SOLUTIONS

Solutions
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances whose
concentration can be varied within certain limits
EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS

The amount of solute dissolved in a particular amount of the

solvent
 O - 3doeSee
S

M
Molarity -

Number of moles of solute present in 1 L of the solution

↳
&
M =
-
L
Molality

Number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of the solvent

Mole fraction
Mole fraction is the ratio of the number of moles of a particular
component to the total number of moles of solution.
A mixture contains 3.2g methanol (molecular mass = 32u) and 4.6g
ethanol (molecular mass = 46u). Find the mole fraction of each
component.
 SOLUBILITY
The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in 100 g of
the solvent at a given temperature
Henry’s law

The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the

pressure of the gas
Applications of Henry’s Law

1) In the production of carbonated drinks- In the preparation of

soda water the bottle is sealed at high pressure

2) In the deep sea diving (bends / compressed sickness)

To avoid bends, as well as, the toxic effects of high concentrations

of nitrogen in the blood, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled
with air diluted with helium (11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and
32.1% oxygen)

3) In the function of lungs

4) For climbers or people living in high altitude (Anoxia)

Henry’s law is related to solubility of a gas in liquid.
(i) State Henry’s law. (2)
(ii) Write any two applications of Henry’s law
VAPOUR PRESSURE OF LIQUID SOLUTIONS

The pressure developed above the liquid at a given temperature

and equilibrium point
 Raoult’s law
For any solution the partial vapour pressure of each volatile
component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole
fraction
1. Liquid –liquid solution
For a solution of two volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure
of each component in the solution is directly proportional to its
mole fraction.
Vapour pressure of a solution is different from that of pure solvent.
i) Name the law which helps us to determine partial vapour
pressure of a volatile component in a solution.
ii) State the above law.
IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS
Ideal solutions
Examples
Non-Ideal solutions
1. +ve Deviation
Examples
2. –ve Deviation

A A A B B

A A BB
B
A

A A

B A B
Examples
Azeotropic mixtures
Azeotropes are binary mixtures having the same composition in
liquid and vapour phase and boil at a constant temperature.

In such cases, it is not possible to separate the components by

fractional distillation.

The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s

law form minimum boiling azeotrope

95% ethanol + 5% water -78 c

The solutions which show a large negative deviation from Raoult’s

law form maximum boiling azeotrope

68% HNO3 + 32% water -120 c

Liquid solutions can be classified into ideal and non-ideal solutions
on the basis of Raoult’s law.
a) State Raoult’s law. (1)
b) What are ideal solutions? (1)
c) Write any two properties of ideal solutions. (1)
d) What type of deviation is shown by a mixture of chloroform and
acetone? Give reason.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES AND DETERMINATION OF MOLAR MASS

1. Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure

2. Elevation of Boiling Point

3. Depression of Freezing Point

4. Osmotic Pressure
1. Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
Vapour pressure of a solvent decreases when a non-volatile solute
is added

>
-
nook frastron of solu

- E - E
X .

Prat > "Psaltwaly

X
X poA p
A
2. Elevation of Boiling Point
Boiling point of a solvent increases when a non-volatile solute is
added
3. Depression of Freezing Point
Freezing point of a solvent decreases when a non-volatile solute
is added
4. Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis
The flow of solvent molecules from pure solvent to solution or a
solution of low concentration to a solution of higher concentration
through a semipermeable membrane
 Types of osmosis
1. Exo-osmosis 2. Endo-osmosis

Outward flow of water from a Inward flow of water into a cell through
----

cell through SPM SPM

--

Eg: raw mangoes in saline water Eg: dried fruuits and vegetables in
shrivels water swell up
Osmotic Pressure
The minimum pressure that must be applied to the solution side to
stop osmosis called as osmotic pressure
Reverse osmosis

The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger

than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side

Eg: Desalination of sea water

Colligative properties can be used to determine the molar mass of
solutes in solutions.
a) What do you mean by colligative properties? (1)
b) For determining the molecular mass of polymers, osmotic
pressure is preferred to other properties. Why?
c) For intravenous injections only solutions with osmotic pressure
equal to that of 0.9% NaCl solution is used. Why?

The magnitude of osmotic pressure is large even for very dilute

solutions.

