Bo11ndaries and Mot herh ood

Ritual and Reprod uction in Rural Mahar ashtra

DEEPR i\ DAND EKAR

ZUB J\AN
an im print ol' Kali f'or \!Vomcn
l 2BB Shah pur Jat, 1st Floo r
Ded icatc d to thc mcrnory of
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 Contents

Acknowledgements IX

Prologue: An Introduction to Dreams about Birthing

the Impossible
Chapter 1 Locating Mcthod and Fieldwork 22
Chapter 2 Silencc amidst Babble, vVomen's G3
Relationships amidst Discoursc
Chapter 3 Separating Good and Bad Motherhood 1OG
Chapter 4 Region, Community and 154
Political Demarcation
Chapter 5 Rendering vVomen Inanimate 194·
Epilogue Epiphany Dreams am! the Impossibility 220
of Birthing

Bibliography 22B
---------·---·-~···-

195
Boundaries and Moth erho od

, d.1fl.c·ren t f'on·ns of them castc labo ur

· ns betw een
rI'h e contrach·ct1o sclves as
. . . b, en wom en·ses' strat . . .. g
. . . . etwe d<l, ifym
and its pun ty defm ed d1flercn·ces l' t cast e go es. n ' low er than
'd"fl'
t eren t cast e wom en' and
'eh[ cren '
tcs and as .wom c sally across
tt . . . iver
nern som ewh at amb ival entl y. as1 casl ues mta ct un en them , as
c u . . ·twe
while keep ing the1r c an
l b, even
rnen
rmo us over laps 1Je , ·aste heal er
t le oard . The se crea tcd eno .
imp unty ~ . f·Il' ·ti'on prod•,ucm g
. . . f the 1owe r c
upp er caste wom en shar ecl the
. s of the mon tll an d dun ng a . . . , . I was. l hese
lC '
Re nd eri ng Wo me n Ina nim ate ,at cert am . time
t ern both as wom en, atta ched to dt iei~
. l . clans,. JUSt dS
oddess's pow er
·h l·
t n 0 1 t leg
. . 10 . . l socialised and
ted spac es for the pro uc
( l turn crea
m
. and bou nda nes t l,l . ) ·l . t trms' form ec '·t've hbo ur a11cl
gms
dt. ie mar . .es as cast e, l·d b ou r' repr uc i
d oc1 d both the pnv ate
, .
I · work m · Gl1o dega on. ' eployed lem ale bod1
·
) t h e time
)y I had com e to tbe end of· my held dess pro ucle . · wornen's
f . 1ent a 1 t m y g·oddess. sexual labour. The pow er of the gocl eac 1 ot1ier 111 .
. r·orm ants had beco me amb1va . . . of
)Oll . ,
most o . my m . . thc . . . 11 s ·} ith even thei r
·ve natu. re, o f tl1e .Satvai and pub hc as con tigu ous exte swn
· ·ect,· as I ope n1y prop osed the oppress1 i· l c m e·lch ot ier,· ·w of priv ate
the othe r han d cons~dcrec~
ptoj 1. '
1Ves as they cou ld hide. very . itt .e iro
cult in convcrsations with them . The y on . ls bem
ntua . g pub hc, . smc e the mte nM . . pos1t1ons
. , . l J. uxta
dess cults to brinc,.,,r e(1uality amon<r b all
thei r fomale wor slup pers o· power.
o~tg
•
'gocl
inan t cast e wom cn) by rcdu and pub lic wer e crca ted by the sam e u mfym 1:. . pace the study
o 1 s, ,
(at least amo ng thei r grou p of dom I 'l . , '(19 84·9 -
0l)· uiay1s1s
' l . . . . d<less rituals).
brin ging abo ut equa hty mg de Ccr tcau s · ·
. (l w·1s
intc rpcr sona l rivalry betw een them and r 'o low . . · stuc ymg go
o a un~fied ancl umf ymg pow er, .. 11
cre/ clan /bou n d ary goclcless ' of difle rent elem cnts of
among· wom en. For them the villab
•
er,lt lo b l ) · 'ln intri cate
clan cohe swn wou ld snnp ly lead to the enum
'
1-'

of rura l secu laris rn tliat crea ted .10n, lns . ·t0 ry or . oc .. y m ' clcm cnts
cults forrncd a sort . . ll its
ing all wom en uniforr:ily analys1s (castcs, gend er, rehg
and kept thcm all together, while hclp as a
g afflictions a11d wccdm~
. lex who 1e, .. . , poin t Power
man ner that wou ld form a . comtlp ., sam e vant ,lge r elem · ents
to beco me wives and mothcrs, rernovin 1 . . t·
thcm . The re were a lot of wou!d beco me unre adab lc rom. ie·. t ·<l frag men s o tiniry ·11!
out the contagious ones frorn amiclst . .m the collage of thcs c assocl<l c ld
and rne, sornc who bad w1th
clisagrcernents betw een rny resp ond ents l l wa. l · rk tliat wou lcl rem· 'in
ficldwork, as thcy beg an wou ld be like the opa que cent ra · JUt This pow. er wou ld ,1 „'1 ,
beco me goo d friencls by the end of my . . . . ·
onal ly of cliscrirnination these con cern s at a smgle locus pom re easc
to !Ce! that I was accusing thern pers . . c l 11"ldl irth ' wh1ch •wou , t , vlnt de
or wom cn frorn 1\!Iahadev codc d with in the ritua lisat lon of
)
against worncn frorn thc lowcr castes . cohesive pow er amo ng a 11 tlic, elem
ents to , Tbr h' that
Cl ea c '
en arno ng thei r own castes tlus
Ko!i grou ps or against childless wom C erte au rcle. rs to as ' su1:>t·lc· .ancl con1pens · atory equ1 1 'l"k ,
ps. The y tried explaining· . .1mt. i . e . a,
likc myscll; while they profcssed fricndshi . . .s ' (ibid·) ' somew
inauspicious, afflicted or silently g·uarantee com plcm enta ntle .., .
how these 'out sidc r' wornen coul d bc . 1:>sest cven as they reta me . . ,d t lie1 ··r own mult1-fo . . . ions
. . .nnat
perf orm ing rcgu lar Satv ai pahm . em.
dang erou s and they suggested that I try . . 1 centrcl .. 1 pow . er of. tlnsl l·syst
hclpless betw een us as it 'Tho ugh ts'' or the imaginat10n of t ie
ritua]s and go to doctors. lt all grew a little •d j )y acc1dents anc. clCU llcl
l· ·11
or the goddess woulcl then be gene i,lte.. (l"l • the deat h of a c .H c
, , „
use of disa grec men ts abo ut
die! betw een thcrn and thei r clan beca . .m thes e com ' plem enta i.y f rctgm . ,
cnts 1<e
feit my a11ger and pain by w1th
. ~·) ' ·md
.· ,111c
my politics, even if thcy pcrs onal ly . p am l ·
m 1 1c11t ' ther. e 1.ore .
awk war d or incr easi ngly that led to the loss of owncrslH
thcn. Som e or thcse convcrsations grew coul d not rem am . rce d 1·rom 1·t·s n"t u,'llisat10n (see
. d1vo
. kmg . to .
rem ain friends.
hcatecl, evcn as some wom en chose to .· . ls· .clt the vcry mst ant of
avoid chil<lloss thro ugh prev entl.vc ntua
 196 Deepra Dandekar

197
childbirt h through compuls ory jJaach-jJauli anc! cstablish ing purity
through celcbratio ns). Accidcnt s or lacuna formcd thc 'othcr' of
~~t:h~er:h~o~o:d'---~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
, . . , rated by tl1e goddess,
an imagincd rcgularit y of cvcryday lifc, through which owncrsh ip that follows m the oppos1tc path dcrnonst l ·r 'tt
· . ,
of land, ownershi p of persons, extractio n of dutics, perpetua tion smce they have givcn up all their 1mrn,u1 weakness es to 1 e '
f' 1 'ldbirth
of labour-rc latcd institutio ns, regional organiza tion, shrines and n'tua l 1Jo1mdan.cs. In the rea l m o f' fi1crc
' ·e ncl'oddcsse
.
s 0 . c , 11 '.-n, tc
thcir storics and songs werc all proclucccl as natural, cveryday and
•
m N1aharas htra, it is the women who arc pos it1oned as J11<ll11 1
1- K 1
"' '

