university of zaxo

Faculty of engieering
Department of petroleum engineering

hydrocarbons

Name of student :
Contents
Introduction
The origin of hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbons exploration
The tools of exploration hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbons production
The tools of Hydrocarbons production
The type of rocks that
1-generate the hydrocarbon or (source rock)
2-store the hydrocarbon or (reservoir rock)
3-Traps oil (do not allow them to escape) or (cap
rock)
Conclusion
References
Introduction
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain only carbon and
hydrogen .The four general classes of hydrocarbons are: alkanes, alkenes
alkynes and arenas. Aromatic compounds derive their names from the fact that
many of these compounds in the early days of discovery were grouped
.because they were oils with fragrant odors
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The classifications for hydrocarbons, defined by IUPAC nomenclature of
:organic chemistry are as follows

Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) are the simplest of the hydrocarbon -1

species. They are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with
hydrogen. The general formula for saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2
(assuming non-cyclic structures). Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of
petroleum fuels and are found as either linear or branched species.The
simplest alkanes have their C atoms bonded in a straight chain; these are
called normal alkanes. They are named according to the number of C atoms in
:the chain. The smallest alkane is methane

Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between -2

carbon atoms. Those with double bond are called alkenes and those with one
double bond have the formula CnH2n (assuming non-cyclic structures).
Those containing triple bonds are called alkynes, with general formula
CnH2n−2 . The smallest alkene—ethene—has two C atoms and is also known
:by its common name ethylene
 :The smallest alkyne is ethyne, which is also known as acetylene

Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons containing one or more carbon rings to -3

which hydrogen atoms are attached. The general formula for a saturated
.hydrocarbon containing one ring is CnH2n

Aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at -4

least one aromatic ring. Aromatic compounds contain the benzene unit.
Benzene itself is composed of six C atoms in a ring, with alternating single
:and double C–C bonds

differences in molecular structure, Because of

the empirical formula remains different between hydrocarbons; in linear, or
"straight-run" alkanes, alkenes and alkynes, the amount of bonded hydrogen
lessens in alkenes and alkynes due to the "self-bonding" or catenation of carbon
preventing entire saturation of the hydrocarbon by the formation of double or
.triple bonds
The inherent ability of hydrocarbons to bond to themselves is known as
catenation, and allows hydrocarbon to form more complex molecules, such as
cyclohexane, and in rarer cases, arenes such as benzene. This ability comes from
the fact that the bond character between carbon atoms is entirely non-polar, in
that the distribution of electrons between the two elements is somewhat even due
.to the same electronegativity values of the elements (~0.30)
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The origin of hydrocarbon
Formation process
From planktonic remains to kerogen: the immature stage
Although it is recognized that the original source of carbon and hydrogen was in
the materials that made up primordial Earth, it is generally accepted that these
two elements had to pass through an organic phase to be combined into the
varied complex molecules recognized as hydrocarbons. The organic material that
is the source of most hydrocarbons has probably been derived from single-celled
planktonic (free-floating) plants, such as diatoms and blue-green algae, and
single-celled planktonic animals, such as foraminifera, which live in aquatic
environments of marine, brackish, or fresh water. Such simple organisms are
known to have been abundant long before the Paleozoic Era, which began some
.541 million years ago
 Hydrocarbons exploration
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Hydrocarbon exploration is a very important activity in petroleum geology as it starts from

