5/7/2021

1 Concepts Of
Petroleum Geology
Dr. Ahmad A. Ramadhan

Geoscience
Petroleum Geology
Geology
Geophysics
Geohydrology
Geo(technology)
Geo(engineering)
Petroleum economics

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What is petroleum?

 Petroleum: A general term for all

naturally occurring hydrocarbons
(hydrogen + carbon)
 Solid Hydrocarbons: Asphalt
 Liquid Hydrocarbons: Crude oil
 Gas Hydrocarbons: Natural Gas:
methane, butane, propane, etc.
The simplest
hydrocarbon is Methane
(CH4)

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petroleum geology refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are
applied to the search for hydrocarbons during oil exploration.
petroleum geology is principally concerned with the evaluation of seven key
elements in a sedimentary basin to obtain an idea of the subsurface and overall
petroleum system.
 Source
 Reservoir
 Seal
 Trap
 Timing
 Maturation
 Migration

1. EVALUATION OF THE SOURCE

This involves quantification and evaluation of the nature of organic-rich rocks so
that the type and quality of expelled hydrocarbon in a basin can be assessed
by GEOCHEMICAL methods of analysis.
STEPS IN SOURCE ROCK ANALYSIS
•First establish likelihood of presence of organic-rich sediments deposited in the
past on the basis of studies of local stratigraphy, paleogeography and
sedimentology of the area.
•Identification and delineation of area of potential source rock.
•Determine the type of KEROGEN and state of its maturation.
•Calculation of thermal maturity and timing of maturation.
•Finally determine the likelihood of oil / gas generation in the area and
calculate the depth of oil window.
(Majority of oil generation occurs in the 60° to 120°C range. Gas generation
starts at similar temperatures, but may
continue up beyond this range, perhaps as high as 200°C.)

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2. THE RESERVOIR
It is a porous and permeable lithological unit or set of units that holds the
hydrocarbon reserves. The common types include sandstone and limestone.

STEPS IN ANALYSIS OF RESERVOIRS

 First determine the type of lithofacies of the reservoir.
 Assessment of their POROSITY (to calculate the volume of in situ
hydrocarbons) and PERMEABILITY (to calculate how easily
hydrocarbons will flow out of them).
 Study the Post depositional Digenetic changes in reservoir.
 Establish depositional environment and geometry of the reservoirs.
 Some of the key disciplines used in reservoir analysis are stratigraphy,
sedimentology, reservoir engineering and the technique of Formation
evaluation using wireline tools.
 Seismic attributes of subsurface rocks generated through seismic data
processing are used to infer physical /sedimentary properties of the rocks.

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3. THE SEAL OR CAP ROCK

It is a unit with low permeability that impedes the escape of
hydrocarbons from the reservoir rock.
Common seals include EVAPORITES, CHALKS and SHALE.
Analysis of seals involves assessment of their thickness and
extent, such that their effectiveness can be quantified.

4. THE TRAP
It is the stratigraphic or structural feature that ensures the
juxtaposition of reservoir and seal such that hydrocarbons remain
trapped in the subsurface, rather than escaping and being lost.
The common types are Structural, Stratigraphic and Combination
Traps.

A structural trap, where a fault has juxtaposed a porous and

permeable reservoir against an impermeable seal. Oil (shown in
red) accumulates against the seal, to the depth of the base of the
seal. Any further oil migrating in from the source will escape to
the surface and seep.

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TYPES OF TRAPS
STRUCTURAL TRAP:
Here the trap has been produced by deformation of the beds after they were deposited, either by folding
or faulting.

STRATIGRAPHIC TRAP:
Here the trap is formed by changes in the nature of the rocks themselves, or in their layering, the only
structural effect being a tilt to allow the oil to migrate through the reservoir.

COMBINATION TRAPS:
Here the trap is formed partly by structural and partly by stratigraphic effects, but not entirely due to
either.

HYDRODYNAMIC TRAPS:
These Traps is due to water flowing through the reservoir and holding the oil in places where it would
not otherwise be trapped.

COMMON TRAP TYPES

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COMMON TRAP TYPES

5. ANALYSIS OF MATURATION
It involves assessing the thermal history of the source rock in
order to make predictions of the amount and timing of
hydrocarbon generation and expulsion.
6&7. THE TIME AND NATURE OF MIGRATION
Finally, the careful studies of reveal information on how
hydrocarbons move from source to reservoir and help quantify
the source of hydrocarbons in a particular area.

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Why is Carbon so Important in the Life Cycle?

Carbon has numerous ways of bonding with many other elements,

particularly oxygen and hydrogen.
It forms “organic” and “inorganic” compounds. Organic compounds are
considered unstable in the biosphere because they are in the reduced state.
Inorganic compounds, principally calcite and dolomite, are stable because
they are in the oxidized.
Carbon is contained in most substances that are vital for the development of
life (“biomolecules”): Proteins, lipids, sacharides, etc.

