UNIVERSITY OF ZAKHO

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OG PETROLEUM

Principle of
Petroleum Eng

Prepared by: Amir Sabah

Stage: Two
Supervisor: Mr. Nizar
Mohammed

Hydrocarbon

2020-2021
 Table of contents

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….2
The origin of Hydrocarbons………………………………………………………4
The exploration of Hydrocarbon………………………………………………7
The tools of exploration…………………………………………………………10
Production of Hydrocarbon……………………………………………………13
The Tools of production…………………………………………………………15
The type of rocks……………………………………………………………………17
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..21
Reference………………………………………………………………………………22

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Introduction:
Hydrocarbons
Organic chemical compounds consisting of the elements carbon and
hydrogen only, and most of these compounds are in the form of long or
short chains of carbon atoms connected by one or two molecular bonds,
and hydrogen unites with them to complete their orbits and produce a
stable acid, and they may be composed of one carbon atom and four
hydrogen atoms Like methane (CH4).

Types of hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are divided into three main types, namely.
❖ Aromatic hydrocarbons: They are rings of carbon.
❖ saturated hydrocarbons: they are hydrocarbons that do not contain
any double or triple bonds, nor do they form rings.
❖ Unsaturated hydrocarbons: They are hydrocarbons that contain
second or triple bonds.

• Oil (petroleum) and natural gas consist of hydrocarbons (carbon and

hydrogen atoms).
• Some hydrocarbons are gaseous and invisible Natural Gas, some
appear liquid like Oil, and some solid like Tar.
• The ability of hydrocarbon to flow (viscosity), and the ability to
evaporate (volatility) depend on the size of its (molecule).
• The hydrocarbon with short chain of molecule tend to be less viscous
(they flow more easily) and more volatile (they evaporate more
easily).
• The hydrocarbon with long chain molecules have more viscosity
(they flow slowly) and less volatile (they evaporate slowly).

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the ration of carbon atom affects the viscosity and volatility of the
hydrocarbons, the more the carbon atoms, the more the viscosity (they
flow slowly) and the low the volatile hydrocarbon (they evaporate slowly).
• The gaseous hydrocarbons have short-chain molecule like Natural
Gas.
• The liquid hydrocarbons have moderate- chain molecule like Oils.
• The semi-solid hydrocarbons have long-chain molecule like Tar.

The importance of hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are important sources of energy that people depend on, and
the simplest compound of them is gasoline, which is a derivative of
petroleum and is used as a fuel for many means of transportation, and its
molecular formula is C6H6, in addition to methane, which is a gas used for
cooking and heating, which is an alkenene and its molecular formula is :
CH4, and the rest of petroleum products are hydrocarbons, as well as
natural gas that exists alone in the ground, and coal, which is one of the
most important causes of the industrial revolution, and with its energy,
man reached space where he used fuel for spacecraft as well, and he
entered into the manufacture of plastics, Candles and others.

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The origin of Hydrocarbons:
The vast majority of hydrocarbons found on Earth occur in petroleum, coal,
and natural gas. Petroleum (literally "rock oil" – petrol for short) and coal
are generally thought to be products of decomposition of organic matter.
In contrast to petroleum, is coal, which is richer in carbon and poorer in
hydrogen. Natural gas is the product of methanogenesis.

Formation process
From planktonic remains to kerogen:

Although it is recognized that the original source

of carbon and hydrogen was in the materials that made
up primordial Earth, it is generally accepted that these two elements had
to pass through an organic phase to be combined into the varied complex
molecules recognized as hydrocarbons. The organic material that is the
source of most hydrocarbons has probably been derived from single-
celled planktonic (free-floating) plants, such as diatoms and blue-green
algae, and single-celled planktonic animals, such as foraminifera, which
live in aquatic environments of marine, brackish, or fresh water. Such
simple organisms are known to have been abundant long before
the Paleozoic Era, which began some million years ago.

planktonic diatoms Blue-green algae

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Rapid burial of the remains of the single-celled planktonic plants and
animals within fine-grained sediments effectively preserved them. This
provided the organic materials, the so-called proto petroleum, for later
diagenesis (a series of processes involving biological, chemical, and
physical changes) into true petroleum.
The first, or immature, stage of hydrocarbon formation is dominated by
biological activity and chemical rearrangement, which convert organic
matter to kerogen. This dark-colored insoluble product of bacterially
altered plant and animal detritus is the source of most hydrocarbons
generated in the later stages. During the first stage, biogenic methane is
the only hydrocarbon generated in commercial quantities. The production
of biogenic methane gas is part of the process of decomposition of organic
matter carried out by anaerobic microorganisms (those capable of living in
the absence of free oxygen).

