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Control System Design Based On Frequency Response Analysis: Closed-Loop Behavior
Control System Design Based On Frequency Response Analysis: Closed-Loop Behavior
Closed-Loop Behavior
In general, a feedback control system should satisfy the following
design objectives:
1. Closed-loop stability
2. Good disturbance rejection (without excessive control action)
3. Fast set-point tracking (without excessive control action)
4. A satisfactory degree of robustness to process variations and
model uncertainty
5. Low sensitivity to measurement noise 1
• The block diagram of a general feedback control system is
shown in Fig. 14.1.
• It contains three external input signals: set point Ysp, disturbance
D, and additive measurement noise, N.
Gd Gc G K mGc GvG p
Chapter 14
Y = D − N + Ysp (14-1)
1 + Gc G 1 + Gc G 1 + Gc G
Gd Gm Gm Km
E = − D − N + Ysp (14-2)
1 + Gc G 1 + Gc G 1 + Gc G
Gd GmGcGv G GG K GG
U = − D − m c v N + m c v Ysp (14-3)
1 + Gc G 1 + GcG 1 + GcG
where G GvGpGm.
2
Chapter 14
4
Solution
The characteristic equation, 1 + GcG = 0, becomes:
3 (1 − 2 s ) 0.5
1 + = 0
s + 1 1 − 2s
or
Chapter 14
s + 2.5 = 0
In view of the single root at s = -2.5, it appears that the closed-
loop system is stable. However, if we consider Eq. 14-1 for
N = Ysp = 0,
Gd −0.5 ( s + 1)
Y = D = D
1 + GcG (1 − 2 s )( s + 2.5)
5
• This transfer function has an unstable pole at s = +0.5. Thus,
the output response to a disturbance is unstable.
• Furthermore, other transfer functions in (14-1) to (14-3) also
have unstable poles.
• This apparent contradiction occurs because the characteristic
Chapter 14
Example 14.2
Suppose that Gd = Gp, Gm = Km and that Gc is designed so that the
closed-loop system is stable and |GGc | >> 1 over the frequency
range of interest. Evaluate this control system design strategy for
set-point changes, disturbances, and measurement noise. Also
consider the behavior of the manipulated variable, U.
6
Solution
Because |GGc | >> 1,
1 GcG
≈ 0 and ≈ 1
1 + GcG 1 + GcG
Chapter 14
The first expression and (14-1) suggest that the output response
to disturbances will be very good because Y/D ≈ 0. Next, we
consider set-point responses. From Eq. 14-1,
Y K mGcGvG p
=
Ysp 1 + GcG
13
Chapter 14
14
• After the initial transient dies out, ym will oscillate at the
excitation frequency ωc because the response of a linear system
to a sinusoidal input is a sinusoidal output at the same frequency
(see Section 13.2).
• Suppose that two events occur simultaneously: (i) the set point
is set to zero and, (ii) ym is reconnected. If the feedback control
Chapter 14
16
Example 14.3
A process has the third-order transfer function (time constant in
minutes),
2
G p(s) =
(0.5s + 1)3
Chapter 14
Solution
For this example,
2 2K c
G OL = G cG vG pG m = ( K c )(0.1) 3
(10) =
(0.5s + 1) (0.5s + 1)3
17
Figure 14.5 shows a Bode plot of GOL for three values of Kc.
Note that all three cases have the same phase angle plot because
the phase lag of a proportional controller is zero for Kc > 0.
Next, we consider the amplitude ratio AROL for each value of Kc.
Based on Fig. 14.5, we make the following classifications:
Chapter 14
18
Chapter 14
19
In Section 12.5.1 the concept of the ultimate gain was introduced.
For proportional-only control, the ultimate gain Kcu was defined to
be the largest value of Kc that results in a stable closed-loop
system. The value of Kcu can be determined graphically from a
Bode plot for transfer function G = GvGpGm. For proportional-
only control, GOL= KcG. Because a proportional controller has
Chapter 14
The stability limit for Kc can also be calculated for PI and PID
controllers, as demonstrated by Example 14.4.
20
Nyquist Stability Criterion
• The Nyquist stability criterion is similar to the Bode criterion
in that it determines closed-loop stability from the open-loop
frequency response characteristics.
• The Nyquist stability criterion is based on two concepts from
Chapter 14
Example 14.6
Evaluate the stability of the closed-loop system in Fig. 14.1 for:
4e − s
G p(s) =
5s + 1
(the time constants and delay have units of minutes)
Gv = 2, Gm = 0.25, Gc = Kc
Obtain ωc and Kcu from a Bode plot. Let Kc =1.5Kcu and draw
the Nyquist plot for the resulting open-loop system.