land survey passes through seismic survey and ends at drilling a test well. Remote Sensing
(RS) data and Geographical Information System (GIS) under the supervision of Geo
scientists guiding petroleum explorers to a new horizon where technology and economics
meet the new limits. Landsat8 (OLI) satellite offers the most appropriate RS system for the
delineation of surface features of Petroleum research. Indus basin is well known to the world
for its Petroleum production, especially from the Potwar sub basin. Indeed, Potwar is a
geologically complex petroleum basin where petroleum exploration is tacky activity then a
normal activity.Surface deformations, undulations and faults are very common in this basin
due to surface uplift and continental- continental collision.Therefore, lineament study of
geological structures in the basin provides us a way to find a more accurate and reliable
approach to find hydrocarbon sites developed under the influence of subsurface geological
pressure and plate tectonics. A complete set of bands provided by Landsat8 (OLI) is the most
effective basic data by which lineament study is carried out with focus on visible bands and
Panchromatic band due to spatial accuracy. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) provides
us to find the most reliable PC having maximum spatial geological information. Lineaments
are obtained using the most reliable component of the PCA. Lineament statistical analysis is
performed to understand surface pressure points and orientation of geological structures
present in the basin. Lineament map, lineament density map and lineament orientation map
are produced to visually understand the layout of the area. Land surface temperature (LST)
profile, Vegetation trends through NDVI, drainage network development and surface soil
profile provide indicators in the demarcation of hot spot areas for the Petroleum exploration.
Digital elevation Model (DEM), Thermal band, Infra-red band, and visible bands of landsat
(OLI) provide the necessary results for the search of Petroleum lead.

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The tools of Hydrocarbons production

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Drilling is often conducted as part of an exploration program to obtain more
detailed information about the rock below the ground surface. The aim of most
drilling is to retrieve a sample which can be chemically analysed for a particular
resource and used to identify the type of rock material that occurs at a given
depth below the surface.The drilling method used depends on the type of
information sought, the budget set by the exploration company, and the rock type
involved. The degree of ground disturbance around a borehole varies with each
drilling method. Strict environmental safeguards ensure all boreholes and drill
sites are rehabilitated at the cessation of the title within which they were
drilled.Drill rigs are usually mounted on either a small vehicle or large trucks,
depending on the technique and drill type. Sometimes subsurface conditions
make sample recovery difficult and special drilling techniques or equipment are
required. If access to the drilling site is difficult, significant site preparation and
.rehabilitation are required
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Hydrocarbons production
Petroleum reservoirs usually start with a formation pressure high enough to force
crude oil into the well and sometimes to the surface through the tubing. However,
since production is invariably accompanied by a decline in reservoir pressure,
―primary recovery‖ through natural drive soon comes to an end. In addition,
many oil reservoirs enter production with a formation pressure high enough to
push the oil into the well but not up to the surface through the tubing. In these
cases, some means of ―artificial lift‖ must be installed. The most common
installation uses a pump at the bottom of the production tubing that is operated
by a motor and a ―walking beam‖ (an arm that rises and falls like a seesaw) on
the surface. A string of solid metal ―sucker rods‖ connects the walking beam to
the piston of the pump. Another method, called gas lift, uses gas bubbles to lower
the density of the oil, allowing the reservoir pressure to push it to the surface.
Usually, the gas is injected down the annulus between the casing and the
production tubing and through a special valve at the bottom of the tubing. In a
third type of artificial lift, produced oil is forced down the well at high pressure
to operate a pump at the bottom of the well .Onshore Onshore production is
economically viable from a few dozen barrels of oil a day and upward. Oil and
gas is produced from several million wells worldwide. In particular, a gas
gathering network can become very large, with production from thousands of
wells, several hundred kilometers/miles apart, feeding through a gathering
network into a processing plant. This picture shows a well, equipped with a
sucker rod pump (donkey pump) often associated with onshore oil production.
However, as we shall seelater, there are many other ways of extracting oil from a
non free flowing well.For the smallest reservoirs, oil is simply collected in a
holding tank and picked up at regular intervals by tanker truck or railcar to be
processed at a refinery. Onshore wells in oil-rich areas are also high capacity
wells producing thousands of barrels per day, connected to a 1,000,000 barrel or
more per 8 day GOSP. Product is sent from the plant by pipeline or tankers. The
production may come from many different license owners, so metering of
individual well-streams into the gathering network are important
tasks.Unconventional plays target very heavy crude and tar sands that became
economically extractable with higher prices and new technology. Heavy crude
may need heating and diluents to be extracted. Tar sands have lost their volatile
compounds and are strip-mined or can be extracted with steam. It must be further
processed to separate bitumen from the sand. Since about 2007, drilling
technology and fracturing of the reservoir have allowed shale gas and liquids to
be produced in increasing volumes. This allows the US in particular to reduce
dependence on hydrocarbon imports. Canada, China, Argentina, Russia, Mexico
and Australia also rank among the top unconventional plays. These
unconventional reserves may contain more 2-3 times the hydrocarbons found in
.conventional reservoirs. (havard devold, august 2013)
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The tools of Hydrocarbons production

