventeenth century and made the
Musashi style of fencing with two swords the basis of his own school of martial
arts
nafudakake the name board in a dojo
the student who is attacked by uke, and who employs aikido strategy of
nage
defense to neutralize that attack
a curved spear once used by Japanese monks and samurai; also, the art
naginata
of using it
nikyo; nikajo immobilization no. 2
ninjutsu the technique of ninja, the Japanese "commando" and super-spy
a denomination for hara, the Centre made famous in aikido doctrine by
one point
Koichi Tohei, Chief Instructor of Hombu Dojo in Tokyo
Pa-kua Chinese boxing method
Pericles an Athenian general and statesman who died in 429 B.C.
ritsurei standing salutation
ryu school (as schools of the martial arts)
samurai military retainer—feudal period
the geometrical figure of stability and potential motion adopted in
sankakutai
aikido and other martial arts, with the feet in a triangular position
sankyo;
immobilization no. 3
sankajo
satori a Buddhist concept: enlightenment, or the moment of intense,
total realization

sayu undo basic exercise no. 13

seiza sitting posture
ancient Chinese boxing reputed by most authors to be the fore father of
Shaolin
karate and other arts of percussion
shiho nage immobilization no. 6
shimoseki lower side on the mat opposite joseki
shimoza lower seat on the mat opposite kamiza
the "way of the gods"; a national religion of Japan based on the cult of
Shinto
ancestors
shintai straight motion
shizentai basic, natural posture
shomen uchi straight blow to the head; attack no. 13
sumi otoshi projection no. 10
sumo traditional Japanese wrestling
Suzuki,
famous author and scholar belonging to the School of Zen Buddhism
Daisetsu
tachi oyogi the martial art of swimming while in armor
tai sabaki a circular motion
laiso a basic exercise of aikido
a spherical symbol of completeness and integrative balance of Chinese
taiyoku
derivation
a famous abbot of the Zen School who wrote extensively on the mental
Takuan aspects of his discipline considered as relevant in everyday living and
in the martial arts (1573-1645)
tambo the art of using the short stick
tantojutsu the technique of knife-throwing
tao the supreme essence of reality and existence (Chinese)
the doctrine of total integration in the order of existence propounded by
Taoism
Lao Tzu
Tao Te
Chinese classic book of Taoism
Ching
tatami the mat on which a martial art is practiced
tedori an ancient method of combat
tegatana the outer edge of the hand when used as the blade of a sword
tegiki an ancient method of combat
tekubijoho
basic exercise no. 12
kosa undo
tekubi kosa
basic exercise no. 11
undo
tekubi
basic exercise no. 3
shindo
tenchi nage projection no. 9
tenkan a circular motion; "turning" in a spin
tsugi ashi the follow-up step
ude furi
basic exercise no. 15
undo
the student who attacks nage and becomes the recipient of his
uke opponent's strategy of aikido defense
ukemi rolls and somersaults
UPA Unified Power of Attack
UPD Unified Power of Defense; also, defensive ki
ushiro kata
attack no. 9
tori
ushiro kubi
attack no. 10
shime
ushiro hiji
attack no. 8
tori
ushiro tekubi
attack no. 7 and basic exercise no. 17
tori
ushiro tori attacks nos. 11 and 12
ushiro tori
basic exercise no. 16
undo
wa an ancient Japanese term for harmony, accord, and coordination
wajutsu the technique of coordination
yari straight spear
yarijutsu the technique of using the straight spear
an ancient method of combat based on the principle of accord (wa);
yawara some authors believe it to represent the first matrix of the principle of
harmony (ai) and the principle of suppleness (ju)

a discipline of mental and physical development traced from early

Yoga
Indian metaphysics
yokomen
a circular blow to the side of the head; attack no. 14
uchi
yonkyo immobilization no. 4
zarei a ceremonial bow from the sitting position
zazen meditation posture and exercise employed in the School of Zen
Buddhism, and in other disciplines as well the intuitive discipline of
Zen enlightenment related to the Buddhist doctrine; called Dhyana in India,
Ch'an in China
 Selected Bibliography
ON THE HISTORICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF
I
AIKIDO
Anesaki, Masaharu: History of Japanese Religion, Tokyo, 1963

Brinkley, Captain F.: Japan, Boston, 1902

Ch'u Chai and Winberg Chai (trans, and ed.): The Humanist Way in Ancient
China: Essential Works of Confucius, New York, 1965

Creel, H. C.: Chinese Thought—From Confucius to Mao-Tse-Tung, Chicago,

1953

Coomaraswamy, Ananda K.: Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism, London, 1916

