PROPERTIES OF

LIQUIDS AND
SOLIDS
GRADE 12 STEM- LESSON 2
PROPERTIES OF
LIQUIDS
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/
states-of-matter/latest/states-of-
matter_en.html
SURFACE TENSION
The property of the surface of a liquid
that allows it to resist an external force,
due to the cohesive nature of its
molecules.
VISCOSITY
Resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a
change in shape, or movement of
neighbouring portions relative to one
another. Viscosity denotes opposition to
flow.
CAPILLARY ACTION
It is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow
spaces without the assistance of, or even
in opposition to, external forces like
gravity.
VAPOR PRESSURE
Vapour pressure is a measure of the
tendency of a material to change into the
gaseous or vapour state, and it increases with
temperature.
BOILING POINT
The boiling point of a liquid is the
temperature at which its vapor pressure is
equal to the pressure of the gas above it.
PROPERTIES OF
SOLIDS
AMORPHOUS AND
CRYSTALLINE
SOLIDS
MELTING POINT
Temperature at which the solid and liquid forms of
a pure substance can exist in equilibrium. As heat
is applied to a solid, its temperature will increase
until the melting point is reached.
FREEZING POINT
is the temperature at which a liquid
becomes a solid at normal atmospheric
pressure.
SUBLIMATION
is the conversion between the solid and the gaseous
phases of matter, with no intermediate liquid stage.

For those of us interested in the water cycle.

Chapter 16
Solutions
 Mixtures – a review
• Mixture: a combination of two or more
substances that do not combine
chemically, but remain the same
individual substances; can be separated
by physical means.

• Two types:
– Heterogeneous
– Homogeneous
 Heterogeneous Mixture
• “Hetero” means “different”

• Consists of visibly different substances or

phases (solid, liquid, gas)

• Can be separated by filtering

• Example:
 Homogeneous Mixture
• “Homo” means the same
• has the same uniform appearance and
composition throughout; maintain one phase
(solid, liquid, gas)
• Commonly referred to as solutions
• Example:

Salt Water
 Solution
• Solution: a mixture of two or more substances
that is identical throughout (homogeneous)
• can be physically separated Salt water is
• composed of solutes and solvents considered a
solution. How can it
be physically
separated?
the substance being dissolved
the substance that dissolves the solute

Iced Tea Mix Iced Tea Water

(solute) (solution) (solvent)
 Solution
• The solvent is the largest part of the solution
and the solute is the smallest part of the
solution

S O L V E N T
S O L U T E
Chemistry-Borders IPC-Solutions-Borders
 Types of Solutions

Gaseous solutions – air = Oxygen + Nitrogen

Liquid solutions – drinks = mix + water

Solid solutions – alloys = steel, brass, etc

 Concentration
• the amount of solute dissolved in a
solvent at a given temperature

•described as dilute if it has

a low concentration of solute
dissolved

•described as concentrated
if it has a high concentration
of solute dissolved
 Concentration
•Unsaturated - has a less than the
maximum concentration of solute
dissolved

•Saturated - has the maximum

concentration of solute dissolved
(can see solid in bottom of
solution)

•Supersaturated -contains more

dissolved solute than normally
possible (usually requires an
increase in temperature followed
by cooling)
 Solubility
• the amount of solute that
dissolves in a certain amount of a
solvent at a given temperature
and pressure to produce a
saturated solution
Factors affecting solubility of solids
Temperaturee Shaking

increased temperature causes

solids to dissolve faster
Shaking (agitation) causes
solids to dissolve faster
Particle Sizee

Smaller particles dissolve

Faster because they have
more surface area

Note: Increasing the amount of solute

DOES NOT increase the rate of dissolving
 • Miscible liquids can easily dissolve in one
another.
• Immiscible liquids are not soluble in
each other.

