Chapter 8 - Oil and Gas Safety

OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS SAFETY
European Safety Council - International Diploma in Health and Safety Engineering Page 448
Contents
Element 1- Introduction...................................................................................................................... 450
1.1 Overview of oil and gas exploration and drilling ...................................................................... 450
1.2 Classification of crude oils......................................................................................................... 451
1.3 Oil and gas Search/ type of survey............................................................................................ 451
1.4 Offshore drilling platform ......................................................................................................... 453
Element 2- Hazards associated with oil and gas activities.................................................................. 455
Element 3- Occupational hazard of oil and gas activities ................................................................... 459
3.1 Silica dust .................................................................................................................................. 459
3.2 Hydrocarbon gases and vapours ............................................................................................... 459
3.3 Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) ........................................................................................................... 460
3.4 Drilling fluids ............................................................................................................................. 460
Element 4- Environmental impacts of oil and gas activities ............................................................... 463
4.1 Wildlife disruption .................................................................................................................... 463
4.2 Oil spillage ................................................................................................................................. 463
4.3 Air and water pollution ............................................................................................................. 464
4.4 Climate change.......................................................................................................................... 465
4.5 Landscape destruction .............................................................................................................. 465
4.6 Light pollution ........................................................................................................................... 465
Element 5- Planning, prevention and control measures .................................................................... 466
5.1 Risk assessment ........................................................................................................................ 467
Element 6- Offshore health and safety ............................................................................................... 469
6.1 Safety ........................................................................................................................................ 470
6.2 Fire and explosion ..................................................................................................................... 471
6.3 Safety protection measures ...................................................................................................... 472
6.4 Fire protection and prevention measures ................................................................................ 474
6.5 Environmental Protection ......................................................................................................... 474
Element 7- Oil and Gas activities checklist ......................................................................................... 476
Element 8- Legislation......................................................................................................................... 477
Case Study: Niger delta area of Nigeria .............................................................................................. 479
References .......................................................................................................................................... 480
Element 1- Introduction
1.1 Overview of oil and gas exploration and drilling
Learning outcome
At the end of this lesson, learners should be able to;

- Describe how petroleum hydrocarbons are formed
- State the components of crude oil and gas
- Name places where oil and gas are found.
Crude oils and natural gases are combinations of hydrocarbon molecules containing from 1
to 60 carbon atoms. The features of these hydrocarbons depend on the number and how
the carbon and hydrogen atoms are arranged in their molecules. The basic hydrocarbon
molecule is 1 carbon atom bonded with 4 hydrogen atoms (methane). All other forms of
petroleum hydrocarbons evolve from this molecule. Hydrocarbons having up to 4 carbon
atoms are usually gases; the ones with 5 to 19 carbon atoms are liquids; and those with 20
or more are solids. In addition to hydrocarbons, crude oils and natural gases contain
sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen compounds together with trace quantities of metals and other
elements.
Crude oil and natural gas are said to have been formed millions of years ago by the decay of
vegetation and marine organisms, compressed under the weight of sedimentation. Because
oil and gas are lighter than water, they rose up to fill the voids in these overlying formations.
This upward movement stopped when the oil and gas reached dense, overlying, impervious
strata or nonporous rock. The oil and gas filled the spaces in porous rock seams and natural
underground reservoirs, such as saturated sands, with the lighter gas on top of the heavier
oil. These spaces were originally horizontal, but shifting of the earth’s crust created pockets,
called faults, anticlines, salt domes and stratigraphic traps, where the oil and gas collected in
reservoirs.
Shale oil is a mixture of solid hydrocarbons and organic compounds containing nitrogen,
oxygen and sulphur. It is extracted, by heating, from a rock called oil shale, yielding from 15
to 50 gallons of oil per ton of rock.
Exploration and production is the common terminology applied to that portion of the
petroleum industry which is responsible for exploring for and discovering new crude oil and
gas fields, drilling wells and bringing the products to the surface. Historically, crude oil,
which had naturally seeped to the surface, was collected for use as medicine, protective
coatings and fuel for lamps. Natural gas seepage was recorded as fires burning on the
surface of the earth. It was not until 1859 that methods of drilling and obtaining large
commercial quantities of crude oil were developed.
Crude oil and natural gas are found all-over the world, beneath the land and water, as seen
below:
· Western Hemisphere Intercontinental Basin (US Gulf Coast, Mexico, Venezuela)
· Middle East (Arabian Peninsula, Persian Gulf, Black and Caspian Seas)
· Indonesia and South China Sea
· North and West Africa (Sahara and Nigeria)
· North America (Alaska, Newfoundland, California and Mid-continent United States and
Canada)
· Far East (Siberia and China)
· North Sea.
The beginning of the modern oil industry is credited to the discovery oil at Spindletop in
1901 on top of a salt dome near Beaumont Texas (Knowles, 1983). Oil and natural gas are
main fuel sources in the U.S economy, it provides 62% of the nation’s energy and up to
100% of its transportation fuels. This is the same for many other nations (NEPDG, 2001). Oil
spillage is a global issue that has been happening since the discovery of crude oil, which was
part of the industrial revolution. Oil represents much more than just one of the main energy
sources used by mankind. Apart from being an important energy source, petroleum
products serve as feedstock for several consumer goods, thus playing a growing and
relevant role in people's lives. However, the oil industry holds a major potential of hazards
for the health, safety and environment, and may impact them at different levels: air, water,
soil, and consequently all living beings on earth.
1.2 Classification of crude oils
Crude oils are complex mixtures containing various, individual hydrocarbon compounds;
they vary in appearance and composition from one oil field to another, and sometimes even
vary from wells relatively near one another. Crude oils range in consistency from watery to
tar-like solids, and in colour from clear to black. A crude oil contains about 84% of carbon;
14% of hydrogen; 1 to 3% of sulphur; and less than 1% of nitrogen, oxygen, metals and salts.
1.3 Oil and gas Search/ type of survey
Learning outcomes
- Mention the types of survey used in oil and gas exploration
- Distinguish between the types of survey
- Describe a drilling platform
- Explain drilling operation , and
- State the uses of a drilling mud
The search for oil and gas needs a knowledge of geography, geology and geophysics. Crude
oil is usually found in certain types of geological structures, such as anticlines, fault traps
and salt domes, which lie under various terrains and in a wide range of climates. After
choosing an area of interest, various types of geophysical surveys are conducted and
measurements carried out in order to obtain a precise evaluation of the subsurface

formations, which include:
• Magnetometric surveys: in this survey, Magnetometers hung from airplanes

measure variations in the earth’s magnetic field in order to locate sedimentary rock
formations which generally have low magnetic properties when compared to other
rocks.
• Aerial photogrammetric surveys: this is when Photographs taken with special
cameras in airplanes, provide three-dimensional views of the earth which are used
to determine the formations of land with potential oil and gas deposits.
• Gravimetric surveys: this is when gravimeters are used to provide information
regarding underlying formations by measuring minute differences in gravity, because
large masses of dense rock increase the pull of gravity,
• Seismic surveys: Seismic studies give information on the general features of the
subsurface structure. Measurements are taken from shock waves generated by
setting off explosive charges in small-diameter holes, from the use of vibrating or
percussion instruments on both land and in water, and from underwater blasts of
compressed air. The time taken between the beginning of the shock wave and the
return of the echo is used to determine the depth of the reflecting substrata.
Figure 1.0- Saudi Arabia, seismic operations
American Petroleum Institute
• Radiographic surveys: Radiography is the use of radio waves to give information

