Meaning of Statistics

Statistics- is defined as a collection of descriptive measures calculated from single

data according to certain specified procedures.

Statistics – refers to the science which deals with the collection, organization,
presentation, analysis, and interpretation of quantitative data.

Examples:
1. The average annual income of 50 families chosen from a residential
area according to certain statistical accepted technique.
2. The proportion of people, based on survey of 100 individuals, who
prefer brand X to brand Y.

Types of Statistical Analyses (Division of Statistics)

1. Descriptive statistics- is concerned with the collection, organization, and
presentation of numerical data in a form that is understandable to all.
Ex: measure of central tendency; measure of variability
2. Inferential Statistics - Refers to techniques of interpreting the values resulting
from the descriptive techniques and using them in drawing conclusions about
population on a representative sample
Ex; A record of CoEd graduates of TRC is recorded for the past 15 years
showed that 70% passed the board exam. The numerical value 70% is a
descriptive statistics. If you are a member of the graduating class and conclude
that your chances of passing the board exam is 70%, you therefore made a
statistical inference that is subject to uncertainty.

Population and Sample

Population- is a collection, or set of individuals, objects, or measurements
whose properties are to be analyzed. It is the totality of the observation.
Types of Population
1. Infinite population- When enumeration of listing up all elements
is impossible or extremely difficult.
Ex: Number of stars in the sky. Number of fish in the sea.
2. Finite – have enumerable elements.
Ex. Number of students in a class.
Sample- Is a subset of a population. It is smaller group representing the
population having identical characteristics from which it was
taken.
Marginal error – is the probability of committing a mistake
Confidence error- probability of getting the correct result

Marginal error 1% 5% 10%

Confidence 99% 95% 90%
error

Sampling Techniques- Procedure of gathering sampling units from the

population
1. Probability sampling- a sampling technique wherein each of the
population unit has an equal chance of being drawn.
 a) Random Sampling-also called lottery sampling, wherein the
items are placed in a container. All are thoroughly mixed, and
elements are drawn as needed.

b. Systematic Sampling- elements are numbered for identification

and samples are selected at regular intervals.
Ex. If N=300, e=10%, and n= 75, which of the 300 will you
include in the sample of 75?
N 300
Use: Interval   4
n 75
Therefore, from the population, take the 4th, 8th, 12th. ……300th
c) Stratified sampling- The set of interest is divided into groups or
aggregates from which the actual sampling is done.

Ex. If e=5% and n=370, N=5,000, how will you get 370 sample
from the 5,000 population?

number.of .students. per.collegexn

Use:  sample.to.take. from.the.college
N
Computation:

900
Education: X 370  67
5,000

2,000
Engineering X 370  148
5,000

1,000
Arts and sciences X 370  74
5,000

1,100
Business X 370  81
5,000

Colleges # of students Sample

Education 900 67
Engineering 2,000 148
Arts and sciences 1,000 74

Business 1,100 81
N=5,000 n= 370

2. Non-Probability Sampling- a sampling technique wherein the sample units do

not have equal chances of being drawn.
a) Convenience sampling- the samples are simply those choosing to
respond
b) Purposive sampling- the samples are chosen based on specific
objectives.
c) Snow ball

Variables and Types of Data

Variable-a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values
Classification of variables
1. Qualitative Variables-variables that can be placed into distinct categories,
according to some characteristic or attribute.
Ex: Gender- male and female; Religious preference; geographic location
2. Quantitative variables-numerical in nature and can be ordered or ranked.
Ex: Age is numerical, and people can be ranked in order according to the
value of their age.
Heights; weights; body temperature.
Classification of Quantitative Variables
a. Discrete - can be assigned values such as 0,1,2,3, and are said to be
countable.
Ex: Number of children in a family, number of students in a classroom.
b. Continuous variables-by comparison, can assume all values between any
two specific values. They are obtained by measuring.
Ex: Temperature is a continuous variable, since the variable can assume all
values between any two given temperatures.

Types of Measurement Scale

1. Nominal-nominal level of measurement - classifies data into mutually exclusive
(no overlapping), exhausting categories in which an order or ranking can be
imposed on the data.
Ex: Teachers classified according to subject taught (English, Math, History,… etc),
residence according to zip code, religion, political party. No ranking or order can
be imposed on the data.
2. Ordinal level of measurement-classifies data into categories that can be ranked;
however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist.
Ex: Guest speakers can be ranked as superior, average, or poor. Body build can
be classified as small, medium, and large. The letters A, B, C, D, as rating scale is
also an example of ordinal scale.
3. Interval level of measurement ranks data, and precise differences between units
of measure do exist, however there is no meaningful zero. One property is
lacking in the interval scale…There is no true zero. (Zero degrees does not mean
there is no temperature.)
Ex, there is a meaningful difference of one point between an IQ of 109 and 110.
Temperature is another example, 72 degrees is different from 73 degrees.
4. Ratio level of measurement-Possesses all the characteristics of interval
measurement and there exists a true zero.
Ex: height, weight, area and number of phone calls received.

Examples of Measurement scale

Nominal Level Ordinal Level Interval Ratio

Level Level
 Zip code Grade(A, B, C, ) SAT score Height
Gender (male, Judging(1st, 2nd, IQ Weight
female) third)
Eye color(black, Rating scale Temperature Time
blue) (poor, good,
excellent)
Political Ranking of age
affiliation Tennis Players
Religious salary
affiliation
Major field(math,
biological,
Physical)
Nationality

Collection and interpretation of Data

The first major step in statistical investigation is the collection of data

Types of statistical data according to their sources.

1. Primary data- include government agencies, business establishments,
organizations, and individuals who carry original data or who have firsthand
information relevant to the given problem.
2. Secondary data- data gathered from newspapers, magazines, journals and
republished materials.

Collection of Data
1. Interview method- person to person encounter between the interviewer and
interviewee. This may be done personally or thru telephone.
Advantage:
a) Question can be repeated, rephrased or modified for better
understanding. Also answers maybe clarified thus ensuring more precise
information.
Disadvantage:
a) very costly
b) can cover limited number of individuals
2. Questionnaire Method- It also utilizes questions to obtain information. They
are either mailed or hand-carry.
Advantages:
a) more economical
b) it can involve greater number of individuals
c) respondents find time to formulate appropriate answers
d) can preserve anonymity
3. Observation Method –Data pertaining to behaviors of an individual of a group
of individuals at the time of occurrence of a given situation are best obtained
by direct observations
Limitations:
 Observation is made only at the time of occurrence of the appropriate
event.
Ex. A psychologist has to wait for a fire to breakout in order to obtain
records of behaviors of a certain type of children during such situation.
4. Use of document- researchers who make use of vital statistics such as birth
rates, number of households, marriages, find the use of documents and other
existing records available in both gov’t and private agencies. (NEDA, NSO,
NHA)
5. Method of Experimentation- Employed by scientific researchers.

Methods of Presentation
1. Textual Form- Textual or paragraph form is utilized when the data
to be presented are purely qualitative or when few numbers are
involved.
2. Tabular form- a more effective device of presenting data is by
means of statistical tables.
3. Graphical or Pictorial form
a) Line graph- a line graph is an effective device used to portray changes
in values with respect to time.
b) Bar graph- categorical and chronological comparison may be shown by
means of a bar graph
c) Component bar chart- a graphic device used to show the relative sizes of
the components that make up a total
d) Pie chart- portrays the relative magnitudes of the component parts of a
whole.
e) Pictograph- dramatizes the differences among a few quantities.
f) Statistical maps- used to present quantitative data which describes or
classify geographical areas.