From kerogen to petroleum:

Deeper burial by continuing sedimentation, increasing temperatures, and
advancing geologic age result in the mature stage
of hydrocarbon formation, during which the full range of
petroleum compounds is produced from kerogen and other precursors by
thermal degradation and cracking (in which heavy hydrocarbon molecules
are broken up into lighter molecules). Depending on the amount and type
of organic matter, hydrocarbon generation occurs during the mature stage
at depths of about 760 to 4,880 metres (2,500 to 16,000 feet) at
temperatures between 65 °C and 150 °C (150 °F and 300 °F). This
special environment is called the “oil window.” In areas of higher than
normal geothermal gradient (increase in temperature with depth), the oil
window exists at shallower depths in younger sediments but is narrower.
Maximum hydrocarbon generation occurs from depths of 2,000 to 2,900
metres (6,600 to 9,500 feet). Below 2,900 metres, primarily wet gas, a type

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of gas containing liquid hydrocarbons known as natural gas liquids, is
formed.
Approximately 90 percent of the organic material in sedimentary source
rocks is dispersed kerogen. Its composition varies, consisting of a range of
residual materials whose basic molecular structure takes the form of
stacked sheets of aromatic hydrocarbon rings in which atoms
of sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen also occur. Attached to the ends of the
rings are various hydrocarbon compounds, including
normal paraffin chains. The mild heating of the kerogen in the oil window
of a source rock over long periods of time results in the cracking of the
kerogen molecules and the release of the attached paraffin chains. Further
heating, perhaps assisted by the catalytic effect of clay minerals in the
source rock matrix, may then produce soluble bitumen compounds,
followed by the various saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons,
asphaltenes (precipitates formed from oily residues), and others of the
thousands of hydrocarbon compounds that make up crude oil mixtures.

At the end of the mature stage, below about 4,800 metres (16,000 feet),
depending on the geothermal gradient, kerogen becomes condensed in
structure and chemically stable. In this environment, crude oil is no longer
stable, and the main hydrocarbon product is dry thermal methane gas.

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The exploration of Hydrocarbon:
The role of exploration is to provide the information required to exploit the
best opportunities presented in the choice of areas. Exploration is
generally achieved by selection of a range of options in probabilistic and
economic terms. For detecting the suitable conditions that hydrocarbon
may be exist, there are a combination between satellite remote sensing a
sit gives us valuable information about large part of the surface of the earth
in a very short time, then geology, geophysics information and engineering.
Geophysics can be consider as the primary and the most important branch
for investigation of the subsurface as it give us imagine what lying
underground and how is its structural and stratigraphy component. There
is a broad division of geophysical surveying methods into those that make
use of natural fields of the Earth and those that require the input into the
ground of artificially generated energy. Generally, natural field methods
can provide information on Earth properties to significantly greater depths
and are logistically simpler to carry out than artificial source methods. The
latter, are capable of producing a more detailed and better resolved
picture of the subsurface geology.

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The science of geology and geophysics are so fundamental to the
petroleum industry and knowledge of their basic principles is desirable.
geophysicists for identifying and locating the place where petroleum may
be exist beneath the Earth's surface. It encompasses a number of older
methods in addition to new techniques.

With increase hydrocarbons volume of orders, the trend of oil/gas

exploration is developing with increasing supply and demand. Innovations
in geophysical exploration theory and method are the only correct
approach to resolve the world’s common exploration problems that will be
encountered in the future. A large number of technologies need to be
developed to solve various difficult problems and push forward these
Innovations to better meet the requirements of petroleum exploration and
exploitation. Aerial photography, geologic mapping, geophysics are all
crucial aspects in the exploration for oil and gas. Acquisition is the most
important and the most costly part in hydrocarbon exploration, and
preceded by survey planning. The purpose of acquisition is to provide
subsurface image of specific survey area. Field methods for acquisition are
depending on whether the area island or marine, depending also on the
nature of geologic problems, and on the accessibility to the area of interest.

