Diponegoro 

University, Semarang, Indonesia
October 26, 2020 Brief CV

1986‐1988     Graduate School of Engineering,
Tottori University
1988‐1998     Central Research Institute of Electric 
Novel beach preservation method learnt from Power Industry
natural beachrock formation mechanism  1998‐2002     Assistant Professor, Osaka University
2002‐2014    Associate Professor, Hokkaido University
2014‐Today    Professor, Hokkaido University

Satoru KAWASAKI
Faculty of Engineering
Hokkaido University

Background Background

• Construction of breakwaters
• Performance of sand bypass 

• The solutions are expensive.
• Production of cement    Okinawa, Japan
releases large amount of CO2. The model for the artificial rock is “Beachrock”.
• Beachrocks are coastal sediments that have  Advantages
http://photohito.com/photo/1366305/
We consider the use of an  been cemented mainly by CaCO3 within  • Solidified naturally at beach
Coastal erosion  the intertidal zone. • Self repairing ability
eco‐friendly artificial rock. • Their formative period ranges from several  • Shorter formative period
e.g., Amanohashidate in Kyoto, Japan
decades to several thousand years.  than other sedimentary rocks
 Relationship between latitude and the formative 
period of beachrocks distributed around the world

• Beachrock occurrence
(Danjo and Kawasaki, 2012)
Danjo and Kawasaki (2012)

Beachrock occurences in Japan Relationship between latitude and the formative 
period of beachrocks distributed in Japan
Sapporo

Site I

Tokyo
Kyoto
Osaka

Site O
(Danjo and Kawasaki, 2012)
•, Beachrock occurrence
 Comparison of cement composition and formation  
Cement composition of beachrock mechanisms of beachrock for 58 sites around the world
Ar and LMC,  Al and Si, 1 Silica, 1 Cement composition Formation mechanisms
1
Al and Si 
LMC, 3 compounds  Silica (1) CO2 –
(1)
degassing
MC and Ar, 9
Aragonite 
(5) Various(10) Seawater
evaporation
(Ar), 20 and/or 
biological 
Mg calcite   processes
(MC), 9 (26)
HMC, Ar and  CaCO3 compounds
Low Mg 
(56)
calcite  C, 14
(LMC), 2 High Mg 
calcite       Ar and       Sea and fresh  Precipitation from 
HMC and Ar,  (HMC), 8 Calcite (C), 3 water mixing (5) fresh water (12)
6

Objective

Formation mechanisms of 
beachrocks in Okinawa and 
Ishikawa, Japan

In this study, we performed several tests

to understand the formation mechanisms of
beachrocks to aid in our ability to make
artificial beachrock.
 Study sites Study sites
Site I

Sapporo

Ishikawa

Ishikawa

Kyoto
Tokyo
Osaka
Site O

Okinawa
Okinawa
• Beachrock occurrence
Danjo and Kawasaki (2012)

Site O (Okinawa) Site I (Ishikawa) Methods

Landward
Buried →
Mechanical properties

• Needle penetration test

Chemical properties Biological properties
Seaward
• Elemental analysis • Microbial population   
Exposed • Mineral analysis count
Buried ← Exposed
• Water analysis • Urease activity test
Exposed beachrock and buried beachrock exist at each site.
About needle penetration test
To identify a cement

SEM・・・ Scanning electron microscope

qu (kN/m2)
EDX ・・・ Energy dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy

XRD ・・・ X‐ray diffraction
Penetration
quantity:
10 mm
Np (N/mm)
• http://www.ndtrental.jp/index.php?main_page=index&cPath=100_139
• Literature of this device

Results: Needle penetration test
Exposed 
28
beachrock
Site O Buried 
3.4
beachrock
Results and Discussion Exposed 
3.3
beachrock
Site I Buried 
0.5
beachrock
0 10 20 30
Unconfined compressive strength, qu (MPa)
qu: Site O ＞ Site I,
Exposed beachrock ＞ Buried beachrock
 XRD results about Site O’s samples Process of consideration about  
the beachrock formation mechanism (1)
Mg‐Calcite 1. Analysis of the beachrock cement by SEM, EDX and XRD
C                         O               Mg Ca
Aragonite

Measurement point
P1
Quartz
P1 HMC
P2 P2

HMC P3
30 μm
P3
10 μm ↑Erginal (2008) 0              20             40             60              80          100
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Elemental percentage (wt%)
↑ SEM image (Beachrock in Okinawa, Japan) ↑ EDX results
• High Mg calcite (HMC) is a polymorph of CaCO3 containing more than 1.2 wt% MgCO3.

The cement was high Mg-calcite(HMC).