23
Solution
The Bode plot for GOL and Kc = 1 is shown in Figure 14.7. For
ωc = 1.69 rad/min, φOL = -180° and AROL = 0.235. For Kc = 1,
AROL = ARG and Kcu can be calculated from Eq. 14-10. Thus,
Kcu = 1/0.235 = 4.25. Setting Kc = 1.5Kcu gives Kc = 6.38.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.7
Bode plot for
Example 14.6,
Kc = 1.
24
Chapter 14
25
Gain and Phase Margins
Let ARc be the value of the open-loop amplitude ratio at the
critical frequency ωc . Gain margin GM is defined as:
1
GM (14-11)
Chapter 14
ARc
PM 180 + φ g (14-12)
27
180D
PM = ∆θ max ωc (14-13)
π
or
PM π
∆θ max = D
(14-14)
ω
c 180
( )
Chapter 14
Example 14.7
Chapter 14
30
Chapter 14
Figure 14.11
Comparison of GOL
Bode plots for
Example 14.7.
31
For the Tyreus-Luyben settings, determine the maximum
increase in the time delay ∆θ max that can occur while still
maintaining closed-loop stability.
Solution
From Example 14.6, the ultimate gain is Kcu = 4.25 and the
Chapter 14
Controller τI τD
Settings Kc (min) (min)
Ziegler- 2.55 1.86 0.46
Nichols
Tyreus- 1.91 8.27 0.59
Luyben
32
The open-loop transfer function is:
2e − s
GOL = GcGvG pGm = Gc
5s + 1
Figure 14.11 shows the frequency response of GOL for the two
controllers. The gain and phase margins can be determined by
Chapter 14
Controller GM PM ωc (rad/min)
Ziegler- 1.6 40° 1.02
Nichols
Tyreus-Luyben 1.8 76° 0.79
33
The Tyreus-Luyben controller settings are more conservative
owing to the larger gain and phase margins. The value of ∆θ max
is calculated from Eq. (14-14) and the information in the above
table:
(76°) (π rad)
∆θ max = = 1.7 min
(0.79 rad/min) (180°)
Chapter 14
34
Chapter 14
Figure 14.12 Nyquist plot where the gain and phase margins are
misleading.
35
Closed-Loop Frequency Response and
Sensitivity Functions
Sensitivity Functions
The following analysis is based on the block diagram in Fig.
Chapter 14
1
S sensitivity function (14-15a)
1 + Gc G
Gc G
T complementary sensitivity function (14-15b)
1 + Gc G
36
Comparing Fig. 14.1 and Eq. 14-15 indicates that S is the
closed-loop transfer function for disturbances (Y/D), while T is
the closed-loop transfer function for set-point changes (Y/Ysp). It
is easy to show that:
S +T =1 (14-16)
Chapter 14
• Let |S(j ω)| and |T(j ω)| denote the amplitude ratios of S and T,
respectively.
• The maximum values of the amplitude ratios provide useful
measures of robustness.
• They also serve as control system design criteria, as discussed
below.
37
• Define MS to be the maximum value of |S(j ω)| for all
frequencies:
M S max | S ( jω) | (14-17)
ω
|T(j ω)|:
M T max | T ( jω) | (14-18)
ω
MS 1 −1
GM ≥ , PM ≥ 2sin (14-19)
M S −1 2 M S
38
Chapter 14
MS 1
−1
GM ≥ , PM ≥ 2sin (14-19)
M S −1 2 M S
Chapter 14
1 1
−1
GM ≥ 1 + , PM ≥ 2sin (14-20)
MT 2 M T
40
Bandwidth
• In this section we introduce an important concept, the
bandwidth. A typical amplitude ratio plot for T and the
corresponding set-point response are shown in Fig. 14.14.
• The definition, the bandwidth ωBW is defined as the frequency at
Chapter 14
41
Chapter 14
P′( s ) 1
= K c 1 + + τDs
Chapter 14
(14-23)
E ( s) τI s
Assume that Gd(s) = G(s).
46
Controller Settings for Example 14.8
47
Chapter 14
49
Sensitivity Analysis
• In general, the term sensitivity refers to the effect that a
change in one transfer function (or variable) has on another
transfer function (or variable).
• Suppose that G changes from a nominal value Gp0 to an
Chapter 14
dT / T
sensitivity (14-25)
dG / G
50
We can write the relative sensitivity in an equivalent form:
dT / T dT G
= (14-26)
dG / G dG T
definition of T in (14-15b):
dT
= Gc S 2 (14-27)
dG
Substitute (14-27) into (14-26). Then substituting the definition of
S in (14-15a) and rearranging gives the desired result:
dT / T 1
= =S (14-28)
dG / G 1 + GcG
51
• Equation 14-28 indicates that the relative sensitivity is equal to
S.
• For this reason, S is referred to as the sensitivity function.
• In view of the important relationship in (14-16), T is called the
complementary sensitivity function.
Chapter 14
53