similar to that from seismic surveys.
• Stratigraphic surveys: Stratigraphic sampling is the analysis of cores of subsurface
rock strata for traces of gas and oil. A cylindrical length of rock, called a core, is cut
by a hollow bit and pushed up into a tube (core barrel) attached to the bit. The core
barrel is brought to the surface and the core is removed for analysis.
When the surveys and measurements indicate the presence of formations or strata which
may contain petroleum, exploratory wells are drilled to determine whether or not oil or gas
is actually present and, if so, whether it is available and can be obtained in commercial
quantities.
1.4 Offshore drilling platform
Drilling platforms provide support for drilling rigs, supplies and equipment for offshore or
inland water operations, and range from floating or submergible barges and ships, to fixed-
in-place platforms on steel legs used in shallow waters, to large, buoyant, reinforced
concrete, gravity-type platforms used in deep waters. After the drilling is done, marine
platforms are used to support production equipment (figure 2).
Figure 2- Drilling vessels; drill ship Ben Ocean Laneer
American Petroleum Institute
Typically, with deep water floating platform drilling, the wellhead equipment is lowered to
the ocean floor and sealed to the well casing. The use of fibre-optic technology allows a
large, central platform to remotely control and operate smaller satellite platforms and sub-
sea templates. Production facilities on the large platform process the crude oil, gas and
condensate from the satellite facilities, before it is shipped on-shore.
Drilling operation
A drilling platform provides a base for workers to couple and uncouple the sections of
drilling pipe which are used to increase the depth of drilling. As the depth of the hole
increases, more lengths of pipe are added and the drilling string is suspended from the
derrick. Caution is needed to ensure that the drilling string pipe does not split apart and
drop into the hole, as it may be difficult and costly to discover and may even result in the
loss of the well. Another potential problem is if drilling tools stick in the hole when drilling
stops. For this reason, once drilling begins, it must continue until the well is completed.
Drilling mud is a fluid composed of water or oil and clay with chemical additives (e.g.,
formaldehyde, lime, sodium hydrazide, barite). Caustic soda is normally added to control
the pH (acidity) of drilling mud and to neutralize potentially hazardous mud additives and
completion fluids. Drilling mud is used to cool and lubricate the drilling bit, lubricate the
pipe and flush the rock cuttings from the drill hole. Drilling mud is also used to control flow
from the well by lining the sides of the hole and resisting the pressure of any gas, oil or
water which is met by the drill bit.
Casing is a special heavy steel pipe which lines the well hole. It is used to prevent cave-in of
the drill hole walls and protect fresh water strata by preventing leakage from the returning
flow of mud during drilling operations. The casing also seals off water-permeated sands and
high-pressure gas zones. After the surface casing is placed in the well, blowout preventors
(large valves, bags or rams) are attached to the top of the casing, in what is called a stack.
Following discovery of oil or gas, casing is set into the bottom of the well to keep dirt, rocks,
salt water and other contaminants out of the well hole and to provide a conduit for the
crude oil and gas extraction lines.
Exercises
1. List out the components of crude oil and gas.

2. What are the types of surveys used in oil and gas exploration?
3. Explain drilling operation.
Element 2- Hazards associated with oil and gas activities

Learning outcome
- Identify the hazards associated with oil and gas activities
- Explain hydrocarbon release hazards and the associated health issues
- State the occupational hazards and how they affect workers
- Describe the environmental impacts of oil and gas activities
- Mention damages of oil spillage
- List the activities that cause air and water pollution
- Relate climate change to oil and gas activities
Oil and gas exploration, drilling and servicing activities involve many different types of
equipment and materials. Identifying and controlling hazards is critical to the prevention of
injuries and deaths. Several of these hazards are highlighted below.
Personnel and equipment are required to be transported to and from well sites. Wells are
often located in remote areas, and require traveling long distances to get to the sites.
Highway vehicle crashes are the leading cause of oil and gas extraction worker fatalities.
Roughly 4 of every 10 workers killed on the job in this industry are killed as a result of a
highway vehicle incident (Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries).
• Struck-By/ Caught-In/ Caught-Between

Three of every five on-site fatalities in the oil and gas extraction industry are caused by
struck-by/caught -in/caught-between hazards (OSHA IMIS Database). Workers might be
exposed to struck-by/caught-in/caught-between hazards from multiple sources, like moving
vehicles or equipment, falling equipment, and high-pressure lines.
• Explosions and fire

Oil and gas industries workers are faced with the risk of fire and explosion due to ignition of
inflammable vapours or gases. Flammable gases, such as well gases, vapours, and hydrogen
sulphide, can be released from wells, trucks, production equipment or surface equipment
like tanks and shale shakers. Ignition sources can include frictional heat, electrical energy
sources, open flames, lightning, cigarettes, cutting and welding tools, hot surfaces, etc.
• Falls
Workers may need to access platforms and equipment located high above the ground.
OSHA requires fall protection to prevent falls from the mast, drilling platform, and other
high rise equipment.
• Confined spaces
Workers are often required to enter confined spaces such as petroleum and other storage
tanks, mud pits, reserve pits and other excavated areas, sand storage containers, and other
confined spaces around a wellhead. Safety hazards associated with confined space include
ignition of flammable vapours or gases. Health hazards include asphyxiation and exposure
to hazardous chemicals. Confined spaces that contain or have the potential to contain a
serious atmospheric hazard must be classified as permit-required confined spaces, tested
prior to entry, and continuously monitored.
• Ergonomic Hazards
Oil and gas workers might be exposed to ergonomics-related injury risks, such as lifting
heavy items, bending, reaching overhead, pushing and pulling heavy loads, working in
awkward body postures, and performing the same or similar tasks repetitively. Risk factors
and the resulting injuries can be minimized or, in many cases, eliminated through
interventions such as pre-task planning, use of the right tools, proper placement of
materials, education of workers about the risk, and early recognition and reporting of injury
signs and symptoms.
• High Pressure Lines and equipment

Workers might be exposed to hazards from compressed gases or from high-pressure lines.
Internal erosion of lines might result in leaks or line bursts, exposing workers to high-
pressure hazards from compressed gases or from high-pressure lines. If connections
securing high-pressure lines fail, struck-by hazards might be created.
• Electrical and other hazardous energy

Workers might be exposed to uncontrolled electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, or other
sources of hazardous energy if equipment is not designed, installed, and maintained
properly. Further, administrative controls such as operating procedures must be developed
and implemented to ensure safe operations.
• Machine hazards
Oil and gas extraction workers may be exposed to a wide variety of rotating wellhead
equipment, including top drives and Kelly drives, drawworks, pumps, compressors,
catheads, hoist blocks, belt wheels, and conveyors, and might be injured if they are struck
by or caught between unguarded machines.
Hydrocarbons release hazards
Exposure to vapour/aerosol mixture of hydrocarbons can cause acute adverse health effects
at concentration below those presenting an explosion or asphyxiation risk.
The acute health effects of hydrocarbons mixtures are generally linked with exposure
concentrations very high in ppm. Nonetheless, exposure concentration and duration that
lead to the appearance of acute health effects varies between each hydrocarbons, this has a
tendency to affect the effects the mixture would have when being exposed to.
The health issues associated with a single exposure hydrocarbons include; asphyxiation,
narcosis (when the central nervous system is depressed), cardiac arrest and aspiration.
Asphyxiation and narcosis are the most significant of the above.
Asphyxiation
This can be said to be a shortage of oxygen. Hydrocarbon gases /vapours can act as
asphyxiants by displacing oxygen .even if the concentration of oxygen is high enough to
support life, self-rescue may not have any effect.
Narcosis
Narcosis is characterized by ‘intoxication’, leading through stupor to anaesthesia and if not
eliminated, respiratory arrest and finally death. Effects depend on the substance (s),
concentration and length of time of exposure. But the onset is very fast. Some hydrocarbons
may also introduce convulsions. Features of intoxication can render self-rescue impossible
during an incident. All types of hydrocarbon that have high vapour pressure are linked with
narcotic effects.
Cardiac arrest
Hydrocarbons in high concentration can cause cardiac arrhythmias and arrest, especially
when exposure is followed by exercise and stress.
Aspiration
Inhaling liquid aerosols of hydrocarbons straight into the lungs can produce chemical
pneumonitis, pulmonary oedema, haemorrhage and death.
Exercises:
1. Which are the hazards associated with oil and gas activities?
2. How occupational hazards affects workers health
3. Which are activities that cause air and water pollution?
Element 3- Occupational hazard of oil and gas activities