2. Literature search about HMC precipitation

• Mg/ Ca molar ratio in the solution ≧ 4
• Malate and citrate favor the formation of HMC.

Process of consideration about   Process of consideration about  
the beachrock formation mechanism (2) the beachrock formation mechanism (3)
4. Urease activity test of bacteria in the sand near beachrock
3. Water analysis (about seawater near the beachrock)
• Mg/ Ca molar ratio in the solution ≧ 4 • Mg/ Ca molar: 6.3 (＞4)
• Malate and citrate favor the formation of • Unconfined sediments near
HMC. beachrock contain sea algae, shells,
corals and bacteria. So, these organic
matters might give malate or citrate. Sand near beachrock

• Distilled water
When seawater evaporates in the above condition, HMC would be precipitate. • Urea CO(NH2)2
• Cresol red : 7.2 → 8.8
CO(NH2)2 + 3H2O → 2NH4+ + 2OH‐ + CO2
H2O + CO2 → HCO3‐ + H+
Marine bacteria Ca2+ + HCO3‐ + OH‐ → H2O + CaCO3↓
Some bacteria had urease activity. Bacterial ureolysis would have resulted in 
precipitation of  HMC. 
 Formation mechanisms of 
Urease activity test  beachrock at Site O
B Bacteria
Org.  Organic matter

Biological processes 
‐ ureolysis
Ca2+ B
Mg2+ Urea
Seawater Org.  B
ZoBell 2216E medium Ca2+
(for marine bacteria) Buried beachrock
Exposed beachrock Coral sand

Comparison of cement composition and formation  
Formation mechanisms of  mechanisms of beachrock for 58 sites around the world
beachrock at Site O Cement composition Formation mechanisms
B Al and Si 
Bacteria compounds  Silica (1) CO2 – Site O
Org.  Organic matter (1)
degassing
Site I (5) Various(10) Seawater
evaporation
and/or 
biological 
Seawater evaporation processes
Site O (26)
Seawater Mg2+ Org.  CaCO3 compounds
Mg2+ B (56)
Ca2+
Ca2+ Site I
Buried beachrock
Org.  B Sea and fresh  Precipitation from 
Exposed beachrock Coral sand water mixing (5)
fresh water (12)
Site O’s beachrock was more similar to the other ones.
 Conclusions

Coastal sand solidification test   
Site qu Cement Formation mechanism Future plan using ureolytic bacteria
Bacterial urease activity,
O 28 MPa HMC High priority
Seawater evaporation

Al and Si Mixing of seawater and 
I 3 MPa Low priority
compounds spring water

Comparison of cement composition and formation 
Background mechanisms of beachrock for 58 sites around the world
Cement composition Formation mechanisms
Al and Si 
compounds  Silica (1) CO2 – Okinawa
(1)
degassing
(5) Various(10) Seawater
evaporation
Our study site: Beachrock in 
Nago, Okinawa, Japan
and/or 
biological 
Formation mechanism of the right beachrock (Danjo and Kawasaki, 2014) processes
Bacterial ureolysis and/or seawater evaporation would have resulted 
Okinawa (26)
in precipitation of high Mg‐calcite, leading to beachrock formation. CaCO3 compounds
*High Mg‐calcite is a polymorph of CaCO3 containing more than 1.2 wt% MgCO3. (56)
Bacterial ureolysis and CaCO3 precipitation
CO(NH2)2 + 3H2O → 2NH4+ + 2OH‐ +CO2
Sea and fresh  Precipitation from 
CO2 + H2O → HCO3‐ + H+ water mixing (5)fresh water (12)
Ca2+ + HCO3‐ +OH‐ → CaCO3↓ + H2O Pararhodobacter sp. Okinawa’s beachrock was similar to the other ones.
MICP process Example image of microbially‐induced carbonate 
4
precipitation: MICP (125 minutes later)
1

2 3

Methodology
Objectives
To create an artificial rock, we conducted a solidification test for 
coral sand using the ureolytic bacteria isolated from the sand near 
the beachrock in Nago, Okinawa, Japan. 

Bacteria cultivation
1. To obtain the specimen whose unconfined compressive  Culture medium
Culture medium
strength (UCS) is more than several MPa.

2. To consider the effects of test conditions on the UCS.

Syringe specimens Shaking culture medium

in flasks
Methodology Methods (Syringe solidification test)
0.5, 1 or 2 day
interval

Ca2+ ion & pH

Consolidation
solution

Needle
penetration
test
Solidified sample
1. 40 g of dried coral sand was placed in a 35 mL syringe.