Oil companies may work for several years on a prospective area before
drilling an exploration well and during this period the geological history of
the area is studied and the probability of presence of hydrocarbons. In the
field of hydrocarbon, the survey is done in both land and marine which
require new technology to face the problems in each form. To overcome
those problems, there are a combination between several techniques and
new technologies to reach success in this point, including; gravity,
magnetic, seismic, EM. All of this became standard tools for exploration.

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Exploration methods:
Hydrocarbon exploration is a high risk investment and risk assessment is
paramount for successful project portfolio management. Exploration risk
is a difficult concept and is usually defined by assigning confidence to the
presence of the imperative geological factors, as discussed above. This
confidence is based on data and/or models and is usually mapped on
Common Risk Segment Maps (CRS Maps). High confidence in the presence
of imperative geological factors is usually colo`red green and low
confidence colored red. Therefore, these maps are also called Traffic Light
Maps, while the full procedure is often referred to as Play Fairway Analysis.
The aim of such procedures is to force the geologist to objectively assess
all different geological factors. Furthermore, it results in simple maps that
can be understood by non-geologists and managers to base exploration
decisions on.

Exploration risk:
Hydrocarbon exploration is a high risk investment and risk assessment is
paramount for successful project portfolio management. Exploration risk
is a difficult concept and is usually defined by assigning confidence to the
presence of the imperative geological factors, as discussed above. This
confidence is based on data and/or models and is usually mapped on
Common Risk Segment Maps (CRS Maps). High confidence in the presence
of imperative geological factors is usually colored green and low
confidence colored red. Therefore, these maps are also called Traffic Light
Maps, while the full procedure is often referred to as Play Fairway
Analysis. The aim of such procedures is to force the geologist to objectively
assess all different geological factors. Furthermore, it results in simple
maps that can be understood by non-geologists and managers to base
exploration decisions on.

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The tools of exploration:
The presence of oil in an area has been discovered through several
operations that are not limited to drilling only, and we mention the
following:
❖ Geological Survey: The geologist knows whether the geological
conditions in the study area have helped the formation of oil, and
searches for any traces of oil on the outer surface, and the geologist
also draws a map showing the inclination, direction, and information
about the topography of the area, and all the wells in it and the routes
The drainage, as it uses the method of aerial photography by plane,
as it flies over the study area and the imaging device takes quick
pictures that cover the entire area, thus obtaining a three-
dimensional image that is useful in observing the slope of rocks and
distinguishing bends and faults, and by combining the images with
each other We obtain complete information for the study area.

❖ Geophysical survey: It is done by using several methods, namely:

o The method of measuring the Earth's gravity: Very accurate devices
are used to measure changes in the Earth's gravitational force, such
as a gravimetric device, and the intensity of the Earth's gravity may
vary from one place to another depending on several factors, the
most important of which are: the height of the place from the surface
of the earth, the shape of the earth at the poles, and the centrifugal
force resulting from the rotation of the earth And the difference in
the density of rocks in the earth's crust below the observation point,
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 and by using this method, it is possible to accurately identify the
nature of the formations in the depths.
o Vibration measurement method: This method is done by creating
industrial earthquakes by detonating quantities of explosive
materials, which leads to generating waves of vibrations, so the
observer records the frequencies of the waves arising through the
seismograph, noting that the speed of wave flow varies according to
the type of rock. By measuring the speed of waves in the different
layers, it is possible to know the type of rocks and their depth in the
study area.
o Magnetometry method: Differences in magnetic field values can be
measured using an aircraft-borne magnetometer, and by knowing
the differences in the magnetic field values, we can know the
different formations located under the earth's surface.

❖ Seismic survey: Information about the geological composition of the

site is obtained by making small explosions close to the surface, and
by reflecting the sound of this detonation, geological information is
obtained.
1. Seismic refraction method: This method depends on measuring
the velocity of the waves refracted from the separating layers
inside the Earth's interior, and it varies from one state to another
according to the number of layers in which the seismic waves
travel, and it may be two or three layers or multiple layers (more

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 than three) or slow-speed layers or layers In which the speed
increases with the increase in depth. The method of measurement
differs in each type of these layers depending on the extent of the
difference in the quality of these layers in terms of their
components and physical and seismic properties, and each of
these cases has its own mathematical laws to calculate the speed
of transmission of seismic waves in them, and these laws depend
on the aforementioned differences.
2. Seismic reflection method: In this method, the depths of the
surfaces of separation between the different layers are calculated
from the measurements taken of the waves that are reflected at
these surfaces. The layers through which the waves travel, the
thickness of each layer can be calculated, and these layers may be
horizontal or layers separated by inclined surfaces.

