Alloys 5.

CHAPTER-5
ALLOYS

5.1 Introduction
An alloy is a homogeneous substance formed by mixing
two or more elements , atleast one of them being a metal .
Alloys are of three types:
1) Alloys formed by two or more metals .
Eg : brass ( Cu-Zn )
2) Alloys formed between a metal and a non-metal
3) Alloys ( Amalgam ) formed between mercury and another
metal
Eg : Zinc amalgam .

Alloys are metallic in character . Their physical properties

are different from the constituent elements .

Definition :
An alloy is a homogeneous substance formed by
mixing two or more elements , atleast one of them being a
metal .
5.2 Engineering Chemistry-II

5.2 Importance or need of making alloys

1) To improve hardness
Hardness of a metal is considerably increased on alloying
it. Conversion of soft gold into hard gold by alloying it with
copper is an example . The tensile strength of iron is increased
ten times by alloying with 1% carbon .

2) To lower the melting point

It is lower for an alloy compared to the melting points of
it’s constituents . eg ; Melting point of solder ( 183 0C ) is less
than those of it’s constituents ; pb (327 0C ) and Sn (2320C ) .
Alloying makes the metallic systemeasily fusible and so alloys
can be moulded at lower temperatures compared to moulding
temperatures of pure metal .

3) To improve casting property

Some metals expand on solidification . This arises due to
requirement of formation of certain lattice arrangements of the
metallic atoms as the metal solidifies . This property helps proper
casting of metals into objects. Some solid metals are soft and
brittle making their castings weak . This deficient character is
eliminated by alloying the metal. Molten alloys on solidification
produce hard , durable castings . The alloy ( pb + Sn + Sb ) has
excellent casting property when compared to it’s constituents .

4)To modify the electrical conductivity

Alloys are less conductive than pure metals . The
interaction of two metals in an alloy modifies the electronic
conduction bands in them to render the alloy less conductive . eg:
even traces of metallic impurities in copper reduces it’s electrical
conductivity .
Alloys 5.3

5)To modify the colour

Alloying modifies the colours of metals eg : red copper
and silver – white zinc , on alloying , produces yellowish brown
brass alloy .

6) To modify chemical properties

Chemical properties are either enhanced or depressed .
eg : rate of dissolution of an alloy in hydrochloric acid is different
( usually less ) from the rates of dissolutions of the constituent
metals . An alloy is less easily attacked by chlorine compounds
than it’s constituent metals .

7)To resist the corrosion of the metal

The most important and useful property of alloying is it’s
ability to resist corrosion in it’s alloying. Generally alloys are
more resistant to corrosion than pure metals . eg : stainless steel
( alloy of Fe , C , Ni and Cr ) which is not corroded by the
atmospheric conditions though pure Fe easily corrodes ( rusted )
in moist air .
Of these property- modifications , enhanced fusion
capability and resistant to corrosion are two qualities that make
alloys very useful material industrially

5.3 Purpose of alloying

1) Pure metals are very soft and weak and therefore cannot
be used for making strong articles . Therefore alloying
them increases their strength .
2) Two or more metal can be mixed in different proportions
to produce alloys of desirable character for definite
applications .
5.4 Engineering Chemistry-II

3) Alloying reduces the chemical reactivity of a metal with

acids and so it is less liable to corrosion .
4) The use of alloys instead of expensive pure metals
promotes economy in the manufacture and use of
components .
5) Alloying can enhance or suppress strength and electrical
conductivity rendering an alloy more suited than pure
metal for specific application.

5.4 Types of alloys

Alloys are classified in a number of ways

1)Based on the principal metal in the alloy

eg : copper alloys , lead alloys , iron alloys , etc.,
A copper alloy has copper as major constituent . eg: Bronze
2) Based on Phases :
Single phase alloys consist of a uniform face
eg : Brass( 30% Zn + 70 % Cu ). Double phase alloys consist of
two different phases . eg : muntz metal ( 60% Cu + 40% Zn )
3)Based on iron content :
i) Ferrous alloys contain Fe as a constituent
Stainless steel ( Fe + Cr ) is a ferrous alloy ;
ii) Non-ferrous alloys do not contain iron .
Solder ( Pb + Sn ) is a non-ferrous alloy .
Alloys 5.5

i) Ferrous Alloys

In addition to steel and carbon ferrous alloys contains the

elements like Al, B, Cr , Co , Cu, Mn in suitable proportions in
order to improve the properties of the steel..

Properties of Ferrous alloys :

1. Ferrous alloys have good weldability, ductility and
formability.
2. They have high strength
3. They have high yield point
4. They possess high corrosion and abrasion resistant.
5. They have greater high temperature strength.
6. They have high resistance to abrasion.