Learning outcomes
- Explain silica dust
- Understand hydrocarbon gases and vapors
- Describe drilling fluids
Ensuring the health and safety Hundreds of thousands of people who work in oil and gas
industry, is a major concern for employers, regulators, trade associations, industry groups,
and local communities. Work in this industry involves physical labour, 24/7 operations,
heavy machinery, hazardous chemicals, often-remote locations, and all weather
conditions, resulting in an elevated risk of physical harm and the need for special
protections to reduce this risk.
While fatal work injuries have been well studied, less is known about other health hazards.
Since 2010, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has
conducted field studies in partnership with industry to better identify chemical exposure
hazards (NIOSH, 2010). . The major hazards identified through these studies were
respirable crystalline silica dust during hydraulic fracturing and exposure to hydrocarbon
gases and vapours when manually sampling oilfield tanks (Kiefer, M. 2013).
3.1 Silica dust – Large amounts of silica sand are used during hydraulic fracturing. Loading
and transferring this sand at the well site generates respirable-sized silica dust particles in
concentrations that may be higher than the occupational exposure limits (Esswein et al.
2013). Other processes that generate silica dust at the well site may include drilling with
air and mixing cement to construct or plug a well. Inhalation of silica dust is associated
with silicosis, other respiratory issues, and potentially other adverse health effects.
3.2 Hydrocarbon gases and vapours – Tanks holding crude oil or produced water are
common in the oilfield. These tanks may be manually measured and sampled, which may
expose workers to dangerous levels of hydrocarbon gases and vapours given off by these
liquids. Between 2010 and 2014, at least nine oilfield workers died as a result of this
exposure.
Other hazards include hydrogen noise (from heavy machinery, for which OSHA sets
maximum limits and required hearing protection); and diesel exhaust (from drilling rigs
and other equipment – while diesel exhaust is not specifically regulated, OSHA sets
exposure limits for many of the most harmful air pollutants found in diesel exhaust).
Oilfield fluids contain a wide range of hazardous chemicals. While some can have
immediate health effects (such as hydrogen sulfide gas, which can kill instantly at high
concentrations), others may have longer-term effects (such as benzene, which is
carcinogenic). However, few published studies exist that track the long-term health
consequences of working in oil and gas extraction, making it difficult to draw conclusions
about specific long-term health risks.
Oil and gas workers exposed to chemicals produced and used in oil and gas industry may
suffer occupational diseases of lungs, skin and other organs at levels relying on the amount
and length of exposure time. Those exposed to hazardous noise levels may suffer noise-
induced hearing loss (NIHL).
3.3 Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
H2S is often found in oil and natural gas deposits, some mineral rocks. Oil and gas workers
can find H2S in oil and natural gas wells, refineries and pipelines that carry unrefined
petroleum. H2S is a high toxicity and colourless gas with the smell of a rotten egg. This gas
can irritate lungs, throat, nose, eyes. With high levels of H2S, poisoning can be quick and
fatal with little warning. A worker not wearing protective equipment may quickly pass out.
The body may tremble and death may occur within seconds or minutes due to lack of
breathing. Unless first aid is given immediately to revive the victim. If a H2S is detected, the
area must be evacuated. Only competent persons wearing may enter the site to resolve the
problem. Employers must develop and carry out effective plans of evacuation/ rescue and
exposure control, including training for workers and supervisors.
3.4 Drilling fluids
During drilling, large volume of drilling fluids is flown through the well and into systems that
are open, partially enclosed or completely enclosed at elevated temperatures. When those
fluids are agitated, because they are during part of re-circulation process, workers may
suffer significant exposure and subsequent health effects.
The effects from this occupational health hazards comprise of dizziness, drowsiness,
headaches and nausea (commonly associated with hydrocarbon exposure) and dermatitis
and sensitization due to repeated skin contact with drilling fluids. Additionally, exposure to
oil mists can induce irritation and inflammation of respiratory system. Some of mildly
refined base oils have also related to cancer owing to aromatic compounds in oil mists.
Workers spending part of their shifts time in the following areas may be exposed really
significantly:
• Drilling floor
• Mud pits/tanks (in which treated drilling fluids are retained before pumping to drill hole)
• Shale shakers (in which drill cuttings are shaken from drilling fluids that return from drill
hole)
• Chemical mixing station/room
The ECP for drilling fluids should involve engineering controls, safe working procedures and
the use of personal protective equipment.
• Silica
Silica is fundamental component of sand and rock. Some typical silica-containing materials
include:
• Concrete, concrete block, mortar, cement
• Granite, sand, top soil, fill dirt
• Asphalt (containing stone or rock)
• Abrasive for blasting
• Hydraulic fracturing sand (contains as much as 99% silica)
Prolonged breathing of fine crystalline silica dust will cause silicosis disease. The particles
are deposited in lungs, leading to thickening and scarring of lung tissue. Initially, employees
with silicosis may have no systems though, when the disease progresses, they may suffer
breath shortness, severe cough and weakness. Those symptoms can become worse over
time and induce death. Crystalline silica exposure has also been associated with lung cancer.
Workers carrying out the following activities are at risk of breathing the silica dust:
• Abrasive blasting using silica-containing products
• Drilling using dry product additive that contain quartz
• Cementing operations
• Shale dryer maintenance (dry particulate may comprise quartz)
• Hydraulic fracturing (loading, unloading, moving or storing sand)
• Sweeping or moving sand or gravel that contains silica
Due to low occupational exposure limit for the airborne silica dust, the ECP should include a
proper respirator for all working activities that involve silica.
• Mercury
Mercury is a natural component of oil and gas, and may have high concentrations in some
formations. The mercy can be released from geological deposits by heat and pressure, and
then migrated to oil and gas traps as a vapour.
When those gas reservoirs are produced and processed fluids are cooled, the liquid mercury
can condense in heat exchangers, separators, coolers, valves and piping. When such
equipment (component made from aluminum alloys or magnesium) is disassembled for
maintenance or repair, employees can be exposed to mecury vapour.
Working activities that may put workers at risk of exposing to mercury in gas processing
facilities include:
• Welding, grinding, buffing, and polishing
• Vessel cleaning
• Hydro excavating
• Machining
• Pipefitting
• Installing and removing components or infrastructure
• Electrical work
Long term exposure to high concentration of mercury vapour does harm to the central
nervous system and can induce tremors, stupor, nervousness, personality changes, vision
and hearing problems. Contact with mercury can also impact kidneys and lead to irritation
and skin and eye burns.
Exercises
1. What is the meaning of silica dust?
2. Explain hydrogen sulphide.
3. What is the risk of workers exposing to mercury in gas processing?
Element 4- Environmental impacts of oil and gas activities