unmarkc d. J\nd thc rcsponsib ility of kceping it unmarke cl ancl while goddesse s absorb their hurnanity .
normal by averting accidents ancl lacuna restcd on warnen, who
had to be constantl y 'purified ' by the central and unif)ring power
Hmvfi\:'-J GüDDES SES vVITCHE S 1\ND HEROINE S
and its ritualisat ion. '
It's expcricn ce for women, who performe cl rituals of purity, 0 nc of the primary mcans of, the goc1c!·. '·
ess 5• lJower lies in , her
.. .·
evcn as preventiv e mcthods to not !et dharma slip, when thcy a b ihty to be accorded ' human emot10ns . ·' It IS a feature t!J,tt IS
· . , ,,
, . . . f ) ', stones where 11e1
had children, rcsulted in a continuo us and parallel substratu rn .imply demonst ratcd m the recountm g o iei . ' f
. . . ' „ . . 1 J11fXlSSJ011 ..Many ()
of rituals am! marginal iscd attachme nts during the simultan eous attachme nts pam ancl racre fmd place .tnc co . •
0
gaining of mothcrh ood. With the clcath of a male heir associatc d my respondc' nts recounte d the1r .
comp.tss wn for goddesse
, : s 111 t 1ic
. ,
0 tJ ie·r affhcted wornen,
. , . r
with wornen's marital clans for whose longevity and well-bein g same brcath as the1r hatred and feai 101 „
, · to
w110 would contarnm ate the1r . . punty · t !·11.oug,+1 vitaal. 1 hcy went II1
they are sornehow held responsib le on the other hand (as wives . . . · . er
d etails of how the 0o·oddess cxpenenc . .
ec11 llll11an cmot10ns of hav11 1b
or mothers) , both these parallel lines, füll of planned continuu ms . before . ·! ier l10oc'j wl11le dcbau!l1g
. , : „
c11ed havmcr expcnen .
ced mot .
that are held apart by superhum an effort by wornen, finally crash 0
.
clnldless women from auspic10u .
s celebrat1· 0ns m · their own lwrnes.
together. Exprcssi ng grief was a srnall and very personal qucstion .
'f]· J'
irotwh the same mecham sm of accorc 111 n"' grodclesses
· '
' · emotJOi1S. f,
ensconce d in privilege for rny village responde nts at such times, in .° , · , , -md express10n o
th ey chvcsted real women from the exper.1cn cc ' !·. • „
comparis on to the vast lacuna opening up under thcir fcet in terms }mman suffering as
evcn attachme nts t0 c-hildren . began Je!l1g
. :. 1
or thc life accident they faced. These may have becn the events,
ent to Satvai. c1ecrica
.
v1ewed '
as an impedim „ t' 11 1mpechn g socld
when wornen rnay havc not protcsted too hard against or just gone w ' .,
rnotherh ood. Hyper-a ttachmen ts wcre consic , : 1·red to be potcntt,t1
e d , th
under in the facc of decrccs that prescribe cl their bccomin g Sati or symptom s of afrliction or impurity that finally lcd to t1~e e,~ ...
Satvai in orcler to redeern themsclv es of witchcra fl accusatio ns/ or illness of childrcn. \Vhen such parac1oxcs. a nd tnvest1es wcie
' , ,.
cannibali sm ancl the dcath of a clan male heir, whose Jives they .
exphcitly question ed my rcsponc ents spo 1<e 0 r how l . the SatVcll,
. . . ·r
were held rcsponsib le f01~ not so long back in the past. Maulya or Mari-am: 'also bad the ..
power to '" J· 1·11 their cluldren 1
-rs
ln Wild Goddesses in lndia and Nej;al, Sax (199G) writes about thc they were offcnded ancl how t lus . wou ld . turn exposc mot 1ie
m ' · , ..
, ors and bad
hurnanity of goddesse s, who are cxactly like human women, a as malcfact protector s o f' c·! n·11 c 1-,en in the eycs of thcll
. .
mixture of the good and the bad. I contend its complem entary clans and 1t was tll!S problcm that 1e d to w. 1l<l, t thcy tenned .
as my
'! Uess
opposite for women in my fiele! area: wild goddesse s, such as the accusatio ns (doslz dene) or their discrimin ation agamst clu c '
Satvai, are consider ed rnore human or are allowed to express morc women. . ·
, for , my . ci·1ve1 ~ ·t their compassI 0 11
human emotions such as anger and the kind of motherh ood that It became safer respon d ents. to . . ,.
they soak up frorn biologiea l mothers in rituals, cxactly bccause real to goddessc s and replace real relatwns . l . , f cm1nthy w1th th,tt
nps o ' .. . ,l
women arc not allowed to express human emotions . Real women
. . . 1 1 . . ·'
of goddesse s, smce followmg t ie atte1 s ' opac1.t Y' <-1lso de1)olit1c1 sec
•

on the other hand are expectecl to behave in an excmpla ry manner interpers onal rivalry as part o f, c11 iarma [,01· tl ic·m · Accordmcrb to, ,
them, the JUSt1ce . . for , tlus · nva · J1•y w.ts , p10v „ 1'cl c·cl by the gudcless 5
 --~--..,_._-...-.·-"--"·-