Chemistry-Borders
 Polarity and Dissolving
• Chemists use the saying
“like dissolves like”:
Polar solutes tend to
dissolve in polar
solvents.
Nonpolar solutes tend to
dissolve in nonpolar
solvents.
Oil is nonpolar while water is
polar. They are immiscible.
Solubility Curves
Generally, the
solubility of solid
solutes in liquid
solvents increases
with increasing
temperature.
To read the
graph, find the
line for the
substance. The
amount that
dissolves at a
given
temperature is
on the y- axis.
 How much KNO3
dissolves in 100g
(or 100mL H2O
at 50oC?
1.Find the line (green)
2.Find the temperature
and follow up to the
line.(red arrow)
3. Read across to the y-
axis and this is the
answer. (blue arrow)
4. Since it is more than
½-way between 80 and
90, it is 87.
 A point on the line is a saturated solution.
 Above the line is supersaturated.
 Below the line is unsaturated.
Using Solubility Curves
What is the solubility of
NaNO3 in 100 g of H2O at
0°C?
73g NaNO3
How many grams of KNO3
will dissolve in 200g of
H2O at 45°C?
75g = ?
100g H2O 200g H2O
= 150 g KNO3
How much water is needed to
dissolve 190g of NaNO3 at
30°C?
95g = 190g
100g H2O ? g H2O
= 200 g H2O
Molarity
(M)
 Molarity
• Molarity is the concentration of a
solution expressed in moles of solute
per Liter of solution.
• Molarity is a conversion factor for
calculations

Molarity (M) = moles of solute

Liters of solution
 Molarity
M = mol (solute)
L (solution)

• Example 1: What is the molarity of a solution

that has 2.3 moles of sodium chloride in 0.45
liters of solution?
2.3 moles NaCl = 5.1M NaCl
0.45 L
 Molarity
M = mol (solute)
L (solution)

• Example 2: How many moles of Na2CO3 are there

in 10.0 L of 2.0 M solution?

10.0 L 2.0 mol Na2CO3 = 20.0 moles Na2CO3

1 1L
 Molarity
M = mol (solute)
L (solution)

• Example 3: How many moles of KNO3 are needed

to make 450. mL of 1.5 molar solution?

450. mL 1L 1.5 mol KNO3

1 1000mL 1L

= .675 moles KNO3

 Molarity
M = mol (solute)
L (solution)

• Example 4: How many grams of NaCl are needed

to make 3.0 L of 1.5 M solution?

3.0 L 1.5 mol NaCl 58.44 g NaCl

1 1L 1 mol NaCl

= 260 g NaCl
 Molarity
M = mol (solute)
L (solution)

• Example 5: How many L of 4.0 M solution can be

made with 132g of NaCl ?

132 g NaCl 1 mol NaCl 1L

1 58.44 g NaCl 4.0 mol NaCl

= .565 L
 Dilutions

Chemistry-Borders IPC-Solutions-Borders
Dilutions and Molarity

• Use this formula to make a more dilute

solution from a concentrated solution

Molarity1 x Volume1 = Molarity2 x Volume2

(Concentrated) (Dilute)
(before) = (after)

M1V1 = M2V2
 Example 1
How many liters of 2.5 M HCl are
required to make 1.5 L of 1.0 M HCl?
M1V1 = M2V2

M1 = 2.5 M
V1 = ?
M2 = 1.0 M
V2 = 1.5 L
(2.5M) V1 = (1.0M) (1.5 L) = 0.60L
2.5M 2.5M
 Example 1
M1 = 2.5M V1 = 0.60L M2 = 1.0 M V2= 1.5 L

How much water should you add to the volume

of 2.5M HCl you calculated above to make the
solution? (draw this in your notes)

1st add .60L of HCl to

measuring device.
 Example 1
M1 = 2.5M V1 = 0.60L M2 = 1.0 M V2= 1.5 L

How much water should you add to the volume of 2.5M

HCl you calculated above to make the solution?

Then add enough water to get

to 1.5L of solution

V2 – V1 = Amount of water
1.5L – 0.60L = 0.90L water
 Example 1
M1 = 2.5M V1 = 0.60L M2 = 1.0 M V2= 1.5 L

How much water should you add to the volume of 2.5M

HCl you calculated above to make the solution?

Final solution is 1.5L

of 1.0M HCl
 Example 2
• 250.0 mL of a 0.500 M HCl solution needs
to be made from concentrated HCl. What
volume of the concentrated solution is
needed if its molarity is 12.0 M?
M1V1 = M2V2
M1 =
V1 =
M2 =
V2 =
 Example 2
• 250.0 mL of a 0.500 M HCl solution needs to be made
from concentrated HCl. What volume of the
concentrated solution is needed if its molarity is
12.0 M?
M1V1 = M2V2

M1 = 12.0M How much water would you

V1 = 10.4mL add to make the final
solution?
M2 = 0.500M
V2 = 250.0mL
250.0mL - 10.4mL = 239.6mL
 Mass Percent

Chemistry-Borders IPC-Solutions-Borders
 Mass Percent
• Solutions can also be represented as percent
of solute in a specific mass of solution.
• For a solid dissolved in water, you use percent
by mass which is Mass Percent.