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The production test that was historically employed was the drill stem test, in
which a testing tool was attached to the bottom of the drill pipe and was lowered
to a point opposite the formation to be tested. The tool was equipped with
expandable seals for isolating the formation from the rest of the borehole, and the
drill pipe was emptied of mud so that formation fluid could enter. When enough
time had passed, the openings into the tool were closed and the drill pipe was
brought to the surface so that its contents could be measured. The amounts of oil
and gas that flowed into the drill pipe during the test and the recorded pressures
.were used to judge the production potential of the formation
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Source rocks

Figure 1. An anticline oil and gas reservoir. The source rock would be the
.bottom-most layer or set off to either side

S
o
u
r
ce rocks are rocks that contain sufficient organic material to create hydrocarbons
when subjected to heat and pressure over time. Source rocks are usually shales or
limestones (sedimentary rocks). To be a productive source rock, the rock needs
time to mature (time to form the oil and/or gas) and the hydrocarbons need to be
able to migrate to a reservoir or seep. Source rocks are usually a separate layer
from the reservoir rock layers but occasionally they can be both source and
reservoir. Source rocks are often offset from the reservoir, meaning that they are
.not directly below the reservoir but off to the side
As the source rock becomes more deeply buried under layers of sediment, the
temperature begins to increase triggering geochemical reactions that convert the
organic materials into hydrocarbons. Crude oil forms from 65 to 150 degrees
Celsius. If the temperature goes over 150 degrees Celsius, natural gas can be
formed (see Figure 2). This usually occurs at greater depths than oil formation.
.Marine rocks tend to form oil while terrestrial, or land, rocks tend to form gas