❖ Gravity method: This method relies on the difference in gravity

between types of rocks due to their different densities.

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Production of Hydrocarbon:
Production of hydrocarbon fuels from biomass using catalytic pyrolysis
under helium and hydrogen environments.

Production is the last stage in the oil and gas industry and at the same time
the stage at which hydrocarbons are extracted from wells, after which
revenues come when selling oil or gas, as these revenues must exceed the
amount invested in the oil field, in order to be able to achieve profits,
production in the oil field may continue from several years to forty years,
depending on the volume of oil present, and the cost of keeping production
going, large amounts of money are spent on running the field and
maintaining it safe, and to keep the workers safe, In order not to harm the
environment, and to ensure that production continues around the clock,
workers follow the rotation system in their work, engineers, for example,
are restricted to oil installations in order to ensure that production
continues effectively, while reservoir or oil reserve engineers constantly
check the soundness of performance in the oil field and choose the optimal
plan to keep production going, for example the need to drill new wells.

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The stages of petroleum production:
Missing from the minds of non-specialists regarding the stages of
producing oil wells, how to extract the largest possible quantity of it. When
a new field is discovered, the competent authorities drill several wells to
determine the total size of the petroleum reserve and obtain samples from
the rocky layers and petroleum liquids that help determine the amount
that can be produced by traditional methods. As for the productive
reserve, it is a percentage of the entire field's oil reserves. The percentage
increases with the improvement of production methods and the use of
additional means and technologies, which may be costly, during the
production of the last half of the reserve.
Production is divided into three main stages:
1. The first stage is the beginning of production. The petroleum liquids
self-ascend through the wellbore to the production facilities in order
to separate the petroleum from the associated gas that has the merit
of pushing the petroleum liquid upward. With the passage of years
the momentum weakens and the amount of production decreases,
which is normal. And here, large quantities of water have begun to
be pumped as a catalyst for maintaining pressure inside the field, and
it is directed towards the bottom layer of the reservoir, that is, under
oil, and we mean by the reservoir, the rocky layers that store oil. And
the source of water that they usually use to preserve pressure is
either the sea or the groundwater, which is neither suitable for
agriculture nor for consumption.
2. The second stage begins after the emergence of large quantities of
water mixed with petroleum, where it is sorted and re-injected into
the field. In exceptional cases, special geological factors are required
that are not available in all fields. Also, quantities of associated gas
are injected to increase pressure preservation. This stage continues
until the time comes to lower electrical or mechanical pumps inside
the well to help raise the petroleum liquid that has lost the self-
strength that was raising it to the surface of the earth. The cost of
production increases with the passage of time and with the help of
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 supporting factors. And so it goes until production falls to a rate that
may not be economic.
3. As for the third stage, it is the most difficult and the most expensive,
and it is called the catalysis process, and it consists of using special
means and materials. This process is complex and expensive, and it
comes from multiple methods depending on the suitability of each
method to the situation in the field. Usually, specialists choose the
best and most suitable ones, after conducting studies, laboratory
experiments, and economic calculations. They may use to pump large
amounts of water vapor at a high temperature. Or injecting types of
gases such as carbon dioxide if available. The choice may be made to
pump chemicals that help release large amounts of sticky petroleum
to the walls of pore rocks. The determining factor between these
solutions is economic feasibility.

The Tools of production:

There are many methods in the oil production process, as oil is produced
worldwide in modern and sophisticated ways, and it relied on less
expensive and less effortless methods than the aforementioned methods.
Modern methods were devised in the oil production process, especially
from oil fields, and modern methods were developed for oil exploration in
the seas and from It is known that the oceanic Offshore region is an area
of economic importance in oil production and needs advanced
technologies for oil production in the fields and greater costs from the field.
Oil production in the seas and oceans is based on modern technologies
with characteristics suitable for the marine environment, and methods
suitable for the marine environment are relied upon, including air
repression, marine surveying, and marine engineering process. In addition,
there are other methods for producing oil in the seas, including
exploration, which is the process of research in modern or traditional
methods for oil to be done Targeting areas where oil, gas and oil are
present, and then connecting them with pumps to the refinery and re-
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oiling them. In addition to that, thermal methods are used to improve oil
production. Thermal Recovery, and this technique is used to improve oil,
especially in tanks containing heavy oil, because it contains high viscosity,
and the oil is improved from it through heating in order to reduce the high
viscosity of heavy pressure and improve the oil In this way, through the
following:
1. Steam improvement methods: The method of improving oil with
steam depends on the injection process. The so-called water vapor is
injected under conditions of pressure and temperature in order to
reduce the high viscosity of the oil in Crude Oil, but there are
disadvantages to this use, which is the lack of improvement for the
oil that is located at a depth greater than 1000 meters. The injection
is done in two cases. They are periodic steam injection. This injection
takes place in the water vapor in the well and takes a period of about
25 days, and the well is closed so that the condensation process of
water vapor and condensation takes place, as in the oil production
process after the 25-day period, there has been a gradual cooling of
heat and with the passage of the time period The production process
The oil reservoir begins with deposits of paraffins and glues, and the
injection process takes place again 1. Steam improvement methods.
2. In site combustion.
3. Modern heating methods.
The most important methods of oil production:
❖ The fountain method: It is a method that has been classified as one
of the modern methods that have been developed and become a
modern method. In this method, it depends on pressure in oil
production, as the oil rises from the bottom of the well to the mouth
as a result of the pressure process.
The process of rising oil from the bottom of the well to the surface is
accomplished through the gas pressure present in the first layers of the oil
reservoir, and at the beginning of the production period, the reservoir
pressure is preserved, after extracting the gas before the oil.

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The type of rocks that:
1. Generate the hydrocarbons or (source rock)
Source rocks are rocks that contain sufficient organic material to create
hydrocarbons when subjected to heat and pressure over time. Source
rocks are usually shales or limestones (sedimentary rocks). To be a
productive source rock, the rock needs time to mature (time to form the
oil and/or gas) and the hydrocarbons need to be able to migrate to a
reservoir or seep. Source rocks are usually a separate layer from the
reservoir rock layers but occasionally they can be both source and
reservoir. Source rocks are often offset from the reservoir, meaning that
they are not directly below the reservoir but off to the side.
As the source rock becomes more deeply buried under layers of sediment,
the temperature begins to increase triggering geochemical reactions that
convert the organic materials into hydrocarbons. Crude oil forms from 65
to 150 degrees Celsius. If the temperature goes over 150 degrees Celsius,
natural gas can be formed (see Figure 1). This usually occurs at greater
depths than oil formation. Marine rocks tend to form oil while terrestrial,
or land, rocks tend to form gas.

Figure 1. Diagram showing the windows for oil and gas formation at different depths/temperatures. Note
that natural gas forms deeper than oil because the source rock will be at a higher temperature and
pressure. After formation, these can move quite some distance before being trapped.