Few important ferrous alloys are discussed in this section :

Nichrome :

It is an alloy of iron, nickel and chromium. Many types of

nichrome alloys are possible based on the percentage of these
metals-
The general composition of Nichrome is:

Nickel : 60%
Iron : 26%
Chromium : 12%
Manganese : 25%

A steel alloyed with 10% nickel and 20% chromium can

be used at 1000C.
5.6 Engineering Chemistry-II

Steels containing 16 to 20% chromium with low carbon

possess oxidation resistance upto 9000C.They are having high
heat and chemical resistance.

Uses of Nichrome:
1. They are used in making furnace heating coils,
2. They are used in heating elements in electric irons,
toasters and kettles,
3. They are used in gas turbines, aero engine valves, retorts,
annealing boxes
4. They are used in equipments exposed to high
temperatures. And house hold appliances.

Alnico :
This is otherwise called by the name aluminium nickel-
cobalt steel. It has the composition –
Aluminium : 10 to 12%
Nickel : 15 to 20%
Cobalt : 40 to 60%
Properties :
1) It is highly magnetic and used as permanent magnets in
motors.
Uses :
1. It is highly magnetic and used for making powerful
magnets.
2. used as permanent magnets in motors generators,
galvanometers etc.,
Alloys 5.7

5.5 Stainless steels or corrosion

resistant steels :
These are alloy steels which resist corrosion occurs due to
atmosphere and also by chemicals. They contain essentially
chromium together with other elements such as nickel,
molybodenum etc. Chromium is especially effective , if it’s
content is 16% or more. The protection against corrosion is due
to the formation of dense tough film of chromium oxide at the
surface of the metal.
There are two main types of stainless steels-
i) Heat treatable stainless steels
ii) Non-heat treatable stainless steels.

Heat treatable stainless steels contain upto 1.2% carbon and 12-
16% chromium. They are magnetic, tough and can be worked in
cold state. They can be used at temperatures upto 8000C . They
are satisfactory for resisting weather and water.
Uses : Such steels find use in making surgical instruments ,
scissors, baldes , cutlery etc.,
Non-heat treatable stainless steels show less strength at high
temperatures but are more resistant to corrosion. According to
their composition they may be magnetic or nonmagnetic
stainless steels.
Advantages of stainless steels are :
1) It is tough, hard, and very durable.
2) It has an excellent finish that can be retained for a long
period.
3) It is non staining , rust proof and resistant to wear and
tear.
5.8 Engineering Chemistry-II

4) It has an attractive appearance.

5) It is rust proof.
6) It can be easily cleaned with water and soap or detergent
after cooking.
7) The surface can be restored to it’s original finish,
brightness and appearance.
8) If the protective film of chromium oxide is removed
some how, by scratching or careless handling , anew film
is developed on the surface instantaneously and the steel
again becomes stainless.
9) The most important disadvantage of stainless steel is that,
it has no scrap value as that of other alloys such as brass,
bronze.

ii) Non-ferrous Alloys

This type of alloys do not contain iron as one of the main

constituents. The main constituent of non-ferrous alloys are
copper, aluminium, lead tin etc.,
Properties
The melting point of non-ferrous alloys are lower than
those of ferrous alloys.
Examples for non-ferrous alloys :
Solders :
These are low melting alloys of tin and lead. There are
many types of solders as-

a)Soft solders :
They contain Pb ( 37-67%), Sn (31-60%) and Sb(0.12 -0%).
They melt at low temperatures. They are used for soldering
electrical connections, sealing tin cans and joining lead pipes.
Alloys 5.9

b)Silver solders :
These contain Ag( 10-80%), Cu(15-42%) and Zn (4-48%). These
are mainly used for brazing.
c)Brazing alloys :
They contain Sn(92%), Sb(5.5%) and Cu(2.5%). These are used
for soldering of steel joints.

d)Tinmann’s solders :
These contain Sn(66%) and Pb(34%). These are used for joining
the articles of tin.

Brass :
This is the most important alloy of copper in which the
percentage of zinc goes upto 45% . Besides zinc, a small amount
of other metals such as Sn, Mn , Al , Fe,Pb etc are also added to
obtain special properties. There are more than a dozen types of
brass having varying composition of copper as – Cap copper,
commercial brass, dutch metal , spinning brass, ordinary brass,
muntz brass, leaded brass, high tensile brass, admiralty brass,
naval brass, aluminium brass, german silver.

Alloys containing Cu ( 60 – 90%) and Zn (40 – 10% are

generally known as brass. These alloys possess greater strength,
durability and machinability than copper. They have lower
melting point than copper and zinc. They are corrosion resistant
and water resistant.

Uses :

1) Cap copper is used for caps of aluminium.