• % by mass = mass solute x 100

mass of solution

**Mass of solution = solute mass + solvent mass

 Example 1
• If a solution that has a mass of 800.0
grams contains 20.0 grams of NaCl,
what is the concentration using Percent
by Mass?
% by mass = mass solute x 100
mass of solution

% by mass = 20.0g NaCl x 100

800.0g solution
= 2.50% NaCl
 Example 2
• If 10.0 grams of NaCl is dissolved in
90.0 grams of water, what is the
concentration using Percent by Mass?

% by mass = mass solute x 100

mass of solution

% by mass = 10.0g NaCl x 100 = 10.0%NaCl

100.0g solution
 Example 3
• How many grams of sodium bromide are
in 200.0g of solution that is 15.0%
sodium bromide by mass?

% by mass = mass solute x 100

mass of solution

% by mass = ? g NaBr x 100 = 15.0%NaBr

200.0g solution

g NaBr = 200.0 x 15.0 = 30 g NaBr

100
 Solution Stoichiometry

reactants products

Chemistry-Borders IPC-Solutions-Borders
 Solution Stoichiometry
• When we previously did stoichiometry
for a reaction to determine theoretical
yield, we only worked with GRAMS and
MOLES
• Ex/ How many MOLES of HCl are
required to react with 13 GRAMS of
zinc?
Zn + 2 HCl  ZnCl2 + H2
 Solution Stoichiometry
• But we may be given something OTHER than
grams and moles

• We can use stoichiometry to solve for ANY

unit. We just need to make sure units cancel
out and we end up with the unit we are trying
to solve for!

• The mole ratio using coefficients from the

balanced chemical equation is the key to
switching between compounds
 Solution Stoichiometry
Ex/ How many LITERS of 12 M HCl are
required to react with 13.0 GRAMS of zinc?
Zn + 2 HCl  ZnCl2 + H2
13.0g Zn 1 mole Zn 2 mol HCl 1L HCl
1 65.38g Zn 1 mol Zn 12 mol HCl

Remember – Molarity (M) is a conversion Factor

= 0.0331 L HCl
 Solution Stoichiometry
• Ex/ How many grams of NaOH would be
required to react with 1.50 L of 3.75M
sulfuric acid?
H2SO4 + NaOH  Na2SO4 + H2O

1.50L 1 H2SO4 3.75 mole H2SO4 2 mol NaOH 40.00g NaOH

1 1 L H2SO4 1 mole H2SO4 1 mol NaOH

= 450. g NaOH
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ATTRACTIVE
FORCES
LESSON 1
INTERMOLECULAR FORCE
OF ATTRACTION
the forces of attraction or
repulsion which act between
neighboring particles (atoms,
molecules, or ions ).
IONIC BOND
Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of
valence electron(s) between atoms. It is a
type of chemical bond that generates two
oppositely charged ions.
COVALENT BOND
A covalent bond is a chemical
bond that involves the sharing of
electron pairs between atoms.
METALLIC BOND
A type of chemical bonding that rises
from the electrostatic attractive
force between conduction electrons
and positively charged metal ions.
DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES
are attractive forces between the
positive end of one polar
molecule and the negative end of
another polar molecule.
HYDROGEN BONDING
It results from the attractive force
between a hydrogen atom covalently
bonded to a very electronegative atom
such as a N, O, or F atom and another
very electronegative atom.
VAN DER WAALS FORCES
is a temporary attractive force that
results when the electrons in two
adjacent atoms occupy positions that
make the atoms form temporary
dipoles.
Molar Heat of
Vapourization