Once the hydrocarbons have formed, they migrate from the source rock.
They are then either trapped in a reservoir or are "lost" during migration.
"Lost" hydrocarbons escape from the Earth through seeping
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(essentially they leak out of the ground) or disperse throughout the Earth's
surface instead of collecting in one spot. It is estimated that only 10% of
the oil and gas that has formed has been trapped.
Oil and gas reservoirs typically form in traps. There are a few types of traps:
anticlinal, fault, stratigraphic, and reef and/or salt traps. While the exact
mechanics of each trap type differs, they all trap oil and gas in a reservoir
by having an impermeable cap rock layer and by sealing the bottom of the
reservoir with water (oil and gas are less dense than water) or another
impermeable rock layer.
2. Store the hydrocarbon or (reservoir rocks):
According to Society of Petroleum Engineers Glossary, a reservoir rock is a
rock containing porosity, permeability, sufficient hydrocarbon
accumulation and a sealing mechanism to form a reservoir from which
commercial flows of hydrocarbons can be produced. Porosity and
permeability are the reservoir rock most significant physical properties. A
fundamental property of a reservoir rock between them is porosity.
However, for explorationists, an effective reservoir rock, the most
fundamental reservoir rock property is its permeability. Both of them are
geometric properties are the result of its lithological, structural and
compositional behavior (composition). These physical compositions of a
rock and the textural properties are geometric such as sizes and shapes of
the rock grains, their arrangement system and packaging. The efficiency of
reservoir rock account on different important properties, however in this
paper discussing on reservoir rocks properties, porosity and permeability
are main topics to focus on. As discussed in last paper (Assignment I, 2014)
petroleum system is made of different elements which encompass
reservoir rock. Moreover, it is found in a sedimentary basin whereby
explorationists are able to study its stratigraphy and its sedimentology
(rock history) to determine if there is a likeliness of the existence of
petroleum system. After they (explorationists) come up with concluding
the existence of a petroleum system, they go for further scientific tests-
collecting different data and analyzing them to be able to decide about
drilling and completion of a petroleum system. Significant part of their
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scientific studies on particular petroleum system is on estimating the
possible quantity of hydrocarbons (crude oil) that may be present there.
19 The reservoir content is estimated by means studying rock properties
which can be determined in a direct way or indirectly. The indirect are done
through laboratory measurements on core samples of reservoir rock of
interest which constitutes direct methods of porosity data acquisition. This
is done by measuring a bulk and their pore (empty spaces in a rock). Its bulk
volume is gravimetrically determined when a core-sample is having an
irregular shape. A petroleum system may have one or more reservoir rocks,
and reservoir rocks may have different property basing on their types.
Types of reservoir rock depend on kinds of their contents, composition,
morphology and sedimentology.
Types of reservoir rocks:
As a rock to be named a reservoir has to be a porous and permeable
lithological structure. It encompasses sedimentary rocks. These
sedimentary rocks may be made of sandstones (quartz sand or arksosic
sandstone), carbonates mud or dolomite. Dolomites mostly form good
reservoirs because the common reason behind it is that there is Mg, 13%
smaller than Ca in a way that during dolomitization, there is a total
decrease in volume of the material by 13%, here by 13% porosity is gained.
▪ Sandstone reservoir rocks: The term sand refers to a specific grain
with sizes between (62 µm - 2 mm). The performance of the
sandstone as a reservoir rock is described by its combination of
porosity and permeability depending on the degree to which the sand
dominates its. The favorable texture is depicted by packaging of
similar sized grains, not a combination of coarse and fine grained
composition. The best sandstone reservoirs are those that are
composed mainly of quartz grains of sand size of nearly equal sizes or
silica cement, with minimal fragmented particles. Sandstone
reservoirs are generally 25 meters thick.
▪ Carbonate reservoir rocks: The most fascinating aspects of carbonate
reservoir rocks are their content. Carbonates are usually made of
fossils which ―range from the very small single cell to the larger
| P a g e 19
 shelled animals‖. Most carbonate rocks are deposited at or in very
close neighborhood to their site of creation. The "best-sorted"
carbonate rocks are Oolites in which encompass grains of the same
size and shapes even though Oolites are poorly sorted.
3. Traps oil (do not allow them to escape) or (cap rock ,seal rock):
Caprock or cap rock is a harder or more resistant rock type overlying a
weaker or less resistant rock type. Common types of caprock are sandstone
and mafic rock types. An analogy of caprock could be the outer crust on a
cake that is a bit harder than the underlying layer. Common caprock
locations are escarpments, mesa formations, and salt domes. In the
petroleum industry, caprock is generalized to any nonpermeable formation
that may prevent oil, gas, or water from migrating to the surface.
Description
Caprock is a harder or more resistant rock type overlying a weaker or less
resistant rock type. Common types of caprock are sandstone and mafic
rock types. An analogy of caprock could be the outer crust on a cake that
is a bit harder than the underlying layer. In processes such as scarp retreat,
the caprock controls the rate of erosion of the scarp. As the softer rock is
cut away, periodically the caprock shears off. Caprock is also found on the
top of mesa formations.
The Niagara Escarpment, over which Niagara Falls flows, is an example of
a scarp or escarpment. At Niagara Falls, the caprock is the riverbed above
the falls, and is what prevents the river from eroding the face of the falls
very quickly. In the photo, the dark thin layer in the foreground where
water is not yet running, is the caprock. The Niagara caprock is made of
dolomitic limestone.

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Conclusion:

Millions of years ago, the earth was populated with plants and
animals. Much of that life was located in or adjacent to ancient
rivers, lakes, and sea. As plants and animals died, their remains
settled to the bottom of these bodies of water. Ancient rivers
carried mud and sand that buried the organic material. As layers
of organic material continued to build up, the oxygen supply to the
lower layers eventually was cut off and decomposition slowed
down. The thick Upstream oil sector: this sector deals with the;
Exploration (searching for hydrocarbons) and Production and also
called (E&P) sector. Exploration: by different types of field geology,
geophysics, and well logging methods. Production: deals with
extracting hydrocarbons by oil well drilling. This comes after
exploration.

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