Bounda .
199
198 Deepra Dandekar Yles and Motherhood

hailed 1't to 11)e the · • . 11 thosc women whol

afiliction sent to women who were 'too smart' (shining nuzarte).
. •
g·oddess's rwht to purns11 d
br 0 k l 0
· U · · na ·1s hac
· a utop1a ·
· of· s1sterhood · my f'1e1cl '·1rc·1
.' . but e t lese rules and to tcach them a lesson m c Mil ' ' . '
vVornen
, . cl1'cl no t l'1ve m m .
mdeecl . f'
l)een tl1e case .m many stones o v1 age g ']!· , yoclc\esses (vutuous,
cxpen~nccd percnnial mutual tensions, conflicts and compeuti~ns .
. . · into goddesses
mnoe ent ancl m1sundersto !1"'
~[ . <la~~Y. lifc that made displacing these relationships witl~ to redre SS t·lleJr . murdcr).
od women 1ater turn1 o
bhdktJ for goddesses a far safCr means of expressing acceptablc f
0
COfl1]YlSSl.Ol·1 {'or expenences
.. ' . .
of • clnldlessnes ' f'r·alWht
s rat1ier t ]·Mn o I have until now said very Iittle about thc l\!htl'.lya group
fnen<lships with actual childless women in the village. lt was then,
goddes·
. · ses mc· 1ependcntly. lt remams, . 110we'ver' 1m1)ortant to
distin · · l1 l)etween the Satvm. ancl the au1ya, M . 51· nce the Maulya
o r· t·h e goddess cult among women an d th e
the very pnmacy· ]ove · guis
· that. created the compensato ry equ1 1 nu ·1·b · m ·
are al so important . · , ·il l\!laharashtr. a,
' .tliey accordecl. lt
tlnt chilcl-loss o-oddesses m rnrc
0
Presid'mg over all sorts of instances of 1acunas. ancl ·1ccidents ' w1th
~[ V1ülence in their lives. It was within its 'secular' opacity that '
'.ndividual women were denied existence outside collectives, even s_hrines that are very similar to the Satvai. Their cult is h~weve1'.
· · ·
. were comp 1etc 111d1v1duals. far mo re coneernecl w1th . the mora11ty . o f' wo men than w1th the
if these· wom en
. lt would be simplistie to assume that only those goddesses death of childrcn .
with positive stories of victory procluced powe1~ Negative stories
about the goddess that denigrated her importance produced
, ·1mon<"
· i·or Iier' Compariso ns between the Satvai and the Maulya
even ocrre·ater p ower, smce · . 1t· proclucec l compass10n .o
rny respondents . lt allowed many among them to identify witl~ The Satvai, accordirw to my responclents, was constitute~ from
her: One of my respondents cried, while rccounting the story of the spirits of women :ho bad cliecl in chiklbirth, while savmg the
a vil!age goddess coming alor1e to the village aft:er a war with_ a lives of their new-bo;.n sons. There existcd a short miclway journey
ra~1tasa/ demon and her hardships before people acceptcd he1; for ol: transition for them (du ring which time they were. conside~ecl
which shc had to first <lie and somehow become a tree. Women Witches) that conflated with the clead mother's death ntual penod
h<~<l sympathy for the playfül goddcss, who had becn pushed out (till the thirteenth day) ancl the child's post-parturn ritual period
'.: 0 ~' the baaravi), aftcr which the mothcr's soul was known to l, ~ve
1
of the village by the powerful Natha saint, by the tip of his tocnail,
· · . . l him with her small magical acts. 1r··•maIIy,
' · sl·ic 1iacl ll'ntatec
hee·mse· JOmed the goddcss and becomc clistanced and bcnevolent. 1he
they werc· 1"11 c omp ]etc agreement w1th · thc rage anc1 pam · o f' tl1ese" ' fJaach-jJauli rituals thcrcforc reflected the jJinda-daan ccremony
goddesses for upholding caste rules, marriage rules, clan cohcsion or fünerary rituals for dead mothers, pushing them frorn thcir
r~ll.es and values that glorified the brave cleaths of women c\uring malevolcnt status as witches to that of the benevolent godc\esses,
c uldbirth, in saving the lives of thcir new-born sons or thc souls of as new mothcrs became their inheritors, forming dyads with them.
their dead husbancls or dead kings as valorous cluty. They eulogised The l\1Iaulya, Sati-asra or Apsam on the other hancl, were
the dcath of' women who hacl diecl to save their husbancls, sons, eonsidered to be seven beautifül virgin-witches or nymphs,
and their cl·1n, ' s an · ·
· <l soc1ety r·rorn any f'orm o f' cr·1s]10nour-' ancl prcsiding over water sources, who wcrc forrned out of the spirits
of overtly sexual adolcscent girls, who had died before having
1 had the chance of experiencin g either marriage or childbirth.
Natha saints (!was tokl by my informants) had barrcd thc Satvai entry across
They were thereforc understood as playfül, capricious, cruel and
•
· ol· thc hlth
. ,„ boundari
villanc ' es• · Wll· Ji t1ic, cxccpt1011 „ .
and twcllth days aftcr cvcry
childbirth in thc vi'll· , J , 1 . . · sexually avaricious, lcacling young men ancl women to their deaths
,1gc, w icn s ic cntcrcc1 to acccpl ntual dcchcat1ons.
i llrubakcr !l 978), Nicholas (2003) and Whitchcad (1921) havc documcntcd
by inveigling and enticing them with bribes of sensual ancl sexual
many such storics about villagc goddcsscs in south India and llcngal. pleasures, whieh also lecl to the dcath of their children. One of
200 Deepra Dandekar
my Muslim respondents from Ghodegaon wcpt as sbe told mc of
how tbc beautiful 'jJaris' (fairies) bad played with her chilcl at thc
local Maulya shrine near the local stream, whcre sbe bad been
busy with houschold chorcs, till it hacl gradually wasted away and
died. When I askecl her how this had happened, she explained
how the jJaris show thcir victims (and they choosc whomever thcy
likc, sincc the prcttier thc bctter) anothcr false and heavenly workl
Uannat) of pleasurcs and toys, aft:er which tbe victim follows and
ultimately dies to the real world that is full of limitations. After timt
thc victim's soul joins thcm as a minion or if of the right gcnde1~
age-group am! status (as theirs), bccomes their playmate.
The Maulya were also known to be surrounded hy amphibious
crcaturcs and reptiles of an unimaginablc varicty, sincc they wcrc
ultimatcly associatcd with river goddesses who bad reptilian
mounts (like the river Narmada flowing through Maharashtra on
a crocodilc). 3
Both the Satvai and the Maulya wcre multitudinous and though
thc Satvai multitudes were brokcn up into castes that changed
in composition dcpending on the variation in local population
dcnsity prevalcnt in every region, the Maulya rcmaincd morc
uniform, sincc thcy wcrc unmarried and markcd only through
thcir ovcrt scxuality as girls. The Maulya, also rcmaincd more
homogcneous as a singlc category of scven goddesscs, evcn
ir thcy werc essentially constituted by thc numbcr seven and
hardly brokc up into two-sistcr retinues. The sexual flavour of
the Maulya cult ancl thcir cultural rcsistance to bcing translatcd
into any kind of other social catcgory such as castc or ccology,
apart from thcir association with watcr sourccs, procluced them as
cvcn morc shaclowy and malign than the Satvai in my ficld area.
Thcy rcceivcd far less sympathy from women, sincc they wcrc
considered capricious, murdcring, sexual and dirty, surrounded hy
rivcr mm! am! watcr reptiles, whilc they introduccd unnecessary
dangcr am! anxiety with dangcrous places of inhabitation such
as wclls, tanks, rivcrs or strcams where womcn wcre forced to
1
Fddhaus (1995h) and Whitc (2003) havc wrillcn about rivcr goddcsscs in
conncction with fcmalc fl~rtility.
201
Boundaries and Motherhood
·~~~-~~~~~~~~~
do }1ouse lio d work alone when
1 near sl1nnes.
· , l\ihny' of my male
in [,ormants ' · , f' l , 0 Jinion that
and female rcspondents ahke were 0 t re 1
th e 1\1
lv aulya encouraged un happy women to commi·t sm · ·cide .''lt such
places, by showing them an alternative and falsc world, mstead
of allowing them 'to face and solvc thcir problems at ho~1 e (tond
dene). The Maulya's bold longing for pleasure and this long1 ~1 g t~iat
they evokcd in those they afllicted was their only denomm~tr~n
that compcted with women's rcality and their existence withm
patriarchal contexts that produced humanly suffcring women <~s
too helpless, weak ancl vulnerable to protect themselves. Their
aflliction was considercd to lead to the hyper-sexualisation of
womcn, an increasc in their desires ancl was considered to lead to
the automatic failure of their duty, resultingin thc death of children
and the demise of passive feminine fertility. In actual terms, the
Maulya afrliction was associated with reprocluctive problems that
were reacl deterministically. For example, an increase in white
discharge (anga varna jJand!zre jane) was viewed in opposition to the
more usual ancl normal red discharge/bloo cl (laal jane) during
menstruation, since an incrcase in white discharge was associatcd
with semen and male scxuality. This was not specific to lVIaulya
aflliction alone but to all ritual alllictions concerning goddcsscs
and infertility in gcneral, as women desiring morc plcasure werc
considcred to have merged clistinctions between masculinity and
fomininity and to have become impure.
Thc Satvai has brothers and minions such as the 1\;fwy{z (soul of
a Bral1min /Joy), tJ1e JVa.t:o-ba (cobra), Kollwt-ba (fox) and C/ll'(f~ba
(sou] of a Matang boy) to wi;sist lter in J1er villagc Ji~uct!ons, wlulc
the lVIaulya has a brother caIIed }vfhasoba (soul of a GavJJ J)}J;.mgal
cat~le pastoralist) or Biroba (soul of an ordinary Dliangar boy}_ to
assist her. Sonthcimcr (1976) ex1Jlorina the independent nsc
such as bl\1Ihaskoba and .B"Jrü 1Ja,
. '
m the power of Dhangar cults
traces the way in which these deities dcveloped aggressive and
violent relationships with village goddesses such as thc Mau~ya
instead. While the Satvai cult effected survei!lance over marned
women and upheld dharma in the villagcs, the l\1faulya, as scven
goddcsses, remained more playful as they were young girls, cven as
thcir childish evil remained curtailed and restricted to areas near
 ---- ------~--~·---- „·---~-- ---··

203
202 Deepra oandekar Bounda ·
nes and Motherhood

w . ist the 111a11t,l

: · l family
d. · were famil', .
their sh nncs · next. to waterholcs, wherc ritual de icauons Ies, whcther thcse s1sters gang up aoan
or turn · · b' ·l
made to them by womcn only if and as afilictions arose. , , mto mutual nvals. . . . rcmains 1g 1
An imp or t ant c1·fl' 1 crencc between the Satva1 , · an d Maulya. I he pressure accordi1w0 to these Satvai stones, 11 , marital
rcmainecl · tl . . !' tl S·1tva1• for ' . . . d even w en .
. . 1 n ie way 111 ncsses were 'dechcatec to ie < Women to rcmain in ambivalent s1stcrhoo ' . . · t!1eir fold
f: 'li · w1t 1un
m . t~iectified forms, made out of meta!, like diseased lim~s of
0
ami es take care to not introduce real sisters . · dividual
and d . .n at their 111 •
cluldren made in meta! (if these were affected). This ntual esp1tc enormous clan pressures to Wl r , g·e of the
• •

of oflcring limbs made in precious metals to the goddess was f'eud,at ory tasks of ach1evmg . . punty · at. any c ost. l he mM don,tor
Mall lya, on the other hand dehumarnses . tl iose women w110l violent
believed to heal and 'release' thc real limbs of the child from the
can ' iscuous anc
goddess's afllicting hold. lt was also believed that a paste madc not experience precrnancy as sexua11Y prom l't Barren,
~ut o~· the stump of the umbilical cord ritually dedicated to the or th oughtless womeno who are adchcte . d t 0 scnsua I Y· oLIS an d
' drocryn
Satvai l.iad the power to eure pneumonia, just as the dead .c.ells unmarried afflicted m'lddened with hatred, an . 0 d 1 0crerous
th • , .' ' ' . . , . . ,d as be1ng ar . •
emanatmg from the skin of a child, afrer a paste of the umbihcal ose cons1dercd sexually lasc1v10us are iear e , enhsting
cord was massaged on its body would prevent and heal rickets. and inimical to children (believed tobe child kidnapperls, ,ls). This
On the other band, no such dedications or offerings were ever ch'ld1 ren . w1thm · . beggmg . ·gangs eunucli group .. s or. brone . infertl. ·1.c
m~tde to the Maulya, since the latter were unmarried and actually opin'Ion l e d to many women in . ' iny f'ie1cl area. construcung . · ·tls an d
. . of cnmll1•
remtr~duced sexuality in afllicted women, thercby rendering and afrhcted women into the stigmaused category r were no
, t fhere
~hem I~np~rc and automatically precluding fertility, prewi<mcy · .
anti-soc1ety persons that led to thell' abandonmen ·
.
. 1 · 0 rura1
~md chi.klb1rth. The Maulya did not spccifically disease cluldi~en otlier options · . such persons to become, .<tcce
for
. 'ptable witd 11·dicatec ., l