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‫الحالة الخفضية هي حالة تحتوي فيها الجزيئات الكيميائية على إلكترونات إضافية‪ ،‬أي‬
‫أنها تحتوي على عدد أكبر من اإللكترونات مقارنة بالعدد الذري األساسي للعنصر‪.‬‬
‫وتكون الحالة الخفضية شائعة بني العناصر غير املعدنية في املركبات العضوية‪.‬‬
‫على سبيل املثال‪ ،‬الكربون في الحالة األساسية يحتوي على ‪ 4‬إلكترونات تشكل رابطات‬
‫كيميائية مع الذرات األخرى‪ ،‬ويعرف الكربون في الحالة الخفضية عندما يحتوي على‬
‫إلكترونات إضافية‪ ،‬مثل في الحالة الخفضية في اإليثانول )‪ (C2H5OH‬حيث يحتوي‬
‫الكربون فيها على ‪ 4‬إلكترونات رابطة‪ ،‬و إضافة إلى ذلك يحتوي على إلكترونات إضافية‬
‫من األكسجني والهيدروجني املرتبطني به‪.‬‬
‫وتكون املركبات العضوية عادة في الحالة الخفضية‪ ،‬وهذا يجعلها أكثر عرضة للتفاعل‬
‫مع املركبات األخرى في البيئة الحيوية‪ ،‬ويجعلها أيضا ً أكثر عرضة للتحلل والتفكك في‬
‫الظروف البيئية‬

‫تعني العبارة "إن املركبات العضوية تعتبر غير مستقرة في البيئة الحيوية ألنها تكون‬
‫في حالة خفض"‪ ،‬وذلك يعني أن املركبات العضوية تحتوي على عناصر مثل الكربون‬
‫والهيدروجني واألكسجني والنيتروجني والفسفور وغيرها‪ ،‬وتتميز بأنها تحتوي على روابط‬
‫كيميائية تكون في حالة خفض‪ ،‬وهذا يعني أن الروابط الكيميائية في هذه املركبات‬
‫تحتوي على كمية كبيرة من اإللكترونات‪.‬‬

‫ونظرا ً ألن اإللكترونات هي املسؤولة عن ارتباط العناصر في الروابط الكيميائية‪ ،‬فإنه‬

‫يمكن أن يحدث تفاعل بني املركبات العضوية والعناصر األخرى في البيئة الحيوية‪،‬‬
‫وهذا يؤدي إلى تفكك وتحلل املركبات العضوية بشكل سريع‪ .‬وبالتالي‪ ،‬فإن املركبات‬
‫العضوية تعتبر غير مستقرة في البيئة الحيوية‪ ،‬حيث تتعرض للتفكك والتحلل بسهولة‬
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Oil and Gas

Origin of petroleum forms

 Petroleum is derived from the remains of living things which contains a material
called kerogen.
 Before dead organic matter becomes petroleum with time, the kerogen matures into
an assortment of hydrocarbon molecules of all sizes and weights.
 The lightest (small) hydrocarbon molecules waft away as natural gas, and the heavier
ones make up an oily liquid.
 Petroleum source rocks are of terrestrial and marine origin.
 Terrestrial source rocks are deposited in lakes, delta and river basins having woody
plant matter, algae etc.
 Marine source rocks contain dead planktons, algae, organic remains etc.
 In both the settings, the mixture is buried under conditions of no oxygen. The
kerogen are classified as type I,II & III as per their origin and are capable of
producing oil or gas or both.

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 Under the anaerobic conditions, the kerogen is transformed into a flammable

substance called bitumen by the action of heat and anaerobic microbes in the
sediment and natural catalysts.
 Most of the bitumen is eventually cooked into tarry asphalt releasing hydrocarbon
molecules (as well as water and carbon dioxide) out of the source rock as it heats.
 Heavy oils form first, then light oils. As temperatures rise to and above 100° C,
source rocks produce more gas.
 Being lighter than rocks, petroleum tends to rise upward through fractures and the
pores of coarse sandstone beds.
 A small fraction of that leakage, perhaps 2% is preserved in large pools having an
impermeable cap / seal over it.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROLEUM RESERVOIRS

 A reservoir is sponge-like rock with open space between its grains -porosity.
 The porosity may be primary or it might be secondary as groundwater dissolves
pores in the rock or as minerals undergo alteration or may have formed due to
tectonic activities.
 One source of porosity is the transformation of calcite to dolomite by fluids rich in
magnesium, which takes up less space.
 Besides porosity, there must be high permeability ie. the connectedness of pores that
allows fluid to move easily through the reservoir rock.
 Permeability, porosity in combination with geologic structure are all of interest to
petroleum geologists as it provides sites of hydrocarbon accumulation under
favorable conditions.

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EXPLORATION CYCLE IN A SEDIMENTARY BASIN

EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES IN A SEDIMENTARY BASIN

 geological mapping : regional
 mapsgeochemical prospecting: anomaly maps
 geophysical prospecting gravity-magnetic survey: maps
 seismic survey–2d&3d: isochron maps
 prospect identification
 establishing stratigraphy : age determination depositional environments: facies
modeling
 source rock geochemistry: maturation
 synthesis and attribute mapping
 structure and tectonic makeup
 preparation of isochron-structure maps
 drilling and synthesis of subsurface data reservoir modeling & development scheme

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GEOCHEMICAL MAPS

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Seismic Acquisition

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