Learning outcomes
- Explain wildlife destruction and oil spillage
- Explain briefly- landscape destruction, air and water pollution, climate change and
light pollution
The most widespread and dangerous consequence of oil and gas industry activities is
pollution. Pollution is associated with virtually all activities throughout all stages of oil and
gas production, from exploratory activities to refining. Wastewaters, gas emissions, solid
waste and aerosols generated during drilling, production, refining (responsible for the most
pollution) and transportation.
Other environmental impacts include intensification of the greenhouse effect, acid rain,
poorer water quality, groundwater contamination, among others. The oil and gas industry
may also contribute to biodiversity loss as well as to the destruction of ecosystems that, in
some cases, may be unique. Most potential environmental impacts related to oil and gas
industry activities are already well documented. It is still necessary to find ways to conciliate
industry development with environmental protection, that is, with sustainable
development. After recovered and transported, crude oil has to go through refining
processes in order to be converted into products that hold commercial value. Oil refineries
are major polluters, consuming large amounts of energy and water, producing large
quantities of wastewaters, releasing hazardous gases into the atmosphere and generating
solid waste that are difficult both to treat and to dispose of. On the other hand, despite its
potential threats to the environment, the oil industry plays a positive role in society as well,
creating many jobs and generating a significant volume of tax revenues and royalties to
national governments. Therefore, oil companies may profit even more and in different ways
by adopting proactive environmental strategies
4.1 Wildlife disruption

Oil and gas extraction is a menace to wildlife. Loud noises, human movement and vehicle
traffic from drilling operations can disrupt avian species’ communication, breeding and
nesting. The infrastructure built for energy development can also get in the way.
Powerlines, wellpads, fences, and roads fragment habitats for many species. The pronghorn
antelope and mule deer in Wyoming are among the species most impacted. In the winter,
some pronghorn travel south from the Grand Teton National Park to the Upper Green River
Valley to escape heavy snow. Their journey is one of the longest big game migrations in the
U.S. But recently, animals making this age-old trek have faced a series of obstacles, notably,
intense activity in major natural gas fields. The pronghorn have to navigate past enormous
wellpads and noisy compressor stations to find what forage hasn’t been bulldozed. Future
energy development farther south could ultimately have major impacts on the abundance
of this herd.
4.2 Oil spillage

Big oil spills are known killers of wildlife. Smaller spills, including of other substances in the
oil extraction process, don’t always make the headlines but can also be dangerous. During
oil extraction on land, drilling fluids are injected into the well for lubrication. These oil-based
fluids known as "mud" are supposed to be captured in lined pits for disposal, but they’re
often spilled and splashed around the drilling site. Large and minimal oil spills have been
steadily increasing in most top producing sites. A recent report by the Center for Western
Priorities found that 2,834 oil spills were reported by oil and gas companies in Colorado,
New Mexico and Wyoming in 2018 – a record number since the organization started to
collect this data in 2015. These spills can have long-term environmental impacts and
devastating effects on animals through direct contact, inhalation and ingestion of toxic
chemicals. Oil and chemical spills can;
• Damage animals’ liver, kidney, spleen, brain or other organs
• Cause cancer, immune system suppression and reproductive failure
• Trigger long-term ecological changes by damaging animals’ nesting or breeding grounds
In spite of these risks, most federal government around the globe are attempting to quietly
open several marine sanctuaries and wilderness lands to drilling. The disastrous move would
expose fragile wildlife and tundra to oil spills.
4.3 Air and water pollution

The most widespread and dangerous consequence of oil and gas industry activities is
pollution. Pollution is associated with virtually all activities throughout all stages of oil and
gas production, from exploratory activities to refining. Wastewaters, gas emissions, solid
waste and aerosols generated during drilling, production, refining (responsible for the most
pollution) and transportation.
• Water contamination due to effluent, wash water and cooling water discharges, and
seepage from storage and waste tanks;
• Water contamination due to discharges of water effluents rich in inorganic salts
without appropriate treatment (saline pollution).
• Thermal pollution due to discharge of effluents with temperatures higher than
recipient water bodies;
• Water contamination due to oil spills; exchange, biotreating etc., depending on the
contaminant to be removed.
• Particulate emissions into the atmosphere generated during operations at
production and refining plants.
• Sulfur and nitrogen oxides, ammonia, acid mist and fluorine compounds gas
emissions from production and refining plants operations.
• Occasional release of potentially hazardous materials, such as solvents and acid or
alkaline materials.
• Dikes and catch basins placed around or downstream from dangerous or
environmentally hazardous materials storage tanks.
• Soil, surface water and/or groundwater contamination by inappropriate disposal of
solid wastes resulting from chemical industry processes, including effluent treatment
sludge and particulate matter from dust collectors.
• Noise pollution caused by equipment and operations that generate loud noise.
• Accidents that impact the environment, such as large oil spills, leaks, fires and
explosions on plants. Eventual deaths.
4.4 Climate change

Since the industrial revolution, humans have been burning more and more fossil fuels,
releasing more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These emissions have been trapping
unwanted solar heat and causing the planet’s temperatures to rise. The consequences are
all around us in the form of harsher heat waves, longer wildfire seasons and stronger
hurricanes. Most dirty emissions originate from fossil fuels. The most abundant type of
greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide, primarily released into the air through the burning of oil,
coal and gas that fuel everything from cars to manufacturing. Another gas, methane, is
released during the extraction of natural gas through the method of “fracking.” The U.S. is
one of the world’s top emitters. Currently, 24 percent of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions,
including methane, can be traced to fossil fuel extracted from federal lands.
4.5 Landscape destruction

Infrastructure built for oil and gas extraction can leave behind radical impacts on the land.
The construction of roads, facilities and drilling sites known as well pads requires the use of
heavy equipment and can destroy big expanse of wilderness. The damage is often
irreversible. A University of Montana study for instance, found that between 2000 and 2012,
fossil fuel infrastructure occupied about 3 million hectares of land in the U.S. Those
developments removed large amounts of rangelands and vegetation that is used by wildlife
and people. The study’s researchers warned that even if oil and gas companies eventually
abandon these sites, it can take centuries before the land fully recovers. The problem is that
most fossil fuel development is located in semi-arid climate that receives little precipitation.
A full recovery would require human intervention and a bundle of resources. Development
of oil and gas complexes can cause serious and long-term damage to land, including
• Stripping the environment of vegetation
• Increasing erosion, which can lead to landslides and flooding
• Disturbing the land’s ground surface
• Seriously fragmenting unspoiled wildlife habitats
4.6 Light pollution

The glare from oil and gas sites is so strong that it’s even visible from space. Photos of
Earth taken by NASA satellites show oil fields burning almost as bright as cities. Much of that
light is produced by the burning – or flaring – of natural gas, well pads and storage
sites. Scientists have found that the bright glow hurts pollinators such as bees. These insects
have a very important job of moving pollen around to generate new fruits and plants. But
luminosity disrupts their sleep, feeding and reproductive cycles, leading to the dwindling of
plants such as the cabbage thistle.
Exercises:
1. How wildlife is destructed due to oil and gas activities?
2. What are the causes of oil and chemical spills?
Element 5- Planning, prevention and control measures