~ .my ficld area, since they were not specifically connectcd wi~h l 'comc c
1 ·
s.oc1ety (accordirw to my rcspondcnts) but to Je ld ·edecm
~luldre~; when they took beautifül looking children away, they ~id b
to goddess cults that accepted prostitutes, w nc 1
. l . l wou l
or duty
so only m ordcr to play with them like toys. They were primanly and forgivc them and cxtract a recognizable form !
0 seVI(~cred sclf-

co~mccted with women and wcre like adolcscent and sexual t owards society out of them, giving express10n .
°
t their al Co
rh 1 [leard
clnldren tl1,emse , ·l ves. '·VI
v ien they chosc anyone attract1ve, w l 1
· l· o 11 · and one day heal tl iell' · Evcn
· a 1n·1ct10n. thougl l area, J
' cliction
'ld ~
the'. W<~ntcd to play with, they afllicted them by evoking insatiablc
. · my fie c
my respondcnts discussing such casc stu dics 111 • stigma
l 11 , 1d never .mtcrv1ew . ' women duc to t1ic• extreme
· · m tl lern and gradually killed them to the real worlc to pu
desircs cou such
the~1 over on to their own siele. involved in thcsc instanccs. 1
Stories about the Satvai pair in my field arca oflen recount cthiC<ll
how
. they wer·e 0 ngma · · ·
11y s1sters, who ha d 1ost t1icir · memor·Y o f' i . . . . . . ·chniquc as an . .
•.. , .
1 fclt thcrc wcrc hnutauons 111 usmg the mlc1v1cw lc ,. y 5ugn1,i,
sisterhood because they had been marricd off at a young age into · · ·
cthnog1 .„
,ip 1iy, duc to. hc,JV r womcn
·1
form ol data collccllon 111 such cascs, whcrc i1

c' rarm·1Y o two brothers. Thcy had gradually comc to be had bccomc impossible. Thc cascs hacl bccn about how thc [o~ . and 1hcn
f' 1
thc s·1m
<
. 1aw ancl nva . 1s. rfl ic story progresses t o <l' . ·i1 · 1 infcruhty, ' .
each other's , ·s1'ster's-m- ques\1011, stigmatiscd at !irst as alllictccl an<l then as 1 w11 1 . . ·illY [ro1n
1
· · • , , crc onßl
sag;~ of mutual acrimony, competition and hatred, only for them
. . . ·ir whc 1•c•
1<
as androgynous wcrc abandoncd by thell' !annlics. 1hcy w
dilTcrcnt villagc~ but hacl mct aller having migratccl to ncarby l\foilC. ' t'cs ~1ftcr
11
~~ discover. thcir sisterhood in thc end (through divine mcdiation). ' '· c . iroslllll
l •hc • story 1s· ·11\"ays uscc · ·
. l as an mJLmct1on · · · 1aw to l'ive
f'or s1sters-1n- thcy livcd togcthcr in a housc and allcgcclly opcratcd thcrc as 1 .• , . tcrnplc at
• • < v
1laV!ng clcclicatccl thcmsclvcs to Dcvdas1. cults at t11c gü(11c css
. . , .. Ycllam111<1.. s tion 11<.1d
w1thmJ01nt •
hm1']1'cs
'
·1s .· ·t l 1 · ·
< • s1s ers, even t 10ug i lt remams an unwn
'ttcn 11 • dct1JC<l r
•
Saundhatti, Karnataka (rny rcspondcnts wcrc not surc whcrc t ~ ic or t\VO o
prcscnpt10n to not introduce real sisters within families ' sincc this . t11at 1t. was.Saum\h·1t\l)
. k cxactly takcn placc but thcy wcrc gucssmg ' · ()1 cn l>ccaus'C
IS nown to harbour too much politics against and within rnarital · k tl csc worn
my male informanls in thc villagc cvcn said that thcy ·ncw 1
204 Deepra Dandekar

205
The Maulya are worshippcd far morc simply (in comparison Boundaries and Motherhood -------
to Satvai rituals) hy declicating baskets full of ritual offerings -----~~~~~----------------·o into a trance
known as j1aradi-d11radi offcrcd at their shrines along with incense t lle woman 1·rom the summonecl 1·an1ily wou11 c g
.
l ("f he was
sticks. These offerings consist of seven kinds of savoury, fried f' 11er lrnsbanc 1
or would take on the labour o1 trance or • • eak (or
ill) .
and swect f(Jods, different kincls of fruits, differcntly colourecl or ot_her male family members ancl wo uld beg111 to , )
sp
rath l . k throuah 1ier ' of their
flowers, ricc, milk, sweets, vegctables, differently coloured blouse < er t le goddess would beg111 to spea 0
l' return
m" l
isc emeanours and make ntual d emancls such as: a regu elf
>
pieces or klzan, coconuts, oti-blzaran materials ancl ritual offerings •
1 . ·ship
t.0 l . . . l' 1 'll1d reO"U ar wor
for their brother 1Vfhasoba that consisted of a bit of blanket, a t ie1r respective native village or J0111t c tlI ' 0
. · , tive
( 1. l
stick with a bell tiecl cm an end ancl a couple of eggs. Sometimes, ,w 11c l also implied an inereasing monetary involvement "tl 111 na
other
Maulya rituals Uust as Satvai rituals) involve animal sacrifice.
·n ·
vi ages). I1 this demand made by tl1e goc · \ less along wi 1
, . c · .· ce illness
repnmands was acceptecl (wh1ch . l , 1 vays were, s1n
vVornen in rny fielcl area, however, ncver perforrn any preventive t 1ey <l \ '
. f , weeks of sub miss10 "- · n
or normative rituals for the Maulya, since these are consiclered to Was at stake) a longer ritual process o 1 ive · .. · , was
(p aacIl- kJiete) in' terms of ritual visits an d 11·e rincrs to the s1u me <
be only aflliction-based rituals. °
. to trance eve1y t"i me '
0
, .
d emanded, wherein thc woman wou ld go 111
for her clan for her husbancl or for hersclf. .
, ' . 1· . ·h fulhlment. or nrwaJ.
Processes of Ritual Affliction for Village Goddesses: Some people macle ritual prom1ses 0 wis . :fts or
. ll . . 1 cravc expensive gi
How w01nen returned to their roots clnc )llllt thc shrine more extensive Y or o< '. . h „ ling
. ·~ l1 ,· w1shes o1 e,l.
macle endowments to the shnnc once t eir . ~ 1. , 5
The process of bcing surnrnonecl to onc's roots was cxpericncecl Were fulfillcd· some promisccl to scrve the shrine (abdagm;· -~ '~'; •
. ' , l·e' in goddess ntu,1 s
as bcing vcry 'final' hy women. A man or wornan (with families cons1dered imperative that the woman spo ~ Sl
. l· . · l , 1t into a trance. • ic
in the native villagc) would fall inexplicably ill ai~cl would bc o1 ier demands and her a1füct10ns anc wei . I 1 ,
unable to rcsponcl to any medical intervention. They would thcn
. .
was otherw1se cons1dered defiant . f l „ )ddess's will. mve
o t ie gc · . l
. . . l l . ·l incr women 111 orc er
typically consult ritual hcalcrs in the city, who would advise them w1tnessed healers and 1amily mem Jers t 11 as o 1
.. .
to make them go into a trance anc111ave tl1en ' · . tnnccs or atihcuons
to pay a visit to clan clcities and village clcity shrines in order to
, . . 1 tl· . t C'lll anchor a clan to
scck clecisivc rerneclies (nikaa0. During thcir visit to the clan/ native speak so that subsequent heal111g ntua s lcl ' . . .
village goclclcss shrincs, farnilies would organisc a ritual for the the native village can take IJlacc. lt is only after ritual propit~ati~n
' . . . , · to thcir c1ty
goclclcss. Typically, during this ritual, when drums wcre played that the woman and her fam1ly membets may 1eturn
l1omes, only to have a closer rc 1at10ns · lup · w1"tl l tll"" shrine and thc
(and somctirnes drums werc cxpressly played for this purposc),
villagc and its deity henceforth. . . . . ;o •
Only a clan goddess revcals thc source of affüction. 1° 1
the lattcr visited the villages in the arca dnring thc time or thc ycar whcn all thcjalra example, in case a woman is unable to sustain a pregn~rncy ancl
(annual festivals) of the goddcsscs took place. Thcy werc not clisrespccted by thc is afllicted by a Ghod-Satvai, unknown to herself cl~m~g travel
village mcn, whom I spokc to, sincc thcy wcrc considcred tobe 'carning mcrnbcrs' within another region during a picnic with friends for_ mst:rnce,
of' socicty, who could also gct cxtrcmcly aggressive likc mcn il' thc ncecl for it arosc the healer from the city will tell her to travel to her n~lt1ve vil_lagc
and if anybody actcd 'fresh'. But thcywere also hcavilystigrnatisccl, hated, l'cared, to mcet with her clan and village goddess first and perlorm a ntual
piticd and shunnccl by mosl of my women rcsponc\ents, who even crossed thc (usually an abhisheka). lt will be her villagc goddcss, who will reveal
strccl lo avoid thcm. 1 found it diflicult to contact thcse womcn in Manchar duc during thc trance that shc should do the paach-j;auli of the Ghod-
to thc cthical constraints of a non-cthnographica l contcxl that I would havc to Satvai, facing the direction of the region whcre shc hacl travcllcd
share with thcm, which was cnforccd upon mc by rny villagc rcsponc\cnts. cluring the picnic, to be healed and sustain a prcgnancy. From
206 Deepra Dandekar
---------·--·--·---
207
then onwards, she would have to not only pacily the Ghod-Satvai Boundaries and Motherhood
and accept her generational worship into her own family but do
----- adhav underwent ritual
the jJaaclt-khete o[ the village godcless and accept her village roots made a shrine for the "'oddess and Mr J . , becnne the
. .
d ed1cat1on o . . . n wh1c1l 1ie
1 <
as a diagnostic tool for anchoring her bocly to 'her soil' and for and marriacre as a potma) . (' tlie goddcss
t:> • 1 ilc s1inne o ,
healing her. goddess's wife. Today, he carnes thc m~ J , • . accompanied
. . d, skmg fo1Jogwa,
on l lls shoulders touring VIllages an a ' l · , cl·rnce as he
' < • } thm to 11S '
by his mother who plays the drum lI1 r iy . . He is clressecl
How Mr Jadhav became the Mari-aai's potraaj h . 1 l 0 f the v1 11 agc.
W ips himsclf in every neighbour woc . otisehold come
. . 1Y evcry 11
l met Mr Jadhav from Pinnur village (Solapur district) at l1'ke the goddess and women from ne,lr . . . f ns are usecl
. . . .1 . · (wmnowmg ,l ')
Ghodegaon, since the village and the surrounding regions outside w1th winnowing fans iull o gr,un . f Shitala Dev1
f,or Man-aai . because she is also t1ie youn g·er s1ster o
constituted apart of his ancl the gocldess's regular beat for asking
jogwa (ritual alms) connected with his jJotraaj-ki. He had taken up as these grains embody the pox pustules. f . g-ricultural
. 1 ·k 11. 1 tenns o a .
the goddess Mari-aai's jJotracfj-ki in his village and the goddess He tells them of their yearly uc 'd ·re·d (ihariin ior
. 15 ·, 110 t cons1 c J