Methods (Syringe solidification test) Methods (Syringe solidification test)

SC composition
Nutrient broth              3.0 g/L
NH4Cl                            10.0 g/L
NaHCO3 2.1 g/L
Urea                              18.0 g/L
CaCl2 33.3 g/L
Sodium malate 0, 1 or 5 g/L 

3. 20 mL of the solution for consolidation (SC) was injected

2. 16 mL of a culture medium solution was injected. and drained off.
The solution contained bacteria Pararhodbacter sp.
Methods (Syringe solidification test) Methods (Syringe solidification test)
5. After 14 days curing, we measured as follows.
• UCS
• Elemental composition
SC composition
Nutrient broth              3.0 g/L • Microbial population
NH4Cl                            10.0 g/L
NaHCO3 2.1 g/L
Urea                              18.0 g/L
CaCl2 33.3 g/L
Sodium malate 0, 1 or 5 g/L 

4. The SC was injected and drained at several intervals.

In the curing, the specimen was kept wet condition by a pinchcock.
Curing temperature was fixed.

Test cases Result 1: Curing temperature (Syringe test)
2.5
Standard condition

Estimated UCS (MPa)
・ Curing temperature                               30 °C 2

・ Injection interval                                     1 day 1.5
・ Addition of sodium malate to SC         0 g/L
1

Syringe tests (14 days curing, φ: 2.5 cm, h: 7 cm) 0.5
We changed only one of the following parameters from the
0
standard condition. 20 25 30 35 40
・ Curing temperature                                25, 30 or 35 °C Curing temperature (℃)
・ Injection interval                                     0.5, 1 or 2 day • UCSs became larger with curing temperature.
・ Addition of sodium malate to SC         0, 1 or 5 g/L • Optimal growth temperature of the bacteria was 30‐40 °C (Foesel et  
al., 2011).
Column tests (10, 14, 21, and 28 day curing, φ: 5 cm, h: 11.5 cm) → It was considered that because the bacteria became more actively at
warmer temperature and CaCO3 precipitated more, the samples 
・ Standard condition only
could be solidified better at warmer temperatures.
Result 2: Addition of sodium malate  Result 3: Temporal variation in UCS and 
to solution for consolidation (Syringe test) microbial population (Column test)
Sodium malate 0 g/L 8 1.0E+08
Sodium malate 5 g/L

Microbial population, MP
7 1.0E+07
6 1.0E+06

UCS (MPa)

(CFU/mL)
5 1.0E+05
4 1.0E+04

High Mg‐calcite 3 1.0E+03
UCS
2 MP (top) 1.0E+02
MP (middle)
1 MP (bottom) 1.0E+01
0 1.0E+00
Estimated UCS: 1.2±0.5 MPa Estimated UCS: 1.0±0.2 MPa 28 day curing specimen
0 10 20 30 40
EDX result: EDX result: Curing time (day) (φ: 5 cm, h: 10 cm)
C O Ca C O Ca
18.3 wt% 49.6 wt% 31.5 wt% 15.6 wt% 40.3 wt% 42.7 wt% • UCSs tended to increase exponentially with time and the specimen 
Mg: 0 wt% Mg: 0.6 wt% (MgCO3:2.1 wt%)  solidified at 7.0 MPa UCS after 28 day curing in the standard 
*High Mg‐calcite is a polymorph of CaCO3 containing more than 1.2 wt% MgCO3. condition (30 °C, 1 day interval).
Cement → Aragonite Cement → High Mg‐calcite • Microbial populations varied within 106 – 107 CFU/mL.

Conclusions
In this study, as part of a process to create artificial rock, 
we conducted a solidification test on coral sand using local bacteria.

• The coral sand specimen (φ: 5 cm, h: 10 cm)  solidified and     
Model test for sand solidification 
presented a 7.0 MPa UCS after 28 day curing using the 
Pararhodobacter sp. found near the beachrock in Okinawa, Japan.
using ureolytic bacteria

• The effects of curing conditions on the UCS were as follows:
‐ Curing temperature (25‐35 °C); UCSs were larger at warmer    
conditions.
‐ Sodium malate ; No addi ve→ The cement was aragonite.
Addi ve      → The cement was high Mg‐calcite.
 Objective Methodology
Laboratory model tests were conducted for
obtained uniformly strengthen soil sample. Consolidation 
solution
Moreover, the strength characteristics were
observed. Inlet

Experiment Conditions
Injection  Re‐injection of  
2 cm
Case 
Temperature
interval Curing 
Population 
bacteria
Height of 
Sand material 
14 cm
of bacteria  sample 
No. time (Particle size: mm)
(g) (cm) Sand 9 cm
(°C) 1 Day (After 7 days)

1 14
c c Outlet
25 x 13 9 cm Mikawa (0.6 mm)
2 21 x
20 cm
Permeable plastic plate