Lesson 4- G12
Definition of Terms
● Enthalpy- The amount of heat consume or release
in a system at a constant pressure.
● Kinetic Energy- The energy of a moving object
measured in Joules.
● Endothermic- When heat is added to a system from
the surroundings, due to a heat decrease in heat in
a reaction.
Definition of Terms
● Exothermic- When heat from a system is given off
into heat surroundings, due to the increase in heat
in heat in a reaction.
● Heat of Vaporization- The amount of heat required
to evaporate a liquid.
● Condensation- The transition of molecules from a
gaseous or vapor state to a liquid.
Definition of Terms
● System and its Surroundings- The system is the
area in which a reaction takes and the
surrounding is the area that interacts with the
system.
● State Function (or Function of State)- Any
property, such as temperature, enthalpy or mass,
that has a unique value or number for a specific
state of a system.
Heat of Vaporization
Molar Heat of Vaporization - the amount of heat
necessary to vaporize one mole of a given liquid.
q= mole x Hvap. ( No temperature change.)
 H>0
Hvap = Hvap - Hliquid
Hvap- is the change in enthalpy of vaporization.
Hvapor- Is the enthalpy of the gas state of a compound
or element.
Hliquid- Is the enthalpy of the liquid state of a
compound or element.
Example 1:
How many heat is transferred when 5 moles of
Mercury (Hg) is vaporized if it uses 59.1 kJ/mol?
q= mol x Hvap.
q= 5 moles x 59.1 kJ/mol
q= 295.5 kJ
Example 2:
If a liquid uses 50 Joules of heat to vaporize one
mole of liquid, then what would be the enthalpy of
vaporization?
q= vap
q = 50J = vap
Example 3.
How much heat (in kJ) is absorbed when 24.8 g of
H2O (l) at 100 oc and 101.3 kPa is converted to steam
at 100oc? In every 1 mole of H2O there is 40.7kJ.
24.8 g H2O x (1 mol H2O/18 g H2O) x (40.7 kJ/
1 mol H2O)
H = 56.1 kJ
Example 4.
How many joules are required to heat 250
grams of liquid water from 00c to 100oc? In
104.5 kJ
C = 4.18 J/g oc
q= mC T
Example 5.
How many joules are required to boil 150
grams of liquid water in 339 kJ?
q= mHv
Example 6.
How many joules are required to heat 200
grams of water from 25oc to 125oc?
How many Joules are required to heat
75 g water heats up from 27oc to 135oc?
 WHAT IS A
PHASE DIAGRAM?
It is a “map” that tells
us which state(s) of
matter (solid, liquid,
gas) exist for a given
set of temperature
and pressure
conditions.
 Temperature

A measure of the average kinetic

energy (energy of motion) of particles
(atoms or molecules) in matter in
Celsius, Kelvin, or Fahrenheit.
 Pressure

A measure of how tightly matter is

squeezed together in units of
atmospheres (atm), bars, torrs, Pascals
(Pa) or even pounds/in2 (psi).
 Which one is
Two “stable”
Allotropes depends on
of Carbon both
temperature
and pressure!
 Phase Diagram of Carbon

Phase Diagrams are determined empirically by a large number of laboratory

experiments! General Electric Co. helped determine the Carbon Phase
Diagram.
 Phase Diagram for Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

10 atm

⚫In a 1 phase field,

only one state is
possible.

⚫On a phase
boundary, two states
1atm
will coexist.

⚫At a triple point,

25C
three states coexist.
Triple Point: A unique temperature and pressure at which three phases (usually solid, liquid,
and gas) can exist together.

Critical Point: The temperature and pressure at which gas and liquid merge together to form a
supercritical fluid. Beyond this temperature, no amount of pressure will condense the gas to a
liquid.

Normal Melting Point – At 1 atm pressure, the temperature at which the solid melts to liquid.
Normal Boiling Point – At 1 atm pressure, the temperature at which the liquid vaporizes to
become a gas.
 Dry Ice – CO2 (s) vs. CO2 (g)

-78 °C, 194.7 K, -109 °F

In general,
1) High pressures
favor liquids and
solids because the
atoms are packed
closer together
(more dense).
2) Low pressures and
high temperatures
favor gases (less
dense).
3) High temperatures
favor liquids and
gases because the
atoms are less
tightly packed, and
are more mobile and
energetic.
 In other words….for most cases
Pressure

Solids Liquids

Gases

Temperature
The H2O Phase Diagram

 = 1.00 g/ml

 = .92 g/ml

 = .0006 g/ml
 H2O Phase Diagram - continued
Note the
negative
slope of the
ice-water
phase
boundary!
What phase
is most
dense?

Two ways to
vaporize
water….??
 Fan n’ Pick Activity to Review
Phase Diagrams

• Groups of 4 (mainly) 3
4
Coach if necessary, Paraphrase,
Answer the Question
• 12 Cards then Praise

• Rotate Jobs
• 30 sec to answer

1
2
Fan the Cards and
Pick a Card and Read
Run the Timer
 Experiments to Determine the
Phase Diagram of Boron

From “Experimental Pressure-Temperature

Phase Diagram of Boron: resolving the long standing
enigma”
Parakhonskiy , et al.
Scientific Reports 1: article 96, 2011