- Explain Exposure control plan
- Define risk
- List factors that can be considered in risk assessment
- Mention the principle of risk assessment
- Describe the approaches for risk assessment
- Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative risk assessments
Exposure control plan (ECP)
Employers in the oil and gas industry must develop and conduct a written exposure control
plan (ECP) whenever your workers may be exposed too much to chemical hazards, including
drilling fluids, hydrogen sulfide, silica, diesel exhaust and mercury.
An effective plan gives a detailed approach to protect workers against chemical exposures,
inclusive of health hazard information, engineering controls, safe working procedures,
worker training and record keeping.
ECPs must comprise the below elements:

• Purpose statement
• Responsibilities of employers, supervisors and workers
• Identification and assessment of risks
• Risk controls
• Manpower education and training
• Written safe working procedures
• Hygiene facilities and procedures of decontamination
• Documentation
• Health monitoring (may also be required, relying on the nature of chemicals being used)
▪ Know the hazards. Evaluate the hazards at the worksite. Many companies within the oil
and gas industry use the Job Safety Analysis Process (also referred to as a JSA, Job
Hazard Analysis, or JHA) to identify hazards and find solutions.
▪ Establish ways to protect workers, including developing and implementing safe practices
for:
o Confined space; excavations
o Chemical handling; exposure
o Chemical storage
o Electrical work
o Emergency response
o Equipment/machine hazards
o Fall protection
o Fire protection
o Hot work, welding, flame cutting operations
o Personal protective equipment use
o Power sources (lockout/tagout provisions, safe distance from power lines)
o Working in the heat, long shifts
▪ Provide personal protective equipment (PPE). When engineering controls alone cannot
protect worker overexposure to chemicals, noise, or other hazards, the employer must
provide PPE.
▪ Communicate the hazards, and train workers.
▪ Have a plan for contractor safety and training.
5.1 Risk assessment
Risk is defined as the likelihood of event occurrence and the consequences should the event
occur. There are a number of factors to consider during risk assessment, some of which
include; hazards to humans, impact on the environment, economic implication, potential
situation, etc. the principle of risk assessment is that the health and safety risks for people
working in the oil and gas vicinity as well as risks of major environmental incidents are
identified, assessed and reduced to as low as reasonably practicable. Usually the risk
assessment oil and gas activities should cover;
1. Major hazards: fire, explosion, vessel collisions, helicopter and vehicle accidents,
major environmental incidents, etc.
2. Risks in the work environment: physical, psychological, chemical and biological
conditions and accident risks.
3. Risks by staying at the facility, which are not related to the work: hygiene, drinking
water and water quality, indoor air quality of the accommodation and the impact of
tobacco smoke, etc.
Choosing the appropriate risk assessment approach or a combination of approaches is a

major step in supporting the decision making process, where options are evaluated against
the risk associated with each choice. The risk assessment approaches may include but not
limited to; qualitative assessment, quantitative assessment, probabilistic risk assessment,
etc.
Qualitative assessment
This assessments are commonly used in the oil and gas risk management and are valuable
first steps in the risk analysis process. Some examples of qualitative risk assessment include;
Hazard identification (HAZID): this is a structured brainstorming technique for the

identification of all significant hazards associated with the particular hazard under
consideration. It is usually conducted at the beginning of a project and the starting point for
assessment of major accident risks.
Hazard and operability (HAZOP): this is a systematic approach to identifying hazards and
operability problems in design and operations occurring as a result of deviation from
intended range of process conditions.
Bowtie analysis: these are visual risk assessment method focused on a single event and the
cause and effect. They are more commonly used to analyse major accident events such as
loss of containment, facility explosion, fire, etc.
Failure modes and effects analysis (FEMA): FEMA is a subjective analysis of facility
equipment, potential failure modes and the effects of those failure modes on the
equipment or facilities. The failure mode is simply a description of how the equipment
failed. The effect is the incident, consequences or system response to failure.
Job hazard analysis (JHA): JHA is a hazard analysis of a completed procedure, to identify any
additional hazards to people or process prior to putting it in the field. JHA can sometimes
mean a general job-related safety analysis.
Qualitative assessments are effective at identifying many risks and consequences associated
with oil and gas exploration and production. Companies have used these results to
successfully develop and implement risk management and safety programs.
Quantitative risk assessment
This involves the assignment of data-supported numeric values in the assessment of

probability and consequence. It commonly follows an intial qualitative assessment, focusing
on the highest priority risks identified. It can account for the compounding of effects
between multiple events, allowing risk-informed decision-making in the presence of
uncertainty. There are multiple methods for performing quantitative risk assessment and
many are used in the oil and gas industry. Some of the approaches include ; Layers of
Protection Analysis, Failure Mode and Effect Criticality Analysis, Event Tree Analysis, Fault
Tree Analysis, Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) and Probabilistic Risk Assessment
(PRA).
Probabilistic Risk Assessment: this is a quantitative method aimed at identifying and

assessing risks in complex technological systems for the purpose of cost effectively
improving their safety and performance. PRA attempts to consider all events associated
with the consequences of interest in one assessment, giving room for a more robust risk
assessment.
Exercises:
1. Explain in detail ECP.
2. Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative risk assessment
3. What is probabilistic risk assessment?
Element 6- Offshore health and safety