So osmosis does not occur if we place the blood cells in this

solution.
The boiling point of benzene is 353.23 K. When 1.80 g of a non-
volatile solute was dissolved in 90 g of benzene, the boiling point is
raised to 354.11K. Calculate the molar mass of the solute. Kb for
I
benzene is 2.53 K kg mol.
-
 pur
Calculate the osmotic pressure exerted by a solution prepared by
dissolving 1.5 g of a polymer of molarmass
185000 in 500ml of water at 37 C. (R = 0.0821 L O atm/K/mol)
MB ↑ 310k
VmL = 273 + 37 =

82(x 310 x 100

=DRT
1 . 5
x100 -

500
18500 x

atm
=
only
ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS

Molar mass that is either lower or higher than the expected or

normal value is called as abnormal molar mass.

Abnormal molar mass is due to the association or dissociation of

solute particle
Van’t Hoff factor

Measure of extant of Association or Dissociation of solute

Modified expression for colligative properties
'The extent to which a solute is dissociated or associated can be
expressed by Van't Hoff factor.' Substantiate the statement.
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
Nomenclature
Methods of Preparation
Preparation of Alcohols
1. From alkenes

2. From carbonyl compounds

3. From Grignard reagents

From alkenes
(i) By acid catalysed hydration

Alkenes react with water in the presence of acid as catalyst to form alcohols
(ii) By hydroboration–oxidation
Diborane (BH3)2 reacts with alkenes to give trialkyl boranes as addition
product. This is oxidised to alcohol by hydrogen peroxide in the presence
of aqueous sodium hydroxide
2. From carbonyl compounds Aldehyd 3 signed
reagent
From Aldehydes and Ketones
Reduction
Using Grignard reagents
,
HCH O -
i
RMg
H20
X
RCH2OH
-

2)

R CHO I
-
4) RMqx R - CH-R -
zo
27 H20
of
R
RMgx
I
>
-
R- C R- zo
RCOR
-

2) H2O
H
(ii) From Carboxylic acids and Esters
Predict the products A and B.
It

- O
Proper 04
B2't
(CHCHEC
OH
-
-- CHz (He CHe
-

propan-to
-
↑

-
--
Give the structural formula and IUPAC name of the product formed
by the reaction of propanone with CH3MgBr in dry ether, followed
by hydrolysis
Preparation of Phenols
1. From Haloarenes

2. From Benzenesulphonic acid

3. From Diazonium salts

4. From Cumene
1. From Haloarenes
2. From Benzenesulphonic acid
3. From Diazonium salts ot
NH
Fea I

O
⑱\
-
-\
-
Los NaNO2
H20
LI
[J
·
>
-

HC/ O -
Aniline warng
1, ↳
--
--
Nitrous
And Benzene Diazonum
chloride
-
--
 O
4. From Cumene
Ct
cit_ie Cly o O #
- - -

W
- H2 01 A +
LOS
I
02
Los
I
-

hydropenoid
sum
Isopropylbenzene
- -
OH
I
Clamem]
w

Lo
Phend
- - -
-

Commercial presDonations Chz cocky

manuka
thing
- Acetone
What is cumene? Explain the preparation of phenol from cumene.

When cumene is oxidised in presence of air followed by hydrolysis

in presence of acid, we get phenol
How are the following conversions carried out?
A. Propene to Propan-2-ol.
B. Ethanal to Ethanol
Write the preparation of propan-2-ol from a Grignard reagent

Acetaldehyde (ethanal) reacts with methyl magnesium bromide

followed by acidification, we get propan-2-ol
Give the structural formula and IUPAC name of the product formed
by the reaction of propanone with CH3MgBr in dry ether, followed by
hydrolysis
Chemical Reactions
(a) Reactions involving cleavage of O–H bond

(b) Reactions involving cleavage of C–O bond in alcohols

Reactions involving cleavage of O–H bond

1. Acidity of alcohols and phenols

2. Esterification
Chemical Reactions
Acidity of alcohols and phenols
The acidic character of alcohols is due to the polar nature of O–H
bond
An electron-releasing group (–CH3, –C2H5) increases electron
density on oxygen tending to decrease the polarity of O-H bond.
This decreases the acid strength
Alcohols are, however, weaker acids than water
Acidity of phenols