Demoulin, Heinrich: A History of Zen Buddhism, New York, 1963

Hearn, Lafcadio: Japan—An Attempt at Interpretation, Tokyo, 1962

Herbert, Jean: Introduction A' L'Asie, Paris, 1960

Humphreys, Christmas: The Wisdom of Buddhism, London, 1960

Nitobe, Inazo: Japan, London, 1931

Lin, Yutang (trans, and ed.): The Wisdom of Lao-Tse, New York, 1948

Nakamura, Hajime: Ways of Thinking of Eastern People: India-China-Tibet-

Japan, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1964

Northrop, F. S. C.: The Meeting of the East and West, New York, 1967

Reischauer, Edwin O.: Japan—Past and Present, New York, 1964

Sansom, George: A History of Japan, Stanford, California, 1958

 Suzuki, Daisetsu T.: Zen and Japanese Culture, New York, 1960
Tsunoda, Ryusaku (comp.): Sources of Japanese Tradition, New York, 1958

II ON THE ESOTERIC FACTORS OF AIKIDO

Conze, Edward: Buddhist Meditation, London, 1956

Humphreys, Christmas: Concentration and Meditation, London, 1959

Lasserre, Robert: Etranges Pouvoirs, Toulouse, 1960

Tohei, Koichi: Aikido in Daily Life, Tokyo, 1966

Von Durckeim, Karlfried Graf: Hara-centre Vital de L'Homme, Paris, 1964

_____: The Japanese Cult of Tranquillity, London, 1960

III ON THE STRATEGY AND TECHNIQUES OF AIKIDO

Abe, Tadashi and Jean Zin: L'Aikido. Vols. I and II, Paris, 1958

Tohei, Koichi: Aikido—The Arts of Self-defense, Tokyo, 1961

_____: This is Aikido, Tokyo, 1966
Uyeshiba, Kisshomaru: Aikido, Tokyo, 1963
 Index
abdominal: concept of, 69; breathing exercise, 107-9
advanced practice, 323

aggression; see attack

aikido: definition, 17; ethical purposes, 33, 359-63; practical purposes, 19, 26, 27
attack: importance of, 46; factors of, 47, 49-58; power of, 58-60; theory of, 48-60
attacking techniques, 56-58

balance, 76, 145-47

basic exercises: applications, 121-42; purposes of, 119-20
basic techniques: of attack, 55-58; of neutralization, 159-60
blows: in attack, 57; in defense (feint), 168
bow: ceremonial, 43; standing, 41
breath control, 107
breathing, special exercise, 107-9

calisthenics, 114
centralization: of thought, 18; objective, 70-71, 78-79; principle of, 69; subjective, 70-71, 73

centralized energy; see ki

Centre, 19, 21, 23; definition of, 69; of gravity, 23
choking techniques, in attack, 56-57
circuits of neutralization, 78, 83, 96-98, 100-3
classes, 41-44
club attacks, defense against, 338-39
combinations: in attack, 57; in defense, 318—22
concentration of strength, 80-85; special exercises for, 107-12
control, 20; principle of leading, 87-93
convergence of aggression, 54-55
coordination: aikido as, 17, 26; aggressive, 58-60; basic exercise of, 119-42; defensive, 79

dan, 35-36
defense: characteristics of, 65; concept of, 20; ethics of, 33-34; factors of, 47, 61
Deguchi, Wanisaburo, 29
direction: of the attack, 54; of the defense, 89, 93, 96-99
discipline of coordination, 17
distance, 145, 147-48
dynamic factors: of the attack, 47, 53-55; of the defense, 47, 144, 149
dynamic momentum, 53, 97
dynamic sphere, 100-3
dynamic spiral, 98

energy, 21-24, 79-86, 93, 107, 111-12, 119-21, 165, 323, 354, 359-60
ethics, 20, 33-34, 86, 361-62
etiquette, 41-44

exercises: basic, 119; formal (kata), 340-41; preliminary, 114; special, 103; stave, 336-40
extension: concept of, 23; principle of, 79-87; sitting exercise of, 109-11

falling, 139
force, 89
formal exercise, 340
foundations, 29-33
free style practice, 354-55; applications, 356-58
functional factors: of the attack, 47; of the defense, 47, 61, 143
fusion: of mind and body, 22; special exercises for, 103-12

gentleness, 77 grasping, 89, 163

guards; see stance harmony, 17, 34, 361

hierarchy, 35
hip action, 77

holding techniques: of the attack, 56; of the defense; see also immobilizations

immobilizations: applications, 166-223; definition of, 165; classification of, 160, 165—66

inner energy; see ki

inner factors: of the attack, 47-48, 58; of the defense, 30, 47, 61, 62-69
intrinsic energy; see ki injury: avoidance of, 19-20; caution against, 163-64

ki, 18-20, 79-87; definition of, 81; types of 84-85

killing, 20, 33

kneeling aikido: motion of, 324-25, 334-35; techniques of, 326-33 kyu, 35-36

leading control, principle of, 87-93

Leggett, T.P., 77
limbering-up exercises, 114

main sources of aikido, 30-33

major techniques of aikido; see immobilizations, projections, and combinations martial arts: armed, 31; schools of, 33;
unarmed, 32

mat: in the dojo, 40-41; practice on the; see kneeling aikido meditation, 34; special exercise of, 107
mental energy, 17-18; extension of, 23, 81-87
Mitsujo Fujimoto, 29

morality of aikido; see ethics

motion: in attack, 53-55; in defense, 143—53; purposes of, 154-57
motivations: immediate or practical, 19-20, 26; remote or ethical, 33-34, 361-63
muscular strength, 80