Testing Case 1: Lab model for solidification of Mikawa

sand with 9 cm height using ureolytic bacteria

Results and Discussions Day‐01 Day‐07 Day‐14

Curing time is 14 days
Culture solution for 1300 mL Cementation media for 1500 mL
Chemical Chemical concentration (g)
Chemical Chemical concentration (g) Nutrient broth  4.5
Tris buffer  20.475 NH4Cl 15
Yeast extract 26 NaHCO3 3.18
Urea 45.06
(NH4)2SO4 13
CaCl2 83.25
Testing Case 2: Lab model for solidification of Mikawa Testing case -01
pH and Ca2+ Testing case -02
sand with 9 cm height using ureolytic bacteria and re‐
injection of bacteria after 7 days. Re‐injection of bacteria
pH
8.5

8.0

7.5

pH
Day‐01 Curing time is 21 days Day‐07
7.0

6.5

6.0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Time (Day)

Day‐14 Day‐21

Testing case -01

pH and Ca2+ Testing case -02
Color observation with the time
4
Color of the sample (∆L*) up
Re‐injection of bacteria 14.00
12.00
2 1
3 10.00
Testing case ‐ 01
Ca2+ 8.00

∆L*
6.00
30000 4.00
1 2 3 15 16 17 2.00
25000 1 4 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
5 -2.00
4 6 18 19 20 Location
20000
Ca2+ (mg/L)

Day-01 Day-06 Day-14

15000 7 8 11 12
Color of the sample (∆L*) up
2 3 14.00
10000 9 10 13 14 12.00
10.00 Testing case ‐ 02
5000 Measurement point of the color using a colorimeter
8.00

∆L*
6.00
4.00
0 2.00
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 0.00
Time (Day) -2.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Location

Day-01 Day-03 Day-11 Day-21

Colorimeter
 Sample coring Cylindrical sample with 3 cm diameter
and 6 cm height
Estimated UCS results vertically cored sample

Estimated UCS Estimated UCS

12 12

Estimated UCS (MPa)

Estimated UCS (MPa)
10 10
S05 8 S01
8
S06 6 S02
6 4
4 S11 S04
2
2 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Depth from top (cm) Depth from top (cm)

Horizontally cored samples Vertically cored samples
Horizontally cored samples Vertically cored samples Testing Case ‐ 01 Testing Case ‐ 02
up

Testing case ‐ 01 Testing case ‐ 02 Depth from top to 

bottom
Estimated 
UCS 

down

Estimated UCS results horizontally cored Results of XRD observation Testing Case ‐ 02

sample Testing case ‐ 02 Vertically cored sample  Horizontally cored sample 
SiO2 – 91.5% and CaCO3 – 8.5% 
Estimated UCS (Horizontal
coring)
Estimated UCS (MPa)

12 Edge 1 Edge 2
10 Top

CaCO3 content 
8 S07

decreased.
6 S09
4 S10 SiO2 – 92.6%  SiO2 – 93.5% 
2
0 CaCO3 – 7.4%  CaCO3 – 6.5% 
0 2 4 6 8
Distance (cm) Bottom
Difference of CaCO3
content is small.
Increase
Difference of UCS  SiO2 – 96.5% and CaCO3 – 3.5%
value is small.
 X‐CT results of the model test samples X‐CT results of the model test samples
Ca2+ and bacteria

Top Middle Bottom

Increase
CaCO3 precipitation decreased.

UCS decreased. ?
Comparison of relationship between UCS and CaCO3
content with previous studies (Syringe test)  Concluding remarks
14
12
10 qu = 66.6 x2 + 3.5287 x  Bacteria concentration 
UCS (MPa)

8
y = 66.6x2 + 3.5287x
R² = 0.7229
 Re‐injection of bacteria 
where, qu = UCS (MPa)
6
4
 Particle size 
2
x = CaCO3 content (g / g sand)  Injection interval
0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40  Concentration of the cementation media
CaCO3 (g / g sand)
 Curing time 
14
 Temperature
UCS / Estimated UCS (MPa)

12 y = 44.06x2 + 21.973x
R² = 0.6624
10
There is a small gap 8 Resultsfrom
Results fromLab
lab model
tests tests
model More than 3 MPa of estimated UCS value obtained
between UCS value 6
Resultsfrom
Results fromsyringe
syringe
4
tests
test More than 10 MPa:
and estimated UCS 2 y = 66.6x2 + 3.5287x
R² = 0.7229
0  Changing concentration of cementation media
value. 0.00 0.20
CaCO3 (g / g sand)
0.40
 Re‐injection of the bacterial solution
Thank you so much for your attention!

Satoru KAWASAKI
Hokkaido University
E‐mail: kawasaki@geo‐er.eng.hokudai.ac.jp