Chapter 11

Properties of Solutions
 Chapter Outline
1. Types of Solutions
2. Factors Affecting Solubility
3. Energies of Solution Formation
4. Solution Composition (concentration unit)

5. Colligative Properties
a) Vapor Pressure Lowering
b) Boiling Point Elevation
c) Freezing Point Depression

d) Osmotic Pressure
 Factors Affecting Solubility

1. Nature of solute and solvent

• Like Dissolves Like

2. Temperature & Solubility

• Solids
• Gases

3. Pressure and Gas Solubility

 Nature of Solute and Solvent
• Chemists use the axiom “like dissolves like”:
 Polar substances tend to dissolve in polar solvents.
 Ex. C2H5OH in H2O
 Non-polar substances tend to dissolve in non-polar
solvents.
 Ex. oil in C6H6
 ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents
 Ex. NaCl in H2O or NH3 (l)
 Solid Solubility Vs. Temperature

• Generally, the solubility of

solid solutes in liquid
solvents increases with
increasing temperature
 Temperature & the Solubility of Gases

• The solubility of gases

DECREASES at higher
temperatures
 Force
Pressure = Area
(force = mass x acceleration)

Units of Pressure

1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2

1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr
1 atm = 101,325 Pa

Barometer
5.2
 Pressure and Gas Solubility

• The solubility of liquids and

solids does not change
appreciably with pressure.

• But, the solubility of a gas in

a liquid is directly
proportional to its pressure.

• Increasing pressure above

solution forces more gas to
dissolve.
 Solubility of Common Compounds
Soluble compounds

NO3- salts

Na+, K+, NH4+ salts

Except for Ag+, Hg22+, Pb2+

Cl-, Br-, I- salts
those containing

Except for
SO42- salts Ba2+, Pb2+, Ca2+
those containing

Insoluble compounds
S2-, CO32-, PO43- salts

Except for Na+, K+, Ca2+

OH1- salts
those containing
Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 218
Solution Composition

Units of Concentration
Solution Concentrations: % Concentration

• % (m/m) =

• % (m/v) =

• % (v/v) =
Problem (Q1): 24 g of NaCl is dissolved in 152 g H2O. Calculate the % (m/m) of
the solution.
• Calculate the mass of solvent, in a solution
containing 3.0 mg of drug if the mass percent
is 3.5%
 Solutions and Concentrations

Molarity (M)= number of moles solute / V of solution in Liter

Molality (m) = number of moles solute / mass of solvent in Kg

Mole Fraction(χA) = number of moles solute /total moles of solution

 Solution Composition

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 Molarity

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 EXERCISE!

You have 1.00 mol of sugar in 125.0 mL of solution.

Calculate the concentration in units of molarity.

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 EXERCISE!

You have a 10.0 M sugar solution. What volume of

this solution do you need to have 2.00 mol of sugar?

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 EXERCISE!

How many moles of hydrochloric acid are in 200 mL of 0.15 M HCl?

 Exercise
Consider separate solutions of NaOH and KCl made
by dissolving 100.0 g of each solute in 250.0 mL of
solution. Calculate the concentration of each solution
in units of molarity.

10.0 M NaOH
5.37 M KCl
 Mole Fraction

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 Mole Conversions 
Given Grams, Convert to Moles

There are three steps to converting grams of a substance to moles.

1.Determine how many grams are given in the problem.

2.Calculate the molar mass of the substance.
3.Divide step one by step two.

The three steps above can be expressed in the following proportion:

 EXERCISE!

A solution of phosphoric acid was made by dissolving 8.00 g of H3PO4 in 100.0 mL of

water. Calculate the mole fraction of H3PO4. (Assume water has a density of 1.00 g/mL.)

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 Other Units

US FDA max dioxin levels in fish = 50 ppt

US EPA limit for Cu in drinking water = 1.3 ppm (by mass)

– ppm (1g per 106 g (mg/kg or mg/L))

– ppb (1g per 109 g (g/kg or g/L) )
– ppt (1g per 1012 g)
• What is the ppm of calcium in a 15 grams soil
sample if it is found that there is 98 micro-
grams of calcium in the sample? (1 gram =
1,000,000 micro-grams)
 Dilution

When a solution is diluted, solvent is added to lower its

concentration.