as a mobile epidemics protector was housed in a special shrine produce and he tells them of what . d r d for that
. 1 fl vers an ioo
tliat was placcd in a box, which be could carry around on his tliem in terms of colours, amma s, 0\ ' . . . . JV1r Jadhav's
. ' t , 1nual v1s1t on .
shoulders to every village, where he would ask for jogwa as part agncultural year till the goddess s nex ar f' , ·m·tls that he
·l l ,
s iou ders. 1 he colours foods, owei s ' · fl , · ·incl use o ,im '
. ·d only 101 , .
of his ritualised existence. He was the goddess's ritual agent and ' . . . . ·ire reserve
m. arks off as not dharjin for them t1 1at ye,.11 < . (' his 0 fficial
healed others by absorbing their afTlictions through tbe grain l · . (rom 1nm 111
t le goddesses and it comes as a warmng . d l , , , if they
they donated him in the villages he tourecl. He was immune to . ld ffend the go c css
capac1ty as her agent) that they wou 0 r d that ycar that
the affliction passed on through this grain, since he was of an , , . nim·lls or 100 s : .
Were to use these colours, fl O\Vers, '1 ' 13 ·ibst·umng
absorbent caste, taking the illnesses from their clan into his body. . . .
on1y she (as the pres1dmg god css wi r d „ ·) ·n ightfully
L
use,
.. ,
Y ,
' ,
· '
therclo1c . .•
He demonstrated his immunity to pain by whipping himself and „ , d croddesses wer e
[
rom the goddess's dhar.Jin, women an °. l , d , , they wok
dernonstrating his agreement to accepting this feudal duty of a .
l)Clllg 11 <'llll 'lS ( ycl S ,1s
mutually inter-related a over ag, '· . l · 1·1ierarchy
service provide1; sbowing also that it did not hurt him to whip over com1Jensat1ng . 'lrenas o(, ex1stcnce, · , ·' org·amzec 111 . f.or
., , , . 11 rk in Ghodegaon,
himself and absolving his spectators of guilt, while providing them with each other. In the ycar oi my he c wo l , dressed
entertainrnent of viewing his paraphernalia, clance and whipping. .r J·1dlnv hac come
example, the goddess, accorcli ng to 1\NJT. ' ' ' ll wers
According lo M rjadhav's story, he came from a clan of practising . . . . ' l 1 r ()' chrysanthemum 0
m wlute, was s1ttmg on an ass 10 c lllo . · ,. woincn,
fishermen (even if from thc Matang caste) and the gocldess Mari- , l. 1 , , cheek \!\Tors1nppmg
and had a betel lcal tuckec mto icr · . . "tring or
1' we,
aai introduced him to his caste profossion of potraaj-ki through an therefore would have to abstam f'.10m c'l ie·wmgc bete
. • , wlnte
.
. ' · . ·l ,· l · ·r weanng pure
accident while fishing. Once, while fishing, he cut bis foot on a usmg chrysanthemum flowers m t ieir Ml ' . : , • these
s1>ortat1on, srnce
clothes or using the ass as a means 0 [ t1 <ll1 r
„
stone at the edge of the pond. Thc wound refused to heal despite . , rocklcss.
were not dhm]in for them t1iat year,
„ , . 1·)Cl·11 0'o reserved lor the g
rnedical treatment and injections al the local hospital. Mr Jadhav
al last went to the local temple oC Mari-aai after being advised to
do so by a healer to ask ritual questions about bis illness. There How midwives were separatedJr01n r,
wonien but;'oiued
hc gol to know (through a trance that bis mother went into) that to childbirth
the goddess Mari-aai wishecl him to be dedicated to her services . . , was often made tlie scapegoat
, . , . , o [' s·tories that IllY
The m1dwite .e
according to his caste occupation of jJotraaj-ki. After that the family · , . , ,
respondents irom upper castcs recoun t,ecl 'about childbirth gon
 209
208 Deepra Dandekar Boundaries and Motherhood

. . . , r neigbbours than
;vrong. Miclwives had bcen constructed as witchcs and scapegoats
more rcahst1cally as expenenced c1ans women ° . .
· 1)Ue their
im · practice· wlth e1ther a ower c,aste serv1ce-1)rov1der
. · 1
m_many a mythological narrative such as the Ramayana (the figurc , . . . . t from UJ)per caste and
pro fess10nahsm (wlnch will get scant respec . .
of Manthara) or that of Godcless.Jivantika that women in my G~lc~ · mys t'que '1ssonated w1th
- d octors) or as trad1t1onal
e,1·Ite ·· ancl exot1c 1 '· c,
arca 1.1arkccl back to. \Vomen from the Matang caste at the Tal1ai · · · · , y clse cloes · l· he
quas1-maaical charm which caste 1mpunty 111 <lD '
slum m Punc, on the other band, viewed midwives, also from thc · ~
·l at1onsh1p ' and succour ioetween
· support , - ,v0 men in chilclbirth
re ol . __ _
lower. castes (same castes as themselvcs), as neighbourly hclpers
and their midwives durincr labour is systemaucally sought to be
aml si.mply as otber womcn from the locality who had childbirth
politicised ancl cffaced by clominant caste clans and this cooperates
expre;iences of their own and bad good luck in tbeir hands.
with medical systems, as some doctors are even kno"".n to abus~
. I he blaming of midwives was then the product of caste
midwives whom they know to have actually helped ~n cases ol
lnerarc~1y that no argument about their special knowledge wa~
childbirth. 5 Midwives, as already cliscussed in an ear11er chapt~r,
eve: gomg to bc ablc to repair. If at all, I am afraid that claims of_
their spccial knowledge would only fecd into an exotic image of are alreacly being eliminated from the publ~c heal~h system JY
paying womcn financial incentives for institut10nal births. .
thc 'other' and tbe 'lower' that would essentialise caste and gcndcr 111
differences that images or the potraaJ; for example, as the valorous, As a result of these biases, womcn from dominant castes
· towmc , ls m1'clwives· duriricr
absorbing and immune magical 'otber' were any ways achieving. my fiield area recount an1b1valences o

The midwifc, constructed as a scapegoat in the village and her
purported nature as a witch, exposes clan desires of controlling
tbe vcry cvent of childbirth, the boclies of the mother and
chikl involved within it and potentially supportive rclationships
hetween women and attachments between women and childrcn
that become embedded during this event throuah discourses of
. b
~as_te l nerarchy and impositions of impurity. This caste impurity
15 further associated with all sorts of other anatomical products
such as blood, placenta and aftcrbirth matcrials that is cxtcnded
to childbirth goddess shrines that are located outside thc village,
where women leavc their impurity bebind in later rituals.
?'his inordinatcly casteist bias held by certain 'rationalist'
sections of socicty, of midwives being unhygienic and impure
and responsible for infant mortality, mimics thc very dcsire of
cl~n :ontrol over childbirth and makes an increasing amount
0 1. m1~wivcs even at Taljai to rclinquish control over dillicult
clnldb1rth cases, scncling the mother to tbc hospital, when they can
hanc~le these cases far bctter than many hospitals can, while most
hosp1tals hasten women into surgeries because it is more lucrativc
~a:c~rding to my respondents). Midwives are simply afraid of clans
Jommg. doctors in blaming them when somcthing goes against thc
clan will and in this context it is bettcr to view their condition
their pregnancy. They are viewed as harmful at several instances
when pregnant woman become very afraid of them (based on
some obscure notions of midwives having magical knowleclge that
paints thcm to be witches) and no amount or explaining that a
midwifc is simply a decply cxpcricnccd pcrson, who is talcntecl
at child-birthing hclps in this case. Thc 'alternative knowleclge'
paracligm therefore works as a bias against midwives as _weil
and creates obstacles between them ancl prcgnant women from
thc village when clans from dominant castes put them wit~ün a
purity-impurity hierarchy. This bias is historic a1:cl col~ma.l. as
wcll, demonstrated by Ram, as something that w1ves of Bnt1sh
administrators perpetuatecl, while undermining the power that
miclwives had on the boclies of birthing warnen (Ram 2001 ).
Midwives nowadays are also employcd by warnen and their
clans in the village to perform clangerous home abortions ancl
these collcctive memories often lcad to a falsc consciousness about
miclwives being ambivalent among women from the upper castes,
who want to llide clandestine pregnancies but are too ashamed of
being recognised in clinics where they might want to go for safer
abortions.
''Personal comnnmicalion with Mccra Sadgopal (Directm; 'fathapi Trust, l'une).
 211
210 Boundaries and Motherhood
Deepra Dandekar
-----------·~~~-
. . d tl 1rn , 1 j 11to goddcsscs too.
took w1tches i11to her lold and turne . .
These harne abortions that both midwives and upper-caste . l
G og1. had clone 110 such tl1111g; s ie was <t 1 . , fff cted a w1tch ' and now
f'
'
women arc aften ordered to perform, remain complicit with thc Sl t . ed to be a harmll u1,
Straddled the ro]e of a demon. 1C COJ1 ll1U .
clan and orten lead to scriaus illnesses that incur medical costs . her death as she had 1Jeen. m · i·c 11 e, 'U1d she chd .not a ow ,.
even after '
and, sometimes, cost the women, if malnourished, thcir lives. h erself to become redeemed, coo1ed or ,ausp . · icious ' even . 1f she. was.
Thc blame for this is almost always visitcd on the midwife as the t' 11 whe11 ahve. Ne1the1
,
re11dered 1mpure
. .
by her 11otonous repu t',110
. „ ,
clan abdicates responsibility for ill and dying woman. lt is due to l1ad she started ear11mg . her hve r oo as am\rog·ynous ' whrch was
. l'h d . , , .
ambivalent uppcr-caste clan-centric situations such as thesc that . ·l „ d prostitutes accordmg
nevertheless drfficult because eunuc is ,U1 ' . ,
midwivcs becomc dubbed witches from either sidc-as emissaries . l . . . reputed to examme
to b rases amo11g my villarre responc ents, were ,
af birthing women (betrayers of the clan), who have to be rituall~ 0
· · reason o f' wan
· the spec1fic , t'mg t 0 lure a11d krdnap them
separated from women, and as emissarics of the clan (betrayers of ch I·11
c ren for . . d
1ater to b eg m .
' brgger c1t1es. bl
' . rfl 1e pro e '. ' ·m '·V'lS that
' Goo-r
o had turne
warnen), whojain in the torture of warnen from the cla11 side, who
help to control women's bodies and reproduction. demonic and killed and ate childre11 outnght