Phenols are stronger acids than alcohols and water

Phenoxide ion is stabilised by resonance
In substituted phenols, the presence of electron withdrawing
groups such as nitro group, enhances the acidic strength of phenol
Of
I
- T
L
A . S
①

KO2 Ewa

The presence of electron releasing groups such decreases the

acidic strength of phenol
OH
-
-
Sti
L ⑥
A -

s EDU
OH
Ol O
* f

L> [] -
-

- > Los
B
·
2. Esterification

Alcohols and phenols react with carboxylic acids, acid chlorides

and acid anhydrides to form esters.
Acetylation of salicylic acid produces aspirin
Write the name of products formed when salicylic acid is treated
with acetic anhydride in acid medium
Oy

What is aspirin? How is it prepared from salicylic acid

Aspirin is acetyl salicylic acid. It is prepared by the acetylation

of salicylic acid
Reaction with hydrogen halides

A c1 >
- RCI + H20
ROH +
-
30 >
-
Immediate
Le
L2 >
- 5 minute
Abidity (10 >
-
no
trobidity
B Room
TemlI
 Lucas Test

Tertiary alcohols react with Lucas reagent and form immediate

turbidity
Secondary alcohols form a turbidity within 5 minutes
Primary alcohols do not produce turbidity at room temperature.
Explain Lucas test to distinguish primary, secondary and tertiary
alcohols

Give a reagent which is used to distinguish 1 , 2 and 3 alcohols

Tertiary alcohols react with Lucas reagent and form immediate

turbidity;
Secondary alcohols form a turbidity within 5 minutes while primary
alcohols do not produce turbidity at room temperature.
But they give turbidity on heating
Reaction with phosphorus trihalides
Dehydration
Predict the product formed in the reaction
Con H2S 04
CH3-CH2-OH
-

443K
Reactions of phenols
1. Electrophilic aromatic substitution

2. Kolbe’s reaction

3. Reimer-Tiemann reaction

4. Reaction of phenol with zinc dust

5. Oxidation
1. Electrophilic aromatic substitution

The –OH group attached to the benzene ring activates it towards

electrophilic substitution.

Also, it directs the incoming group to ortho and para positions in

the ring as these positions become electron rich due to the
resonance effect caused by –OH group
Nitration
With dilute nitric acid at low temperature (298 K), phenol yields a
mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols
With concentrated nitric acid, phenol is converted to
2,4,6-trinitrophenol
Halogenation
When the reaction is carried out in solvents of low polarity such as
CHCl3 or CS2 and at low temperature, monobromophenols are
formed
When phenol is treated with bromine water, 2,4,6-tribromophenol
is formed as white precipitate
Kolbe’s reaction
Reimer-Tiemann reaction
On treating phenol with chloroform in the presence of sodium
hydroxide, a –CHO group is introduced at ortho position of
benzene ring
ONG OH
OH I I
-
- CHC12 -CHO
-

-
I CHC y + NEOH
L
·
-

1) NAPH Los
Los >
- -
2) If+

Salicylalchyck
-
phene
Reaction of phenol with zinc dust
Phenol is converted to benzene on heating with zinc dust
5. Oxidation
Explain the following reactions (i) Reimer-Tiemann reaction

Phenol when treated with chloroform in the presence of NaOH,

followed by acidification, we get salicylaldehyde
How can the following conversions be effected:
(i) Phenol Benzene
(ii) Phenol 2, 4, 6-Trinitrophenol
How are the following conversions carried out? Represent the
chemical reactions.
a) Ethanol to ethanal
b) Phenol to picric acid
c) Phenol to benzene
d) Phenol to tribromophenol
1. Methanol
Methanol, CH3OH, also known as ‘wood spirit’, was produced by
destructive distillation of wood.

Today, most of the methanol is produced by catalytic hydrogenation

of carbon monoxide at high pressure and temperature and in the
presence of ZnO – Cr2O3 catalyst
 2. Ethanol

The sugar in molasses, sugarcane or fruits such as grapes is

converted to glucose and fructose, in the presence of an enzyme,
invertase.

Glucose and fructose undergo fermentation in the presence of

another enzyme, zymase, which is found in yeast
 (i) What is “Wood spirit”? (1)
(ii)Explain the commercial preparation of wood spirit. Give the
chemical equation.