The amount of solute remains constant before and after the

dilution:

# of moles of solute BEFORE = # of moles of solute AFTER

M1V1 = M2V2
 Question?
A bottle of 0.500 M standard sucrose stock solution is in the lab.
Give precise instructions on how to use the stock solution to
prepare 250.00 ml of a 0.348 M sucrose solution.
Colligative properties
 Solutions

Colligative Properties
 Colligative Properties

Dissolving solute in a pure liquid will change the physical

properties of the liquid such as: Density, Vapor Pressure, Boiling
Point, Freezing Point, Osmotic Pressure

Colligative Properties are properties of a liquid that change

when a solute is added.

The magnitude of the change depends on the number of solute

particles in the solution, NOT on the identity of the solute
particles.
 Colligative Properties

• Vapor Pressure Lowering

• Boiling Point Elevation
• Freezing Point Depression
• Osmotic Pressure
What is vapor pressure
• Vapor pressure or equilibrium
vapor pressure: pressure
exerted by a vapor in
thermodynamic equilibrium with
its condensed phases (solid or
liquid) at a given temperature in
a closed system. (indication of a
liquid’s evaporation rate).
• Tendency of particles to escape
from the liquid (or a solid).
• A substance with a high vapor
pressure at normal temperatures
is often referred to as volatile.
 Henry’s Law

At pressure of few atmosphere or less, solubility of gas solute follows

Henry Law which states that the amount of solute gas dissolved in solution
is directly proportional to the amount of pressure above the solution .

C=kP

C = solubility of the gas (mole/L)

k = Henry’s Law Constant
P = partial pressure of gas

Henry’s Law Constants (25°C), k

N2 6.1×10−4M/atm
O2 1.3×10−3M/atm
CO2 3.1×10−2 M/atm
 Vapor Pressure Lowering

• The presence of a non-volatile solute means that fewer

solvent particles are at the solution’s surface, so less
solvent evaporates!
Raoult’s Law: Non-Electrolyte, Non-Volatile Solute

• The lowering of the vapor pressure when a non-volatile

solute is dissolved in a volatile solvent (A) can be
described by Raoult’s Law:

PA = cAP°A only the solvent (A) contributes to

the vapor pressure of the solution

PA = vapor pressure of solvent A above the solution

cA = mole fraction of the solvent A in the solution
P°A = vapor pressure of pure solvent A
Problem: What is the vapor pressure of water above a sucrose (MW=342.3
g/mol) solution prepared by dissolving 158.0 g of sucrose in 641.6 g of
water at 25 C?
The vapor pressure of pure water at 25  C is 23.76 mmHg.
Problem: Calculate the vapor pressure lowering, when 10.0 mL glycerol
(C3H8O3) is added to 500.0 mL water at 50C. At this temperature, the
vapor pressure of pure water is 92.5 torr and its density is 0.988 g/mL. The
density of glycerol is 1.26 g/mL.
 Mixtures of Volatile Liquids
Both liquids evaporate & contribute to the vapor pressure
 Raoult’s Law: Mixing Two Volatile Liquids
Since BOTH liquids are volatile and contribute to the vapor, the
total vapor pressure can be represented using Dalton’s Law:
PT = PA + PB

The vapor pressure from each component follows Raoult’s

Law:

PT = cAP°A + cBP°B

A liquid-liquid solution that obeys Raoult’s law is called ideal

solution
Problem: A solution is prepared by mixing 50g of acetone (CH3COCH3) and 50
g of methanol (CH3OH). What is the vapor pressure of this solution at
25C. Assume ideal gas behavior, the vapor pressure of pure acetone and
methanol at 25C are 271 and 143 torr, respectively.
Note: The actual vapor pressure of this solution is 161 torr!
Section 11.4
The Vapor Pressures of Solutions

A Solution Obeying Raoult’s Law

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Section 11.4
The Vapor Pressures of Solutions

Summary of the Behavior of Various Types of Solutions

Interactive Forces Between Deviation

ΔHsoln ΔT for Solution
Solute (A) and Solvent (B) from Example
Formation
Particles Raoult’s Law

None (ideal Benzene-

A  A, B  B  A  B Zero Zero
solution) toluene

Negative Acetone-
A  A, B  B < A  B Positive Negative
(exothermic) water

Positive Ethanol-
A  A, B  B > A  B Negative Positive
(endothermic) hexane

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Problem: What is the vapor pressure of a solution of 44.0 g of glycerol (C3H8O3) in
500.0 g of water at 25oC? The vapor pressure of water at 25oC is 23.76 torr. Glycerol
can be considered a dilute, non-volatile solvent which is behaving ideally.Type the
number?

https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-vapor-pressure-of-a-solution-of-44-0-g-of-glycer
ol-c3h8o3-in-500-0-g
Hint: In the previous problem: Calculate the mole fraction of acetone
and methanol in the vapor!