How Gogi became a witch SIIARING TIIE GoonEss's BoDY r'.'I RITUAL
1
A fcmale healer from village Shinali (district Pune) told me Gogi's De Certeau (1984: 202-3) writes about thc prima! role playe.d ;Y
, . tl- , t 'tcts
1 c o f' a c1ty 1,l ' · ' ' '
. thc l'f' 'lS 'l lacrnn w1tlun
story. ßeing a witch Gogi was very knowledgeablc about diseas~s, an event or acndent m ' .
aflliction, healing, and witchcrafr. She was known tobe a powerful .1ts sense of. contmmty . . Its
. . or w1tlnn , , . „ 1t'me'
. ' tl1eorct1c,l 1 · This . · acodent .
. · 1 · l becomes mter1Jrcted
devotee (bhaktin) of the fierce cremation goddess, Mhasani, a 11 d produces the 'other' of theoretrca time anc
performed witchcrali: on thosc villagers, who bad excommunicat ed .
as ,causal tune' ·
wluch contrac1·1cts. w1'tl1 tl· ie c1'ty's 'mythical' or
her: She disappeared one day and people thought she bad died. · ·
1magmed .' · · 1t 1s,
pract1ce or contmmty. · tl ie'rcf'c)i·e ' causal
' time that ,
However, she had turned into an evil spirit and bad acquired the bccomes thc actual or real historical discoursc of the city, rcsultmg
double powers of being both a witch and an evil spirit. Sincc she ·m ·mternal difierences and stratI·r·1cat10ns · w1'tl im · its hndsC'lpC
' ' that,
did not have any food anc.l peace, she was known to roam around gives risc to thoughts about the power that unifies the city, its
the village stream eating whatever offal shc could find. .Many opacity prcserved in rituals. ,
villagers were said to have seen her eating from the overflowing Applying this theory to the question of rituals for the Sa~va1
rubbish heaps outside the village ncar the village stream as well. and Maulya, then brings forth questions about how mythical
lt was said tliat even though she lookcd like an ordinary destitute practice in Satvai discourse can be described (if child/male death
begga1; thcy could fCel her eyes, red hot and angry like burning is obviously thc accident or lacuna tliat creatcs stratification). Can
coals, full of evil hatred the momcnt they turned on the viewe1: normative imagination actually be constituted by a dyad between
The most problematic aspect about Gogi was that she was known the Satvai and village women that explains the wa.y in which t~ie~
to eat children if shc caught them unchaperoned and alone. consist of each other's opposite attributes? Although mytlnca
The story of Gogi scarcd and worried women due to the practice should not remain static and is constantly transformed by
implications of excornmunicati on, destitution and cannibalism, thoughts generated around the accidcnt, it is also the enormous
while at the samc time they protected their own children and their gendered experience of the accident that 'ritual' seeks to r~eversc
status as married women and mothers from her image. Gogi was and silence, as it tries to maintain mythical practicc as tm1vcr~al
different from the Satvai, who had become a goddess and who and changelcss dharma. Ritual therefore, through its visuality tnc~
 213
212 Bound aries and Mothe rhood
Deepra Dande kar

the ritual period.