Today, most of the methanol is produced by catalytic hydrogenation

of carbon monoxide at high pressure and temperature and in the
presence of ZnO – Cr2O3 catalyst
Ethers
Preparation of Ethers
1. By dehydration of alcohols

2. Williamson synthesis
By dehydration of alcohols
Williamson synthesis

In this method, an alkyl halide is allowed to react with sodium

alkoxide
If a tertiary alkyl halide is used, an alkene is the only reaction
product and no ether is formed
To synthesis tertiary butyl ether, which of the following reagent
sets are better? Justify
Write the correct pair of reactants for the preparation of t-butyl
ether by Williamson synthesis
Chemical Reactions
1. Reaction with Hydrogen halide

2. Electrophilic substitution
Reaction with Hydrogen halide
When one of the alkyl group is a tertiary group, the halide formed
is a tertiary halide
Identify A and B in the following reaction
2. Electrophilic substitution
(i) Halogenation
(ii) Friedel-Crafts reaction
(iii) Nitration
Complete the following
Explain the following:
i) Esterification ii) Williamson Synthesis

Esterification: Alcohols and phenols react with carboxylic acids,

acid chlorides and acid anhydrides to form esters.

Williamson Synthesis: Alkyl halide reacts with sodium alkoxide to

form ether. This reaction is called Williamson’s ether synthesis
Living systems are made up of various complex
biomolecules like; ▪
▪

Carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Vitamins
 /

Carbohydrates
 of
P
3
olt

&
-

Co
-

olt
.
~

- of
-

- OH

- uH
-
.... etc
off
. ef -
.

Carbohydrates may be defined as optically active

polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds
-

which produce such units on hydrolysis.

 Carbohydrates; Classification

Hydrolyse

Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their
behaviour on hydrolysis

(i) Monosaccharides

(ii) Oligosaccharides

(iii) Polysaccharides
(i) Monosaccharides

A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further to give

simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called
a monosaccharide

glucose
fructose
galactos .
 n

(ii) Oligosaccharides

Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide

units, on hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides
(iii) Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates which yield a large number of
monosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called
polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are further classified on the basis of
number of carbon atoms and the functional group
present in them
 Based on functional group

Aldose Ketose
Based on the number of carbon atoms
 Preparation of Glucose

1. From sucrose (Cane sugar)

2. From starch
Structure of Glucose

:
I 1

2 2

3
3

4
4

5
5

6
6
The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only
in the configuration of the hydroxyl group at C1, called
anomeric carbon.

Such isomers, i.e., -form and β-form, are

called anomers.
Pyranose structure
Fructose
Found in fruits, honey and vegetable

Molecular formula C6H12O6

Fructose is ketohexose
Cyclic Structure of Fructose
Furanose structure
Disaccharides

The two monosaccharides are joined together by an

oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule.

Such a linkage between two monosaccharide units

through oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage ·

X
Eg : Maltose >
-
17
t 77

Sucrose -
3 + 1

Lactose >
- 1 +
Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides contain a large number of

monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic
linkages
(i) Starch
It is a polymer of α-glucose and consists
of two components— Amylose and
Amylopectin
(ii) Cellulose

Cellulose is composed only of β-D-glucose units which

are joined by glycosidic linkage between C1 of one
glucose unit and C4 of the next glucose unit
(iii) Glycogen
The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as
glycogen.

It is also known as animal starch because its structure is

similar to amylopectin and is rather more highly
branched.

It is present in liver, muscles and brain.

When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the

glycogen down to glucose
Proteins

Proteins
All proteins are polymers of α-amino acids

•Bg qkT).g,ogm_
375g
They occur in every part of the body
and form the fundamental basis of
structure and functions of life.

They are also required for growth and maintenance

of body
-
Amino Acids
Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH)
functional groups
Classification of Amino Acids

Non-essential amino acids

The amino acids, which can be synthesised in the body, are

known as nonessential amino acids.