Learning outcomes
- State the hazardous chemicals and substances present during a drilling operation
- Highlight the control measures for offshore explosion and fire
- Explain the safety control measures for emergency situations
- List the precautions to be taken when using a perforating gun
- State fire prevention and protection measures
- Distinguish between active and passive fire protection systems
- Mention pollution control measures
Work on drilling rigs usually involves a minimum crew of 6 people (primary and secondary
drillers, three assistant drillers or helpers (roughnecks) and a cathead person) reporting to a
site supervisor or foreman (tool pusher) who is responsible for the drilling progression. The
primary and secondary drillers have overall responsibility for drilling operations and
supervision of the drilling crew during their respective shifts. Drillers should be familiar with
the capabilities and limitations of their crews, as work can progress only as fast as the
slowest crew member.
Assistant drillers are stationed on the platform to operate equipment, read instruments and
perform routine maintenance and repair work. The cathead person is required to climb up
near the top of the derrick when drill pipe is being fed into or drawn out of the well hole and
assist in moving the sections of pipe into and out of the stack. During drilling, the cathead
person also operates the mud pump and provides general assistance to the drilling crew.
Persons who assemble, place, discharge and retrieve perforating guns should be trained,
familiar with the hazards of explosives and qualified to handle explosives, primer cord and
blasting caps. Other personnel working in and around oil fields include geologists, engineers,
mechanics, drivers, maintenance personnel, electricians, pipeline operators and labourers.
Wells are drilled around the clock, on either 8- or 12-hour shifts, and workers require
considerable experience, skill and stamina to meet the rigorous physical and mental
demands of the job. Overextending a crew may result in a serious accident or injury. Drilling
requires close teamwork and coordination in order to accomplish the tasks in a safe and
timely fashion. Because of these and other requirements, consideration must be given to
the morale and health and safety of workers. Adequate periods of rest and relaxation,
nutritious food and appropriate hygiene and living quarters, including air conditioning in
hot, humid climates and heating in cold-weather areas, are essential.
The primary occupational hazards associated with exploration and production operations
include illnesses from exposure to geographical and climatic elements, stress from travelling
long distances over water or harsh terrain and personal injury. Psychological problems may
result from the physical isolation of exploratory sites and their remoteness from base camps
and the extended work periods required on offshore drilling platforms and at remote
onshore sites.
Offshore work is dangerous at all times, both when on and off the job. Some workers cannot
handle the stress of working offshore at a demanding pace, for extended periods of time,
under relative confinement and subject to ever changing environmental conditions. The
signs of stress in workers include unusual irritability, other signs of mental distress,
excessive drinking or smoking and use of drugs. Problems of insomnia, which may be
aggravated by high levels of vibration and noise, have been reported by workers on
platforms. Fraternization among workers and frequent shore leave may reduce stress.
Seasickness and drowning, as well as exposure to severe weather conditions, are other
hazards in offshore work.
Illnesses such as respiratory tract diseases result from exposure to harsh climates, infections
or parasitic diseases in areas where these are endemic. Although many of these diseases are
still in need of epidemiological study in drilling workers, it is known that oil workers have
experienced periarthritis of the shoulder and shoulder blade, humeral epicondylitis,
arthrosis of the cervical spine and polyneuritis of the upper limbs. The potential for illnesses
as a result of exposure to noise and vibration is also present in drilling operations. The
severity and frequency of these drilling-related illnesses appears to be proportional to the
length of service and exposure to adverse working conditions (Duck 1983; Ghosh 1983;
Montillier 1983).
Injuries while working in drilling and production activities may result from many causes,
including slips and falls, pipe handling, lifting pipe and equipment, misuse of tools and
mishandling explosives. Burns may be caused by steam, fire, acid or mud containing
chemicals such as sodium hydroxide. Dermatitis and skin injuries may result from exposure
to crude oil and chemicals.
The possibility exists for acute and chronic exposure to a wide variety of unhealthful
materials and chemicals which are present in oil and gas drilling and production. Some
chemicals and materials which may be present in potentially hazardous amounts include:
• Crude oil, natural gas and hydrogen sulphide gas during drilling and blowouts
• Heavy metals, benzene and other contaminants present in crude
• Asbestos, formaldehyde, hydrochloric acid and other hazardous chemicals and
materials
• Normally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) and equipment with radioactive
sources.
6.1 Safety
Drilling and production take place in all types of climates and under varying weather
conditions, from tropical jungles and deserts to the frozen Arctic, and from dry land to the
North Sea. Drilling crews have to work in difficult conditions, subject to noise, vibration,
inclement weather, physical hazards and mechanical failures. The platform, rotary table and
equipment are usually slippery and vibrate from the engine and drilling operation, requiring
workers to make deliberate and careful movements. The hazard exists for slips and falls
from heights when climbing the rig and derrick, and there is risk of exposure to crude oil,
gas, mud and engine exhaust fumes. The operation of rapidly disconnecting and then
reconnecting drill pipe requires training, skill and precision by workers in order to be done
safely time after time.
Construction, drilling and production crews working offshore have to contend with the same
hazards as crews working on land, and with the additional hazards specific to offshore work.
These include the possibility of collapse of the platform at sea and provisions for specialized
evacuation procedures and survival equipment in event of an emergency. Another
important consideration when working offshore is the requirement for both deep-sea and
shallow-water diving to install, maintain and inspect equipment.
6.2 Fire and explosion
There is always a risk of blowout when perforating a well, with a gas or vapour cloud
release, followed by explosion and fire. Additional potential for fire and explosion exists in
gas process operations. The control measures for fire and explosion include but not limited
to ;
• Health surveillance: Offshore platform and drilling rig workers should be carefully
evaluated after having a thorough physical examination. The selection of offshore
crew members with a history or evidence of pulmonary, cardiovascular or
neurological diseases, epilepsy, diabetes, psychological disturbances and drug or
alcohol addiction requires careful consideration. Because workers will be expected
to use respiratory protection equipment and, in particular, those trained and
equipped to fight fires, they must be physically and mentally evaluated for capability
of carrying out these tasks. The medical examination should include psychological
evaluation reflective of the particular job requirements. Emergency medical services
on offshore drilling rigs and production platforms should include provisions for a
small dispensary or clinic, staffed by a qualified medical practitioner on board at all
times. The type of medical service provided will be determined by the availability,
distance and quality of the available onshore services. Evacuation may be by ship or
helicopter, or a physician may travel to the platform or provide medical advice by
radio to the onboard practitioner, when needed. A medical ship may be stationed
where a number of large platforms operate in a small area, such as the North Sea, to
be more readily available and quickly provide service to a sick or injured worker.
Persons not actually working on drilling rigs or platforms should also be given pre-
employment and periodic medical examinations, particularly if they are employed to work
in abnormal climates or under harsh conditions. These examinations should take into
consideration the particular physical and psychological demands of the job.
An occupational hygiene monitoring and sampling programme, in conjunction with a

medical surveillance programme, should be implemented to evaluate systematically the
extent and effect of hazardous exposures to workers.
• Monitoring for flammable vapours and toxic exposures, such as hydrogen sulphide,
should be implemented during exploration, drilling and production operations.
Virtually no exposure to H2S should be permitted, especially on offshore platforms.
An effective method of controlling exposure is by using properly weighted drilling