2) Commercial brass is used for architectural metal work,
cheap jewellery , forgings, rivets, screws.
5.10 Engineering Chemistry-II

3) Dutch metal is used in making cheap jewellery , name

plates, battery caps, musical instruments.
4) Cartridge brass or spinning brass is used largely for
making tubes, sheets, locomotive and cartridge cases.
5) Ordinary brass is used for general utensils and general
castings.
6) Muntz brass is used for hot stampings, sheets, hot rolled
products, marine fillings, condenser tubes, radiator cores.
7) Leaded brass is used in making tubes, plates etc.,
8) High tensile brass is used in making switch gears, marine
propeller shafts.
9) Naval brass is used for propellers and marine works
10) Aluminium bronze is used for condenser tubes in marine
and other installation.
11) German silver is used for utensils, table wares, bolts,
screws, imitation jewellery, cutlery decoratie articles.

Bronze :
 It is an alloy containing mainly copper and tin. Tin
content varies from 2-12%, but bronzes having 5% Sn
and 10% Sn are common.
 Phosphorus is also added to the bronzes and such
bronzes are called Phosphor bronzes.
 If zinc is added to bronzes, gun metal is formed. Nickel
and lead are added in small quantities to bronzes to
modify the properties of bronze.
 Like brass, there are more than dozen types of bronze as
Coinage bronze, gun metal, low phosphor bronze, high
phosphor bronze, aluminum bronze , nickel bronze, lead
bronze, plastic bronze, grid metal cupronickel, silicon
bronze, common bronze.
Alloys 5.11

 Bronzes are tough, strong resistant to corrosion, can be

readily cast and machined, ductile, durable, resist the
force of explosion, can be rolled or drawn into wires,
abrasion resistant, low coefficient of friction, high
tensile strength, low thermal and electrical conductivity.

Uses :
1. Common bronze is used in pumps, valves, wires ,
coins,statues, ornaments etc,
2. Gun metal is used for hydraulic fittings and suitable for
breaking shells.
3. Phosphor bronzes are used for springs, turbine blades,
pumps, boiler fittings, bearing plates, gear wheels, taps ,
bushes.
4. Aluminium bronzes are used in valves , pumps and other
parts where corrosive liquids attack.
5. Nickel bronzes are used for valves, shafts, bearings.
6. Leaded bronzes are used for bushes, axle box bearing
7. Plastic bronzes are used for low duty bearings.
8. Grid metal is used for casting perforated plates fro grid
and storage battery plates.
9. Cupronickel is used in bullet envelopes.
10. Silicon bronzes are used mainly in chemical plants.

5.5 Heat Treatment of Alloys

It is possible to alter the properties of steel by heating and
cooling steel under controlled conditions . The term heat
treatment is used to indicate the process in which the heating and
5.12 Engineering Chemistry-II

cooling of solid steel is involved to change the structural or

physical properties of steel .

Thus in heat treatment process, the heating and cooling of steel

are carried out according to a strictly predetermined temperature
schedule. With the result that steel undergoes structural changes
and acquires specific mechanical properties.

Following are the purposes of heat treatment

1) To alter magnetic properties of steel
2) To change the structure of steel
3) To increase resistance to heat and corrosion
4) To increase surface hardness
5) To make steel easily workable and
6) To vary strength and hardness

The various processes involved in heat treatment of steel are as

follows :
1) Annealing
2) Case hardening
3) Cementing
4) Hardening
5) Nitriding
6) Normalizing
7) Tempering

1)Annealing
The main object of this process is to make steel soft so that it
be easily worked upon with a machine . Annealing also causes
the following effects:
1) Refinement of grains without serious loss of ductility
2) Release of internal stresses developed during previous
operations in manufacturing.
Alloys 5.13

Following is the procedure for annealing:

i)Steel to be annealed is heated to the desired temperature . The

temperature depend upon the carbon content of steel and it is
about 500 to 550C above the critical temperature .
The Table below shows the temperature to be kept during
annealing for steels with different carbon content.

No Range of Carbon content of

annealing steel
temperature
1. 871 – 925 Below 0.12%
2. 843-870 0.13 – 0.29%
3. 816- 842 0.30 – 0.49%
4. 788- 815 0.50 - 1.00%

ii) After the desired temperature is achieved , steel is held at the

annealing heat till it is thoroughly heated. The time for which
annealing temperature is to be maintained will depend on type of
furnace , nature of work etc. In general, it may be mentioned that
this time should be just sufficient for making the carbon
dissolved into and diffused through the material .

2) Case-hardening
In this treatment , the core of specimen remains tough and
ductile and at the same time , the surface becomes hard . Such a
result is achieved by increasing the carbon content at the surface .