Figure 2. Diagram showing the windows for oil and gas formation at different
depths/temperatures. Note that natural gas forms deeper than oil because the
source rock will be at a higher temperature and pressure. After formation, these
.can move quite some distance before being trapped
Once the hydrocarbons have formed, they migrate from the source rock. They are
then either trapped in a reservoir or are "lost" during migration. "Lost"
hydrocarbons escape from the Earth through seeping (essentially they leak out of
the ground) or disperse throughout the Earth's surface instead of collecting in one
spot. It is estimated that only 10% of the oil and gas that has formed has been
trapped. Oil and gas reservoirs typically form in traps. There are a few types of
traps: anticlinal, fault, stratigraphic, and reef and/or salt traps. While the exact
mechanics of each trap type differs, they all trap oil and gas in a reservoir by
having an impermeable cap rock layer and by sealing the bottom of the reservoir
with water (oil and gas are less dense than water) or another impermeable rock
.layer
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the properties of reservoir rocks
According to Society of Petroleum Engineers Glossary, a reservoir rock is a -1
rock containing porosity, permeability, sufficient hydrocarbon accumulation and
a sealing mechanism to form a reservoir from which commercial flows of
hydrocarbons can be produced.Porosity and permeability are the reservoir rock
most significant physical properties. A fundamental property of a reservoir rock
between them is porosity. However, for explorationists, an effective reservoir
rock, the most fundamental reservoir rock property is its permeability. Both of
them are geometric properties are the result of its lithological, structural and
compositional behavior (composition).These physical compositions of a rock and
the textural properties are geometric such as sizes and shapes of the rock grains,
their arrangement system and packaging. The efficiency of reservoir rock
account on different important properties, however in this paper discussing on
reservoir rocks properties, porosity and permeability are main topics to focus
on.As discussed in last paper (Assignment I, 2014) petroleum system is made of
different elements which encompass reservoir rock. Moreover, it is found in a
sedimentary basin whereby explorationists are able to study its stratigraphy and
its sedimentology (rock history) to determine if there is a likeliness of the
existence of petroleum system. After they (explorationists) come up with
concluding the existence of a petroleum system, they go for further scientific
tests-collecting different data and analyzing them to be able to decide about
drilling and completion of a petroleum system. Significant part of their scientific
studies on particular petroleum system is on estimating the possible quantity of
hydrocarbons (crude oil) that may be present there. 19 The reservoir content is
estimated by means studying rock properties which can be determined in a direct
way or indirectly. The indirect are done through laboratory measurements on
core samples of reservoir rock of interest which constitutes direct methods of
porosity data acquisition. This is done by measuring a bulk and their pore (empty
spaces in a rock). Its bulk volume is gravimetrically determined when a core-
sample is having an irregular shape. A petroleum system may have one or more
reservoir rocks, and reservoir rocks may have different property basing on their
types. Types of reservoir rock depend on kinds of their contents, composition,
.morphology and sedimentology
Types of reservoir rocks-2
As a rock to be named a reservoir has to be a porous and permeable lithological
structure. It encompasses sedimentary rocks. These sedimentary rocks may be
made of sandstones (quartz sand or arksosic sandstone), carbonates mud or
dolomite. Dolomites mostly form good reservoirs because the common reason
behind it is that there is Mg, 13% smaller than Ca in a way that during
dolomitization, there is a total decrease in volume of the material by 13%, here
.by%13 porosity is gained
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Sandstone reservoir rocks-
The term sand refers to a specific grain with sizes between (62 µm -2 mm). The
performance of the sandstone as a reservoir rock is described by its combination
of porosity and permeability depending on the degree to which the sand
dominates its. The favorable texture is depicted by packaging of similar sized
grains, not a combination of coarse and fine grained composition. The best
sandstone reservoirs are those that are composed mainly of quartz grains of sand
size of nearly equal sizes or silica cement, with minimal fragmented particles.
.Sandstone reservoirs are generally 25 meters thick
.Carbonate reservoir rocks-2
The most fascinating aspects of carbonate reservoir rocks are their content.
Carbonates are usually made of fossils which ―range from the very small single
cell to the larger shelled animals‖. Most carbonate rocks are deposited at or in
very close neighborhood to their site of creation. The "best-sorted" carbonate
rocks are Oolites in which encompass grains of the same size and shapes even
.though Oolites are poorly sorted
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Cap rock
For an oil reserve to exist, oil and gas must be trapped underground in the
reservoir rock. The rock that locates above the reservoir and prevents the
hydrocarbons from escaping from reservoir is called seal rock or cap rock. The
condition to make a seal is no fractures or no openings existed. Example of seal
rocks are gypsum, shale, salt, unfractured limestone. However, if that happens
and oil escapes out of seal, then the trap is failure, and the oil flows on earth’s
.surface. This is called seepage

C
o
n
c
lusion
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The distributions of residual hydrocarbon gases correlate well with the record of
sulfate depletion in the upper ~60 m of sediment at each site reported here. In the
lower stratigraphic intervals, especially in the intervals where gas hydrate was
recovered and where chemical, thermal, and logging data indicated disseminated
gas hydrate, the measured residual gas concentrations did not reflect anomalously
high amounts of methane indicative of the presence of gas hydrate. Also, the
free-gas interval beneath the gas-hydrate zone was not clearly revealed. The
residual-gas method employed here and the method used shipboard (Paull,
Matsumoto, Wallace, et al., 1996) are not adequate to yield even qualitative,
proxy information concerning the in situ hydrocarbon gas concentrations and
.distributions below the zone of sulfate reduction and early methane production
However, the molecular and isotopic compositions of residual gases collected by
the methods described here permit interpretations of hydrocarbon gas sources and
processes affecting these gases. To understand the true distribution and
concentration of hydrocarbon gases in oceanic sediments will require the use of
pressure-core-samplers (Dickens et al., 1997), but because of difficult
deployment logistics, these kinds of samplers currently can only provide a spotty
record. Improvements in pressure-core-sampling technology and strategy are
.required
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References
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/hydrocarbon.asp

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon

/https://chem.libretexts.org

/https://energyeducation.ca

https://www.britannica.com/technology/petroleumproduction/Safety-and-the-
environment