Essential amino acids

The amino acids which cannot be synthesised in the body and

must be obtained through diet, are known as essential amino
acids
Zwitter ion

In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can lose a

proton and amino group can accept a proton, giving rise
to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion
Formation of Proteins

Peptide bond or Peptide linkage

The -CO-NH- linkage between amino acid units in a protein

NH2– CH2–COOH + NH2– CH2–COOH

Polypeptides

When the number of amino acids joined is more than

ten, then the products are called polypeptides

Protein

A polypeptide with more than hundred amino acid

residues, having molecular mass higher than
10,000u is called a protein
 Classification of proteins
Based on molecular shape proteins are classified into two types,
fibrous protein and globular protein.
(a) Fibrous proteins
When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are
held together by hydrogen and disulphide bonds,

%
then fibre– like structure is formed

ʳˢʰ mmqm
Eg: Keratin , Myosin
(b) Globular proteins

This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil

around to give a spherical shape
-EoEEToaBdfgq

%BBBggggqmmaagqa.gg
Eg: Albumin , Insulin

orgy
!
Structure of Proteins
Structure and shape of proteins can be studied at four different
levels.

Primary structure

Secondary structure

Tertiary structure
Quaternary structure
(i) Primary structure of proteins

Amino acids linked with each other in a specific sequence and it

is this sequence of amino acids that is said to be the primary
structure of that protein
(ii) Secondary structure of proteins

The secondary structure of protein refers to the shape in

which a long polypeptide chain can exist
α -Helix
It is rod like structure, coiled polypeptide chain
arranged in spiral structure

The –NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen

bonded to the C=O of an adjacent turn of the helix
β-pleated sheet

It is sheet like structure, composed of two or more

peptide chain

They are laid side by side which are held together by

intermolecular hydrogen bonds
(iii) Tertiary structure of proteins

The tertiary structure of proteins represents overall folding of

the polypeptide chains i.e., further folding of the secondary
structure.

It gives rise to two major molecular shapes viz. fibrous and

globular
(iv) Quaternary structure of proteins

Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide

chains referred to as sub-units.

The spatial arrangement of these subunits with respect to each

other is known as quaternary structure
Denaturation of Proteins
When a protein in its native form, is subjected to physical
change like change in temperature or chemical change like
change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are disturbed. Due to this,
globules unfold and helix get uncoiled and protein loses its
biological activity. This is called denaturation of protein
Vitamins
Vitamins

Organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to

perform specific biological functions for normal maintenance
of optimum growth and health of the organism

Their deficiency causes specific diseases

Classification of Vitamins

(i) Fat soluble vitamins

Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water

(ii) Water soluble vitamins

Q.

Vitamin ‘C’ is a water soluble vitamin and must be supplied

regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in urine and
cannot be stored in our body.
 %3Baqgggggggg•
Vitamin A

BADAMI
Vitamin A deficiency lead to desease Xerophthalmia

If it goes untreated, it can progress into night blindness

Ñ r*i
Vitamin D

Vitamin D deficiency lead to desease

Rickets

B-%BBsgqg-tkqg.gg
Vitamin E
Deficiency could lead to increased fragility of RBCs and
mascular weakness.

Vitamin K
Increased blood clotting time
Vitamin B

Divided into B1 , B2 , B6 , B12

Beri-Beri (B1)
 Cheilosis (B2)

(fissuring at corners of mouth and lips), digestive disorders

and burning sensation of the skin.
Convulsions (B6)
Pernicious Anaemia (B12)
Vitamin C ( Ascorbic acid)

Vitamin C deficiency lead to desease Scurvy

 The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible for
heredity, are called chromosomes which are made up
of proteins and another type of biomolecules called
nucleic acids
Types of Nucleic acids

DNA

RNA
♻
Chemical Composition of Nucleic Acids
Pentose sugar

Phosphoric acid
Nitrogenous bases
 Nitrogenous bases

l
Adenine(A) Thymine(T) Guanine(G) Cytosine(C) Uracil(U)
 Structure of Nucleic Acids

Nucleoside Nucleotide

HO
Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage
between 5′ and 3′ carbon atoms of the pentose sugar
Structure of DNA
James Watson and Francis Crick

Double strand helix structure

Two nucleic acid chains are wound about each other

and held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of
bases.

The two strands are complementary to each other

because the hydrogen bonds are formed between
specific pairs of bases.
Structure of RNA

In secondary structure of RNA single stranded helics is

present which sometimes foldsback on itself.

RNA molecules are of three types and they perform different

functions.

They are named as messenger RNA (m-RNA), ribosomal RNA

(r-RNA) and transfer RNA (t-RNA).
M /
- 1
②Insulin
grecagos
blood sho
-
--
level