to rnask accid ent or l·ctcuna (111 . to unde rtake the dharjin taboo s especially durin g
tenns of exper ience ) and recreates weeks (u~ua_ll~ a
it
l time 1
'not as causa . . or aenc er ustor y (smce wom en or Dahts are
a, 1 . . ' . Thro ugho ut thc ritual perio d of 'heali ng' of five
jH11:h 0 1. t ic
den·, ·l 1·
iec c iscursive 111di vic . l 1· . forty-day periocl), wom en have to perfo rm the j;aach-
ua ity), but as houn dary space that can (if the Satvai). or
] l . 1,
>e iect ed and integ rat,
·.
l . . . time. Tins
.. goddess every weck at the shrin e of the gocldess
l , . . ' cc mto myth1 cal and theor etical di the l\faul ya shnne
11 roc uces causal tnne . trans1 . · l make ritual declications of the jJaradi-dura to
. dS cnt and ambi valen t for wom en anc shrine .
Dal't . d
1 .tn theoretie-tl t'
s timeless. every weck or the paach-khete at the village godcless
' nne as celeh rated and using all
Th
e expen ence of
.
th', . , . . .
ly sough t to be
, Durin g this time, wom en perso nally absta in from
. . is .tcc1d ent that is ntual ials, flowers,
revcr ,, 1 1
sec )y mam tamin th eir · · · 1 1 the ritual items dedic ated to the gocldess: food mater
relationsl · .l g pnstm e and changeless· c 1yac have been offere d to the godcless
· nps Wlt l. the a<rod c!ess , is · a1most always s1lent mart1cu ate · · fruits, and clothes in colou rs that
and · 1, abstin ence of all t~1at
in c ream s (smce wom en are blam ed for the accid '
ent), even ~n rituals cluring this perio d. Thro ugh this
while its 1 1. · . the godde ss (wlnch
· „o) ltcrat1 on take,S p· l·dCC t l·1rough the actua l pu\Jh·c ntua · 1S is not dhmJin for them , since it is dedic ated to
food mater ials)
of' re , j .dnd Its . , usually adclcd up to a consi derab le range of
, . .
versct follo . ' , .
'l'l ':"mg emphat1c, estab hshm g and collect1ve the right to all
celeb nti f' . l Women undc rgo strict fasting by absta ining from
' . Oll,
been me· 1· , ll
lC CXj)Cl ' '
icnce o the acc1dent of death (that 1asl first belon gs to the godcless.
c ica Y controll cc t
· l 0 sorne cxtent) has now been replacec the dedic ated food mater ials that
b tl · . godde ss by mark ing
Y lC acc1dcnt of (C rna. le• 1·mrno rahty ..
and
.
witch craft that bnng s They mark their dyad relati onshi p with the
thern inc . conn ected to her
reasmg s.11ame 'f l . ,
fear of wh1ch cann ot
. the boun dary betw een thcm ancl yet remaining·
he , „ 1 even il , ' s igma anc .'g·mlt ' the .
erasec the' 'l .
lt is trans ferred to othcr in these two exclusive realms.
wom en · .1 f'amily . Ir c nlclrcn hve. each other's
111 t 1e W , 1. , , .
rm not 1ust healm
.
g Wom cn also do not atten d social functions at
ritll'tls t , .· omen t ierclo re ,perfo . . the goddess was
' o rcverse acc1de nts,, l)Ut keep perfo rmmg 1)revent1ve ntual s . · horncs cluring this ritual hcali ng perio d (because
so tl . t 1. may not Ftll [ homc s. They also do not
lcl t iey ical time and atten ding these) or 'cat outsid e' their own
thcoreti'c·et1 eil·1arrna. ' rom grace and distu rb myth Want to risk catin g at the hand s of a secretly mcns
truati ng wom an
were conjo incd
By doing so they b , , e the
. ecorn
. . .
man1rnatc aspec t of the huma n in this impo rtant ritual time perio d when they
godde ss „
anc1 cnter mt.0 c1yac1 re cltlonsh1ps ·!· . . . with the goddess, as this impu re conta ct or vitaal
woul d angcr thc
thcy C' ,h w1th the latter, .so that
of impurity.
dn s are an ex1st,
.
.. 1
· entI.t v1sta
. . .
ol exclus1ve realm s w1th her' goddess fürthe1~ since the gocldess hatecl all forms
1 , ,, . . . case are very sensitive
w ie1e co-cx1stencc '•tfte· r .d transf er of powe r betw een them takes Uppe r-cas te goddess medi ums in any
ll· . , . dered immu ne
I <tcc on1Y has to aclh . 1 ·
. erc to t 1C m. amte nance of a boun clary m abou t vitaal, sincc only the lower castes are consi
betwc en A ]· uppe r
. ny Jrcach. mg·• O r t !· US
to the
.·.
. 1
)0Un dary and there is an onset to affliction throu gh conta gion (in contr adict ion
o(' ' by it, a status
irnpu uty .and aflhct on, 1cct1c
\· .
i · l . · ·
ellorts arc made to re-cstablish castes, which made claims abou t gettin g afflicted
b tinu l . · body of the godde ss for the ritual
w
ounc ,tnes by
, ·
rctrac
' ..,, to t 1e exclus1ve realm s that can then help symb ol at times). Shari ng in the
. l ·l· . . . ision of femin ine spacc
omcn resume. their . d y.tc
Tl , . „ re .it10nsh1ps with goclclesses.. perio d was consi dered to lead to the re-div
. by minim ising
ie tr .tnslorrnat1ons· 1)clC
.
. ·! 1· .
< rorn impu nty to punty amon g betw een castes and betw een purity and impu rity 6
afllic t, 1 s.
ec wom en (or the g l l ·"' 1 1·mg ntual . ) takes place and reduc ing accid ents and revcr ting to timclessncs
througl .1. , : · 'lccer)t'• oc c essj's l iea .
} t le lJ tua! ' cll1CC O t US· ·dyad relati onshi p with
crodd, , , , !· <l ·
,.,, csses t iroug h. a ·slnri r •
' ng ,ln COl1JOimng of the bocly. This is though thcy may havc
do , · "Alllic tions wcrc mani!Cstcd 011\y alter marria gc cvcn
ne m orc1er to gwe ba c·kt0 t1ie gocklesses what is consi dered the ants accuscd thcir wivcs of'
godcl ess · ""s ng · 1lt ancl ' und bccn contra ctcd carlicr. Many of' my male inform
Jhc , , ..
\ ' e cons1c1cred the ro 0 t c.tuse
° or reverse transg
. .1 . .
ressio n tliat is in the first
. 'runni ng away' lrom thcir marita l dutics to rcpcat cdly
perlor ming hcaling rituals
o aflhct1on; m other worcls it is
„
ly contractcd).
in thcir natal \~llagcs (whcre thc a!lliction was allcgcd
214 Deepra Dandekar
~---- ----------
215
REVISITING Qm:STIO~S OF SIGNIFICA'.\ICE AND ArTEMPTING Boundaries and Motherhood
i\ SUMMARY
. . . . this chaptcr with two
to however end the formal d1scuss1011 m · . tei·r1a!) that I
Whilc writing my Ph.D, 1 was often askecl to clefine my work in brief theoretical subject matters (one cxternal an d one m '
·! , . d writin()' of
or at least in as circumspect a rnanner as possiblc in order to explain ..
11ave constantly tussled with ·!1 tl 1e researc 1 ,Ul o
throug
why yet another book on goddcsses would irnpact acadernics. this book. Thcy are flagged off as follows:
Thinking of the various different lcvels at which a research and
r • • „ , . , t I helcl at the beginning
political enterprise such as rnine cngaging with rnulticlisciplinary 1. fhe hrst 1s the rather rnuve dann t!M ·! '!eil irth rituals
inputs apart frorn what a research about gocldesses would require, of my rcsearch analys1s · tl iat dcfined c 11 J
.
· unto
f tnnsformauons
1 oftcn found rnyself answcring people diflerently in contexts that as instruments and categones 0 ' ff!' . g·odclesses.
1,
were spccific to the location of their questioning. For exarnple, 1 tl 1emsclves se1Jaratc f.ron1 b cl'ie,fa ''lbout a ict101 . · tl e Iives
' f the trut 1i m l
found rnyself answcring anthropologists intercsted in rny rcsearch, Nothing could have bcen further rom d ·l ,·. bodies with
with descriptions of how rituals and their association with belief of the women 1 stucl1e . d s· they slnrc t 1eu .
. mce · .' . . . ublic rituals
. f l
t 1e Satvai and l'v au ya 111 ( y.i relat10ns
1 . 1 , cl 111ps, P ..
and cult networks constitutcd gendered knowledgc about the body. ' . , . >S or cns1s,
1cn's expenence
I found rnyself answering activists intcrestcd in rny work with only 111asked and sil encecl won . . . , . every other
cven if they transformecl t11ese r cht10ns '
1ups .is
descriptions of supcrstition-rationalisrn dcbatcs, struggles about . . , I · vithout
war·ld ·Jus t stuclymg ntua s, "lefr mc
.
relat10nsh1p . . . .
issucs or Ceminisrn, castc and labom~ just as 1 tokl public health 111 thell' socral
f . nism would 1iavc
workers about rny intcrcst in rcproductivc hcalth and poverty. On studying ei ther goddesscs or emi i .. , ve rnacle my
. . . , l · Norwou 1c rt 11.i , .
cncountcring questions about history am\ culturc, 1 answerecl with ho!dmg a rope Wlthout ItS tWO enc S. . \ . l (' buma111St
. · . · t 'lg·cd m any <ll1C 0
research ethical as a fcmm1s ·eng, , . . , l <Vhile
data on rural settlcmcnt pattcrns, kingship am\ thc importancc . 1 . f ll' ·y I conirontcc''
<liscipline. Tbc other b1g acac emrc a clC f mcn's
of goddesscs to thc history in Maharashtra. Apart from thc .. ., , . tl c myth o wo
wntmff my data an<l ficld notcs w.is 1 . , . ·. „ or
discrepancy or rny answcrs being obvious to all thosc who bad o . . . . . ·l 'l \1·. tl 1 rituals emc1g1ng
personal auns for perforrnmg c u c Jll . .„ hieb
hcard the diflcrcnt versions ol' rny cxplanations dircctcd at various . ! 1~s, W
arising frorn within their own cu tura]'is t fnmeWOI ' l l ·1 could
stratcgic audiences, the sccming academic neccssity of having a AT "t,. r'sed world was to c 1
I (as a researchcr) or t11c \ ·vcs er 11 • This not
singlc focus or a relationship for intellcctual exploration (rcscrvccl . 1 . fl 1
ne1ther contro m uencc, U1 clc1·st'md ' or acccss. · t' Jism
for one book at a time), that I obviously lackcd also becarne only 'lbsolved ' respons1·1)1·1·1ty . {'0 1· cu · ltl 1nlism oncn ,l · '
l 1 . , , ls the su 11·,cru· 1 oo·
' · '
confusing am\ distressing for mc; 1 clung on crnbarrassingly to , .
ncism 'Uld 'lbsence ot empat Y tow.t!C · , t
my supervisors, wanting to belicvc their 'takc' on rny work, till at
' ' ' ' . . , ble c\0J11Jll.l 11
that lay obscenc and silent outside acccpt,t . . 'l
a point an evaluator at a PhD student's workshop at Ghcnt finally . . . , . . , hilcllessncss sugm'
d1scourse· 1t was also s1mply untrue, smcc c . . th
. ' . , ·rit lor 1)O
observcd that it scemed that I wanted to work on 'cverything'. and thc pain of witchcraft-rcla ted cl cnounccme .
, l1110 st
lt took me sorne journeying frorn there to gradually grow lcss men 'llld women for . examplc, 1ms 1 " · , lly bccn ,J ·
nstonc.i .
, '. . l· . , Jl't nl anns 1·o r
cmbarrasscd and rnorc acccpting of' this allcgation cven as I began universally cxpencnced by all cu tmes. I l' ,
to vicw this 'cverything' as thc strength and intcrconncctivi ty of worncn were constructcd by all {.orrns, o f' rnc·di't' ' exchange . .
. . s w1th · the outs1c ,· le wor11
my writing on various issues that wcrc indced associated with a and cornrnumcat10n c that wcre m ,
. .
constant trans1t10n and mteract10n sunu ,mc . . . 1 t' . ,ously cvcn ,l]
political rcsearch about goddesses. My rescarch links various ' , I.
discourses and methods togcthcr with mothcrhood that I havc they transformed the vcry rescarc1l agencl,a t·l1,l, t s·ug·g·estcc . . . 1L l ··
.
soentihc „
pcnctrat10n. • "'1 ..
lv ost worncn s 1a1 ec
, 1 . „ l their hves 111s1c e
had ample opportunity of cxploring in this book. I would likc . „ . . .
and outside rcsearc 11 contcxts 1·r tl ic 1.c·se'trch ·' mtci ,1ct10 1-
216 Deepra Dandekar
217
Boundaries and Motherhood
was empathctic, cnduring ancl sinccre; women's worlds clicl
, ,. cstioned
not bclong to a different planet. Paradigms of relationships . . . ·s maskcd an unqu . ,
my hcldwork fnends, has sometnne f thc fcrnale
were dcfinitely acccssible by the sharing of expcriences in thc . . ·ly the prcsence o
v1sual category in my text, namc tl
rescarch contcxt with them, cvcn if besicged with varying . . . . .· I am sure l crc ,arc many
body m umvocal matermty cnsis. . , to this. I havc
rangcs of difficulty and counter production. .
oth er 1mao·cs of. clulc. ll)Jrt
. 11 t1iat "lrc' alternative 'l l
. · [ du c -
vVomcn were far morc physically involvecl with an t:> d rb 1 . tc obhteratwn 0
chosen this imao·e, 0
duc to thc e era , l ·!11·11\Jirths that
enmeshment of rituals, goddcsses, thcir own reprocluctivc loss, childlessncss and cxcess1vc an d en forccc c. tlc1 e· insistcnt
•