Nakai, Masakatsu, 29
natural posture, 145
non-resistance, principle of, 89

organization of aikido, 35
outer factors: of the attack, 47-48; of the defense, 30, 61

pain, objective of, 51

partner practice, 160-64
physical factors: of the attack, 49-52; of the defense, 61
physical injury, theory of, 49-52
physical pain, 49, 51
physical preparation, 113-14
posture: basic, 41, 145-47; exercise of, 104; of defense, 145; sitting, 105; standing, 104
power: of attack, 58-60; of defense, 80-81
practice: basic, 45, 47; advanced, 323
practice hall, 40
preliminary exercises, 114—19
principles of aikido, 69
process of defense: factors, 62, 66; normal and abnormal, 65-66; factors of, 62, 66
projections: applications, 224-322; definition, 224; classification, 160, 165-66
promotion, 37-38

ranking system, 35-38

reaction, 62-67
relaxation, 77
relaxed atmosphere, 27
rolling, 139

safety, 163-64
Sakuma Shozan, 45
salutation: ceremonial, 43-44; standing, 41
self-defense, 17, 19-20, 26, 34
semi-spirals of neutralization, 98
sitting: extension, 109-11; position, 42; posture, 105; practice, 324—35

sliding; see stepping

stages of the process: of attack, 53-55; of defense, 143-45
somersaults, 139-42
speed: of the attack, 53; of defense, 93
sphericity, 19; principle of, 93-95
spirals of neutralization, 98
spirit, 17
sport, aikido as, 26
stances, 148
standing posture, exercise of, 104; stave exercises, 336-40
stepping: alternated, 151, combination, 153; follow-up, 151; pivot, 152; spin, 152—53
stillness, special exercise of, 106-7
strategy of neutralization, 24
strength, 81, 89
suppleness, 114
Suzuki, Daisetz(u), 75

Takeda, Sakaku, 29
Takuan, 75
technical factors: of the attack, 47, 55; of the defense, 47, 143
techniques of neutralization: advanced, 323; against armed attacks, 342-49; against multiple attack, 350-53; against
unarmed attacks, 166-322; basic, 159; classification, 160; definition, 159
tension, 77
tests: for promotion, 37-38; for special exercises, 111-12
Tohei, Koichi, 23, 67, 69, 82, 91, 92
Tojawa, Tokusaburo, 29

unarmed attacks, 55
unbendable arm, 23, 82-83
unified power of the attack, 87-88
uniform, 39
unity of mind and body, 22
Uyeshiba, Morihei, 29-30, 33, 35, 81, 360-62
 Table of Contents
Copyright
Contents
Acknowledgments
Preface
List of Charts and Tables
Chapter I: What is Aikido?
Defense in Aikido
The “Centre” and “Ki”
The Strategy of Neutralization
The Potential of Aikido
Chapter II: The Foundations of Aikido
The Founder
Main Sources of Formation and Inspiration
The Martial Arts
The Ethics of Defense
Chapter III: Organization
The Hierarchy
Promotion
The Uniform
The Practice Hall
The Mat
Etiquette and Classes
Chapter IV: The Practice of Aikido
The Theory of Attack
Physical Factors
Dynamic Factors
Technical Factors
The Unified Power of Attack
Chapter V: The Theory of Defense
The Process of Defense and Its Factors
The Inner Factors: the Role of the Mind
 The Principle of Centralization
The Principle of Extension
The Principle of Leading Control
The Principle of Sphericity
Circuits of Neutralization
Spirals and Semi-Spirals of Neutralization
The Dynamic Sphere
Fusion and Special Exercises
Chapter VI: The Physical Preparation
Preliminary Exercises: Suppleness
Basic Exercises: Coordination
Rolls and Somersaults
Chapter VII: The Posture and Motion of Defense
Stages and Unity of the Aikido Process of Defense
The Posture
The Motion
Chapter VIII: The Basic Techniques of Neutralization
General Recommendations
Immobilizations
Projections
Combinations
Chapter IX: Advanced Practice
“Mat” or Kneeling Aikido
The Stave Exercises
The Techniques of Neutralization Applied Against an Armed Attack
The Techniques of Neutralization Applied Against a Multiple Attack
Free Style
Chapter X: Conclusion
Glossary
Selected Bibliography
Index
Back Cover