mud to keep H2S from entering the well and by adding chemicals to the mud to
neutralize any entrapped H2S. All workers should be trained to recognize the
presence of H2S and take immediate preventive measures to reduce the possibility of
toxic exposure and explosions.
• Personal protection: Persons engaged in exploration and production activities should
have available and use appropriate personal protective equipment including: Head
protection (hard hats and weather-proof liners), Gloves (oil-resistant, non-slip work
gloves, fire insulated or thermal where needed), Arm protection (long sleeves or oil-
proof gauntlets), Foot and leg protection (weather-protected, oil-impervious safety
boots with steel toes and non-skid soles), Eye and face protection (safety glasses,
goggles and face shield for acid handling), Skin protection from heat and cold (sun
screen ointment and cold-weather face masks), Climatized and weather-proof
clothing (parkas, rain gear), Where required, firefighting gear, flame-resistant
clothing and acid-resistant aprons or suits. Control rooms, living quarters and other
spaces on large offshore platforms are usually pressurized to prevent the entry of
harmful atmospheres, such as hydrogen sulphide gas, which may be released upon
penetration or in an emergency. Respiratory protection may be needed in the event
pressure fails, and when there is a possibility of exposure to toxic gases (hydrogen
sulphide), asphyxiants (nitrogen, carbon dioxide), acids (hydrogen fluoride) or other
atmospheric contaminants when working outside of pressurized areas.When
working around geopressure/geothermal wells, insulated gloves and full heat- and
steam-protective suits with supplied breathing air should be considered, as contact
with hot steam and vapours can cause burns to skin and lungs. Safety harnesses and
lifelines should be used when on catwalks and gangways, especially on offshore
platforms and in inclement weather. When climbing rigs and derricks, harnesses and
lifelines with an attached counterweight should be used. Personnel baskets, carrying
four or five workers wearing personal flotation devices, are often used to transfer
crews between boats and offshore platforms or drilling rigs. Another means of
transfer is by “swing ropes.” Ropes used to swing from boats to platforms are hung
directly above the edge of the boat landings, while those from platforms to boats
should hang 3 or 4 feet from the outer edge.
• Providing washing facilities for both workers and clothing and following proper
hygiene practices are fundamental measures to control dermatitis and other skin
diseases. Where needed, emergency eye wash stations and safety showers should
be considered.
6.3 Safety protection measures
- Oil and gas platform safety shutdown systems use various devices and monitors to
detect leaks, fires, ruptures and other hazardous conditions, activate alarms and
shut down operations in a planned, logical sequence. Where needed due to the
nature of the gas or crude, non-destructive testing methods, such as ultrasonic,
radiography, magnetic particle, liquid dye penetrant or visual inspections, should be
used to determine the extent of corrosion of piping, heater tubes, treaters and
vessels used in crude oil, condensate and gas production and processing.
- Surface and sub-surface safety shut-in valves protect onshore installations, single
wells in shallow water and multi-well offshore deep-water drilling and production
platforms, and are automatically (or manually) activated in the event of fire, critical
pressure changes, catastrophic failure at the well head or other emergency. They are
also used to protect small injection wells and gas lift wells.
- Inspection and care of cranes, winches, drums, wire rope and associated
appurtenances is an important safety consideration in drilling. Dropping a pipeline
string inside a well is a serious incident, which may result in the loss of the well.
Injuries, and sometimes fatalities, can occur when personnel are struck by a wire
rope which breaks while under tension. Safe operation of the drilling rig is also
dependent on a smooth-running, well maintained draw works, with properly
adjusted catheads and braking systems. When working on land, keep cranes a safe
distance from electric power lines.
- Handling of explosives during exploration and drilling operations should be under
the control of a specifically competent person. Some safety precautions to be
considered while using a perforating gun include:
• Never strike or drop a loaded gun, or drop piping or other materials on a loaded gun.
• Clear the line of fire and evacuate unnecessary personnel from the drilling rig floor
and the floor below as the perforating gun is lowered into and retrieved from the
well hole.
• Control work on or around the wellhead while the gun is in the well.
• Restrict use of radios and prohibit arc welding while the gun is attached to the cable
to prevent discharge from an inadvertent electric impulse.
- Emergency preparedness planning and drills are important to the safety of workers
on oil and gas drilling and production rigs and offshore platforms. Each different type
of potential emergency (e.g., fire or explosion, flammable or toxic gas release,
unusual weather conditions, worker overboard, and the need to abandon a
platform) should be evaluated and specific response plans developed. Workers need
to be trained in the correct actions to be taken in emergencies, and familiar with the
equipment to be used.
Helicopter safety and survival in the event of dropping into water are important
considerations for offshore platform operations and emergency preparedness. Pilots and
passengers should wear seat-belts and, where required, survival gear during flight. Life vests
should be worn at all times, both during flight and when transferring from helicopter to
platform or ship. Careful attention to keep bodies and materials beneath the path of the
rotor blade is required when entering, leaving or working around a helicopter.
Training of both onshore and offshore workers is essential to a safe operation. Workers
should be required to attend regularly scheduled safety meetings, covering both mandatory
and other subjects. Statutory regulations have been enacted by government agencies,
including the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration, the US Coast Guard for
offshore operations, and the equivalents in the United Kingdom, Norway and elsewhere,
which regulate the safety and health of exploration and production workers, both onshore
and offshore. The International Labour Organization Code of Practice Safety and Health in
the Construction of Fixed Offshore Installations in the Petroleum Industry (1982) provides
guidance in this area. The American Petroleum Institute has a number of standards and
recommended practices covering safety and health related to exploration and production
activities.
6.4 Fire protection and prevention measures
Fire prevention and protection, especially on offshore drilling rigs and production platforms,
is an important element in the safety of the workers and continued operations. Workers
should be trained and educated to recognize the fire triangle, as discussed in the Fire
chapter, as it applies to flammable and combustible hydrocarbon liquids, gases and vapours
and the potential hazards of fires and explosions. An awareness of fire prevention is
essential and includes a knowledge of ignition sources such as welding, open flames, high
temperatures, electrical energy, static sparks, explosives, oxidizers and incompatible
materials.
Both passive and active fire-protection systems are used onshore and offshore.
➢ Passive systems include fireproofing, layout and spacing, equipment design,

electrical classification and drainage.
➢ Detectors and sensors are installed which activate alarms, and may also activate
automatic protection systems, upon detecting heat, flame, smoke, gas or vapours.
➢ Active fire protection includes fire water systems, fire water supply, pumps,
hydrants, hoses and fixed sprinkler systems; dry chemical automatic systems and
manual extinguishers; halon and carbon dioxide systems for confined or enclosed
areas such as control rooms, computer rooms and laboratories; and foam water
systems.
Employees who are expected to fight fires, from small fires in the incipient stages to large
fires in enclosed spaces, such as on offshore platforms, must be properly trained and
equipped. Workers assigned as fire brigade leaders and incident commanders need
leadership capabilities and additional specialized training in advanced firefighting and fire-
control techniques.
6.5 Environmental Protection
The major sources of air, water and ground pollution in oil and natural gas production are
from oil spills or gas leaks on land or sea, hydrogen sulphide present in oil and gas escaping
into the atmosphere, hazardous chemicals present in drilling mud contaminating water or
land and combustion products of oil well fires. The potential public health effects of
inhalation of smoke particulates from large-scale oil field fires has been of great concern
since the oil well fires that occurred in Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War in 1991.
Pollution controls typically include:
• API separators and other waste and water treatment facilities

• Spill control, including booms for spills on water
• Spill containment, dikes and drainage to control oil spills and divert oily water to
treatment facilities.
• Gas dispersion modelling is conducted to ascertain the probable area which would
be affected by a cloud of escaping toxic or flammable gas or vapour. Groundwater
table studies are conducted to project the maximum extent of water pollution
should oil contamination occur.
• Workers should be trained and qualified to provide first aid response to mediate
spills and leakage. Contractors who specialize in pollution remediation are usually
engaged to manage large spill responses and remediation projects.
Exercises:
1. What are the control measures for offshore explosion and fire?
2. Explain fire prevention and protection measures
3. Differentiate between active and passive fire protection systems.
Element 7- Oil and Gas activities checklist

SAT=Satisfactory
UNS = Unsatisfactory
N/A = Not applicable
S/N Condition SAT UNS N/A
1 PPE signs are displayed at site entrances and other necessary
locations
2 Rig identification signs are visibly erected at all routes to site
and at entrance to site road
3 Authorized personnel are displayed at site entrances
4 Hazardous gas(es) warning signs are erected at prominent
locations at work sites
5 If applicable , emergency escape air packs are readily
available, properly maintained and fully charged
6 Appropriate breathing apparatus are provided by a standby
competent person in first aid and CPR
7 Warning signs are legible
8 Restroom facilities are provided
9 Hard hats and safety glasses are available for visitors
10 There are designated muster points and clearly posted
11 Good housekeeping in place
12 All vessels are labelled according to their contents
13 Evacuation and emergency alarms are provided
14 Hazardous locations are identified
15 First aid trainings are provided
16 Fire and emergency drills are provided
17 Safety meetings are conducted and documented
18 Accidents and Nearmisses are reported and documented
19 Communication equipment are in good working conditions
before the start of work
20 Appropriate PPE always in use.
Element 8- Legislation
Learning outcome
- identify relevant regulatory bodies for oil and gas activities
- mention the main legislations used by HSE to regulate the oil and gas industry
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) provides universal voluntary