ancl sexual bodics, their babics and their mothcrhood roles ·ms1stently
· produces women .,ls su /asini· 1 due to • d clul· d -
'
or givcn cluty or hcaling that was all too entanglcd togethcr . mother ctn
production of Satvai. and tvfaulya <lS • listic notions
to makc their engagement with any onc of thc above- protecting cults, both w1tlnn .. · 1 ·/natwna .
popu ai . But it is Just
cithcr ritual or simply goddesses, or just rcproductivc hcalth, , . . · . f l\thharashtra.
ol rehg1on and the acac1em1cs 0 1
1 I want to ta (C
' .
or just chilclbirth or hcaling~thcir primary focus. Ancl t l1at: my chmcc · ancl not umveL' · s·tl reahtv ' anc
1 . reatc any
undcrstanding this alreacly solvcd the first conunclrum of my . . l. as not to c
the opportunity of mennornng t iis, so ~ }· oli my own
. . .
inter-subjectivity: too many subjccts that initially hinted at a heo·emomc
o
chscourses of my own. l:Zc·1dmo- t irouo
'1. 0 ·md se lf'.,1. ccc1)tecl
lack of focus, till I cliscovered that therc had to be thcsc many texts, I havc alten expcricnced. a lurang , , lf shared with
suhjects within my discussion in thc first placc. 1 was exploring forcc or the female body in pam (that I mys~)C ubiquitoUS,
thc lives or womcn that bad myriad and equally important a!Tlicted womcn) that l have assumcd to" undcrgoing
11Y ·
political aspccts to it. My book about them would also have to 1iarnessed as labour ancl most1Y ·,l nd cssent1<t we 50 rneumcs
suflering as it resists harncssing, cven as may ' . t ·d its own 1 11
havc as many interlinkecl aspects to it that also rcflectecl thcir
• • t ·1y bavc crecl c
. > . 1
concerns and not just minc. overlookcd the way m wluch my tcx m, ·ntirc v1sua
2. The seconcl conundrum concerns a pcrvasivc assumption omnipotencc that accords a g1vcn s ' ' · ' 't·itus to an c
bchind thc writing of this book that can now act as a point for world of the owncd 'fcmale'. . . . hc pre-paternal
its closurc. At thc time whcn 1 was recounting my clisruptive Critic1uing Kristeva's expos1t10ns about t . I . }ture that
. : 11·
clrcams to somc or my friencls outside thc ficlclwork context, maternal instinct and thc b1ologica JO cl) , 0 utsIC e• cu acccss to
could challcnge its symbohc · · · · through ctn . 'JG)
the singular rcsponse thcy had was revulsion, horror ancl a semwtics . ('Jü06: } 19--
lecling of shock about how l managcd to articulate the most 11·1)lC
· 1·mous mu 1t1p · l'1c1ty
· t1woug}·1 l)oetry 1
· ' But!e., -f prc-pate1-1nl '
taboo of subjects in such clctail that was concerncd with thc points to ways in which Kristcva's ai~gume1,1 ~s ~c tautological,
fomalc hody. My dreams had shattering implications for the language and libidinoUS maternal clnves bccOI , f 111atcJ'J1a),
'
explaining how there could havc. j)een , '·istcfJCCO f
sobricty ol' middlc-class emotional stability that experienccd no ex · trolling Jaw 0
a kind ol' seconclary trauma ovcr the cxposure of the fcrnale biological drives without thc paternal ancl_ con .
body in such an unexpcctcd way that it almost constitutccl an symbolic ascriptions within scmiotics itsclf. . . lrcams ol
. .
Similarly the aflhctmg ancl p,un , . f i\ v1sUcl1 C • Jy
attack; somc of thcm cven called me an exhibitionist. In thc l ·l . t scem1J1g
' .
women stuck m matermty, m rcbe ious 111. . . , 11" odes t ia , 1
prologuc and cpiloguc of this book, I have, howcvcr, continuccl . ccordcc to
.
break patnarchal taboo arc . 1 . , ·t ctura11y ,l . . ,.
al sp,lccs s ru · for suflenng,
to vcrbalisc such taboo subjccts, hut not in an attcmpt to silcncc
my res1)onclents ancl to me by patriarchal systcm~, 1 or trcatcd
rcadcrs by the perpetuation of its pain or un-spcakability.
coi)ing angcr ancl l)ain tliat are 111 . turn. cr.J,tgrnosec ... ·chy itsc ·
lf
Thc problcm I sec in thc articulation ol' women's c!rcams '' . . 111.n patflctl . .
and crcatecl as affliction and illncss wit . of alternatJVC
or my clrcams, as I borrowcd an allliction cult subjectivity froni These clo not constitute healing or any klflC1
 ---------- --- -------

21 8 Deepra Dandekar 219

justice mechanisms, because the goddess is entrenched

within patriarchy and is hersclf its primary champion. These
cxprcssions and cxperienccs are thcmselves a rcflection of
--
Boundaries and Motherhood

. .
----

.
furthcr economiscd and trans ate .. in
~----
changed for women as far as thcsc ways 0 .
. f 'rebellion' become
1 . d . t ·111 nnacrc o wo1
°'
f
"' . . ·).
ncn's
't
. . . . . 1 . fi"rin '" as v1cums clS l
patriarchy that accords the goddess humanity, whilc pitting matermty (and its associat10n wit 1 su e "' . 11 •
. f wcak and vulne1aJ e
women into aHlictions, when expressing the same. further contributed to a conceptwn ° . rotective
. · tly w1th t1lC p
Thc boundary space of afTliction bctween the dyad of womanhood that fittcd convemen t' . them
. t astcs protec mg .
women and goddcsscs is the silcnt zonc of rituals and dreams paradigms of the upper and domman c f y upper
lt was afrcr all with decp concern that ma~y ~l· ·king·
0
that tries to reverse, narrow and topple its own existcnce l b, , tellmg my s wc
by re-establishing the purity of the dyad and the world of caste audience said (to whom 1 liac een .. all I needccl was
pristine dharma. The dark and underlined boundary between dreams outside my field work context) that
biological and real mothers rcpresents the third angle bctween love to heal an absence or a right over my bocly. . 11· ow
, . . „ l· · 1 oundancs anc I
them of failing mothers, which deflccts from their dualism and 1 he book as is clear by now, 1s a iout J •••
' . l ]· . , Thc boundary is cin
draws thcm both into participating in a perennial gamut of mothcrhood is exactly ncuotiatec ieie. . . . . ·
"' . , ex1stmg at Vdnou 5
preventivc rituals, cvcn as women dying in childbirth transit agential, vibrant and intcractivc pa. rameter ·]· _ ·xi>lore
1evels and laycrs simultaneous1y, w1uc · l1 1]·1·ivc soug 1t to e
to the othcr siele in death impurity periods and mothers of ' 1 ·
· · . l cthnograp 1Y m
dying children cnter these boundary lands ancw. Scnne facc through a complex ranue of theonsat10n anc
. "' . l . s ·1 concept at an
a futurc o!' abandonment, some have new babies and arc rc- tlns book. Thc introduction of the bounc ary a. ' .
. . . . 1 l l
cp1stem1c level will hopdul y 1cra c . ic c ' l tl· . ·x·1mination . .ol. rnany.
integratcd into thcir marital clans even if they and thcir clans • . . 1 _1't ovcrsunpl1f1catlon,
hncr collaborating dynam1cs, w1t 10ut s · ,
womcn have to continuc with thcir rituals, while others leave . . ~ . , ·! r ·s betwccn comp1ex
wh1ch unlortunately eflccts more c osu c · . .
thc fold to conduct fcminist research on thc sul~ject. ' ·1· . l rscovcry of any ncw
rclationships rather than fac1 itatmg t ic c 1
>

So, just as it was cntirely within thc parametcrs of

patriarchy that Kristeva's claims conccrning matcrnal drive understanding.
and subversive poctry wcre made, it is also within paramcters
or patriarchy's discursivcly ascribcd marginal spaccs that
ho~h wo~ncn's wildly painful dreams and my taboo-breaking
art1culat10n of them become simultancously subsumed and
co-optcd. lt is thc naturalisation of this co-option that includes
all of us within thc category of women, matcrnity and thc
various axcs of feudal rclationships with children, clans and
?oddesses that kceps the vcry languages of our suffcring
mtact as both a prison and a privilege. Even whilc wanting
and necding to cscape sullcring, its nature, expression and
cxpcriencc rcmaincd alrcady an almost pre-plottcd part of
thc godd~ss-woman dyad paradigm or affliction that operates
as the tlurd angle between them. Evcn as 1 came to realise
thc quality of imagined escape routcs from suffering, these
vcry routes simultancously lcd back to assimilation. Nothinub