Following is the procedure of casehardening

1) The article to be carbonized is held in the carbonizing mixture

for a definite time and at definite temperature . The time and
temperature will depend upon the depth of case required and
composition of steel . The usual period is 6-8 hrs and the usual
temperature range is 9000C – 9500C .
5.14 Engineering Chemistry-II

2)After carbonizing , the article is heated in one of the following

ways :
i) It is quenched directly from box at carburizing
temperature.
ii)It is cooled slowly in the carburizing box and then it is
reheated and quenched .
iii)It is cooled slowly in the carburizing box and then it is
reheated twice and also quenched twice . The above is the
general process of case hardening . Various other useful
casehardening processes have been developed such as
cyaniding , induction hardening , nitriding , flame
hardening etc., . These processes adopt a specially prepared
carburizing mixture and specially designed furnace.

Depth of case hardening

Following factors affect the depth of case hardening :

i) Period of treatment
ii) Quality and nature of carburizing mixture , and
iii) Temperature furnace

At higher temperatures of furnace , depth of case

hardening is more . If period of treatment is about 4 –6 hours ,
depth of case hardening is about 0.5 mm to 1 mm and if period of
treatment is increased to about 18 hours or so , depth may be
about 3mm or so.

Carburizing mixtures
Following are the carburizing mixtures which are
commonly used in the process of case-hardening :

i) Animal Charcoal
ii)Bone and horn pearings
iii) Cyanides
Alloys 5.15

iv) Finely cut leather pieces and

v) Wood charcoal and soda ash proportion being 95% and
5% respectively.

The last one is more commonly used.

Animal charcoal is also sometimes preferred as nitrogen
contained in it helps the carbon unite more rapidly with iron .

Following precautions are to be taken in the process of case

hardening :

1) If articles are of alloy steels, they should be quenched in

oil
2) Quenching should be preferably be carried out in water .
But for articles with unequal or uneven shapes or
thickness , oil quenching should be adopted .
3) The article should be placed in such a way that it can
expand freely in all directions .
4) The article to be treated should be cleaned and free from
dirt , grease, oil , rust , etc.,
5) The box in which the process is to be carried out should
be cemented with fire clay . It should be seen that air is
thoroughly excluded from the box .
6) The thickness of carburizing layer should be atleast 25mm
all round the article.

3) Cementing process
In this process or technique , the skin of the steel is
saturated with carbon . The process consists in heating of the
steel in a carbon rich medium between the temperature of 880 0 C
– 9500C .

Hardening
The object of this process is just the reverse of that of the
annealing process . steel is to be made hard by this process
whereas it is made soft by annealing process .
5.16 Engineering Chemistry-II

The process of hardening is just similar to that of

annealing except that there is difference in rate of cooling .
In hardening process, cooling is to be carried out at
controlled rate . Such a controlled rate of cooling is known as
quenching . Following are the mediums of quenching :

i) Air :
The hot article is allowed to cool down in still air . A mild
quench is obtained by this medium.
ii)Oil :
The hot article is dropped in oil to cool down . Quenching in oil
is quite slow . But it helps in preventing the quenching cracks
developed due to rapid expansion of the article .
iii) water:
This is the most commonly adopted medium for quenching . The
hot article is dropped in water to cool down . It is used for carbon
steels and for medium carbon low alloy steels .
5. Nitriding
The process of saturating the surface layer of steel with
nitrogen by heating is known as nitriding . the heating is carried
out between the temperatures 5000C to 7000C in an atmosphere of
Ammonia . The thickness of nitriding layer may vary from 0.01
mm to 1.00 mm . the treatment makes the steel hard and increases
it’s resistance to corrosion , wear and fatigue .
6 .Normalizing
The object of this process is to restore steel structure to
normal condition and it is adopted when structure of steel is
seriously disturbed for any reason . This process also makes the
material reasonably ductile without seriously affecting it’s
strength .
Alloys 5.17

Following is the procedure of normalizing :

i) Steel is heated , the usual temperature range being
8430C – 9540C
ii) It is then allowed to cool down in air . As cooling is
more rapid , less time is available to achieve
equilibrium and as a result of this the material
becomes harder than fully annealed steel .

7. Tempering
This process is applied to steel which are heated with the
hardening process This process achieves the following two
objects :
i) It develops the desired combination of hardness and
ductility
ii) It relieves high residual stresses developed during
hardening process .

Following is the procedure adopted for tempering :

i) The article after being quenched in hardening process

is reheated to suitable temperature. This temperature
should be below the critical temperature .
ii) The temperature is maintained for a certain period .
The duration of period depends on quality of steel
required and composition of steels .
iii) The article is then allowed to cool down in still air .
5.18 Engineering Chemistry-II

Review questions :
1. Define alloy
2. What are the properties of metals ?
3. Mention the purposes of making alloys
4. Write a brief note on classification of alloys
5. Discuss i) Nichrome ii) Alnico iii) solders
6. Write a brief note on stainless steel
7. Give a brief account of i) brass ii) bronze
8. What is meant by heat treatment ?
9. Mention the purposes of heat treatment
10. Describe case hardening in detail.
11. Explain i) Hardening ii) Tempering iii) Annealing