industrial standards. It has currently develop ISO 45001 “Occupational Safety and health
management systems – requirements”. The ILO also participated in the process of
formalizing ISO 45001 on the basis of a Memorandum of Understanding signed by the two
organizations in August 2013. ISO 45001 was adopted in late 2016. The standard set
requirements for OSH management systems and is designed to help companies and
organizations around the world ensure the health and safety of workers.
Drilling more and deeper means increased threats to the environment, depletion of natural
resources, and potential negative consequences for the human activities dependent upon
these ecosystems. Recent accidents on offshore platforms have demonstrated that the
environmental risks of oil activities concern all regions of the world and all types of
companies. These transboundary nature of the impacts from these accidents have
reinvigorated discussions regarding the suitability of the current international regulatory
framework for offshore oil and gas activities (Rochette et al., 2014). In this regard, it is clear
that there are regulatory gaps, both in terms of safety of offshore drilling activities and
liability and compensation in case of accidents.
However, the ILO s international labour standards provide the minimum legal framework for
promoting OSH. The ILO Constitution sets forth the principle that workers should be
protected from sickness, disease and injury arising from their employment. The ILO s
instruments on OSH promote tripartite collective efforts by governments, employers and
workers to build, implement and continuously strengthen a preventative safety and health
culture. Tripartism is a key component for effective OSH regimes in the oil and gas industry.
In the oil and gas industry, the code of practice Safety and health in the construction of fixed
offshore installations in the petroleum industry was published by the ILO in 1981. The code
does not specifically address Arctic operations or OSH in cold or low temperature working
and living conditions.
HSE is responsible for regulating the risk of health and safety arising from work activities in
the offshore industry on the UK continental shelf. HSE uses the following main legislation to
regulate the oil and gas industry.
- Offshore installations Regulations 2015
- Health and safety at work etc. Act 1974
- Offshore installations Regulation 2005
- Diving at work Regulations 1997
- Offshore installations and Wells Regulations 1996
- Pipelines safety Regulations
- Offshore installations and Pipeline Works Regulations 1995
- Offshore installations (prevention of fire and explosion, and Emergency Response)
Regulations 1995
- Borehole sites and operations Regulations 1995
- Offshore safety Regulations 1993

- Offshore installations (Safety Representatives and safety committees )Regulations
1989
- Offshore installations and pipeline works (first-aid) regulations 1989
Exercises:
1. Explain the legislation used by the HSE to regulate oil and gas industry.
Case Study: Niger delta area of Nigeria

Oil exploration and exploitation has been on-going for several decades in the Niger Delta. It
has had disastrous impacts on the environment in the region and has adversely affected
people inhabiting that region. The Niger Delta consist of diverse ecosystems of mangrove
swamps, fresh water swamps, rain forest and is the largest wetland in Africa and among the
ten most important wetland and marine ecosystems in the world, but due to oil pollution
the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and
biodiversity loss in general the area is an ecological wasteland. This affects the livelihood of
the indigenous people who depend on the ecosystem services for survival leading to
increased poverty and displacement of people. The oil industry located within this region
has contributed immensely to the growth and development of the country which is a fact
that cannot be disputed but unsustainable oil exploration activities has rendered the Niger
Delta region one of the five most severely petroleum damaged ecosystems in the world.
Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over 50 years was a least 9-13 million
barrels, which is equivalent to 50 Exxon Valdez spills (Kadafa, Adati Ayuba, …)
According to World Bank Report, 1995, Vol.1:59 Effects can be either direct damage of a
resource or the ability of the environment to support a resource, an effect is only said to be
over when complete recovery has taken place. To quantify the effects and recovery is
difficult; damage to a small area containing highly valued resources can be of greater
significance than damage to a much larger area devoid of valued resources. The US DOE has
reported that the Niger Delta area has experienced 4,000 oil spill incidences since 1960. This
has resulted in the loss mangrove trees due to the inability of the mangrove trees to
withstand the high toxicity levels of the petrochemicals spilled into the habitat. The spills
have also has adverse effects on the marine habitat which has become contaminated. This
poses enormous human health risk from the consumption of contaminated seafood
(Twumasi and Merem 2006). The environmental problems of the Niger Delta result in
generally land resource degradation, renewable resource degradation and environmental
pollution, agricultural land degradation, fisheries depletion, deforestation, biodiversity loss,
oil pollution, gas flaring and mangrove degradation. Oil exploration and exploitation
activities such as this have significantly contributed to the environmental degradation of the
Niger Delta region in spite of government measures to stop gas flaring by 2015 and the
existence of monitoring agencies, regulations and standards, the flaring activities in the area
is still a problem. Gas flaring in the area is a major source of Cox, Nox, Sox and particulate
matter and the cumulative environmental impact of these flaring activities result in
contaminant build up on land, shallow ground water, greenhouse effect and general global
warming and have also caused high concentration of acid rain within the region.
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related to the oil refining industry].

EPA – OFFICE OF SOLID WASTE, 1995. Waste Minimization for the Petroleum Refining
Industry, Washington D.C., EPA [This document presents many information
about the soil pollution caused by the oil industry].
EPA – OFFICE OF WATER REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS, 1982. Development
Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines, New Source Performance
Standards and Pretreatment Standards for the Petroleum Refining Point Source
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Impact Assessment for Studies of Strategic Environmental Assessment for the
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about all the issues considered in this chapter].
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many information about the water pollution caused by the oil industry and
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Chapter 8 - Oil and Gas Safety

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OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS SAFETY

OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS SAFETY

At the end of this lesson, learners should be able to;

· Western Hemisphere Intercontinental Basin (US Gulf Coast, Mexico, Venezuela)

· Indonesia and South China Sea

· North and West Africa (Sahara and Nigeria)

· Far East (Siberia and China)

1.3 Oil and gas Search/ type of survey

measurements carried out in order to obtain a precise evaluation of the subsurface

• Magnetometric surveys: in this survey, Magnetometers hung from airplanes

Figure 1.0- Saudi Arabia, seismic operations

American Petroleum Institute

• Radiographic surveys: Radiography is the use of radio waves to give information

Figure 2- Drilling vessels; drill ship Ben Ocean Laneer

American Petroleum Institute

1. List out the components of crude oil and gas.

Element 2- Hazards associated with oil and gas activities

• Struck-By/ Caught-In/ Caught-Between

• Explosions and fire

• High Pressure Lines and equipment

• Electrical and other hazardous energy

Element 3- Occupational hazard of oil and gas activities

3.4 Drilling fluids

Element 4- Environmental impacts of oil and gas activities

4.1 Wildlife disruption

4.2 Oil spillage

4.3 Air and water pollution

4.4 Climate change

4.5 Landscape destruction

4.6 Light pollution

1. How wildlife is destructed due to oil and gas activities?

2. What are the causes of oil and chemical spills?

Element 5- Planning, prevention and control measures

ECPs must comprise the below elements:

5.1 Risk assessment

Choosing the appropriate risk assessment approach or a combination of approaches is a

Hazard identification (HAZID): this is a structured brainstorming technique for the

Quantitative risk assessment

This involves the assignment of data-supported numeric values in the assessment of

Probabilistic Risk Assessment: this is a quantitative method aimed at identifying and

Element 6- Offshore health and safety

6.2 Fire and explosion

An occupational hygiene monitoring and sampling programme, in conjunction with a

An effective method of controlling exposure is by using properly weighted drilling

6.3 Safety protection measures

6.4 Fire protection and prevention measures

➢ Passive systems include fireproofing, layout and spacing, equipment design,

Pollution controls typically include:

• API separators and other waste and water treatment facilities

Element 7- Oil and Gas activities checklist

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) provides universal voluntary

- Offshore safety Regulations 1993

Case Study: Niger delta area of Nigeria

of Occupational Health and Safety, 3rd edition. Geneva: ILO.

Energy Information Administration. 1996. International Petroleum Statistics

Report: January 1996. Washington, DC: US Department of Energy

EPA – OFFICE OF AIR QUALITY, PLANNING AND STANDARDS, 1995. Compilation of

related to the oil refining industry].

Esswein et al. (2013). Occupational Exposures to Respirable Crystalline Silica During

Hydraulic Fracturing. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg., 10(7), 347-356..

Ghosh, PK. 1983. Offshore oil operations. In Encyclopaedia of Occupational

Health and Safety, 3rd edition. Geneva: ILO: 1559-1563.

International Labour Organization (ILO). 1982. Safety and Health in the