CHAPTER II

LIMITS

Notation of limits
We use the notation f(c) to indicate the value of a function f(x) at x = c. In order to discuss a value that
f(x) approaches as x approaches c, we use the idea of limit.

Definition of limit
Let f(x) be a function defined on an open interval containing c, except perhaps at c. Then
lim f ( x)  L
x c

is read “the limit of f(x) as x approaches c equals L.

The number L, exists if we can make values of f(x) as close to L as we desire by choosing values of x
sufficiently close to c. When the values of f(x) do not approach a single finite value L, as x approaches
c, we say the limit does not exist.
A limit can exist only if the function approaches a single finite value as x approaches c from the
left and right of c.

One-sided limits
Limit from the Right: lim f ( x)  L means the values of f(x) approach the value L as x  c but x > c.
x c 

Limit from the Left: lim f ( x)  M means the values of f(x) approach the value M as x  c but x < c.
x c 

Note: If L  M then lim f ( x) does not exist.

x c
Properties of limits
If k is constant, lim f x   L and lim g x   M , then the following are true:
x c x c

i) lim k  k
x c

ii) lim x  c
x c

iii) lim f ( x)  g ( x)  L  M

x c

iv) lim f ( x)  g ( x)  L M

x c

f ( x) L
v) lim  if M 0
x c g ( x) M

vi) lim n f ( x)  n lim f ( x)  n L , provided that L > 0 when n is even.

x c x c

Continuity of a functions
The function f(x) is continuous at x = c, if:
i) f(c) exists
ii) lim f ( x) exists
x c

iii) lim f ( x)  f c 
x c

If one or more of the conditions above do not hold, the function is discontinuous at x = c.

-Every polynomial function f ( x)  an x n  an1 x n1  ...  a1 x  a0 is continuous for all real numbers.

f ( x)
-Every rational function h( x)  is continuous for all values of x except those that make the
g ( x)
denominator 0.

Limits at infinity
If c is any constant then:
i) lim c  c
x 

c
ii) lim  0 where p  0
x  x p

c
iii) lim n  0 where n  0 is any integer
x  x

In order to use these properties for finding limits of rational functions, as x  +  or x  - , we

divide each term of the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x present and then we
determine the limit of the resulting expression.

49
Limits at infinity and horizontal asymptotes
If lim f ( x)  b or lim f ( x)  b , where b is a constant, then the line y = b is a horizontal asymptote for
x  x 
the graph of y = f(x). Otherwise y = f(x) has no horizontal asymptote.

1. Use the figure bellow to find lim f ( x) and f(4) if they exist.
x 4

Fig 1.1

Solution: As x approaches 4 from both the left and right, the graph approaches the point (4, -6). Thus
f(x) approaches the single value -6. So, lim f ( x)  6 .
x 4

The value of f(4) is the y-coordinate of the point on the graph at x = 4. So, f(4)=-6.

2. Use the figure bellow to find lim f ( x) and f(6) if they exist.
x 6

Fig 1.2
Solution: As x approaches 6 from both the left and right, the graph approaches the point (6, 72). Thus
f(x) approaches the single value 72. So, lim f ( x)  72 .
x 4

The value of f(6) is the y-coordinate of the point on the graph at x = 6. So, f(6)=72.

50
3. Use the figure bellow to find lim f ( x) and f(20) if they exist.
x 20

Fig 1.3
Solution:
As x approaches 20 from both the left and right, the graph approaches the open circle at (20, 100).
So lim f ( x)  100 .
x  20

The figure shows that at x = 20, there is no point on the graph. So f(20) is undefined.

4. Use the figure bellow to find lim f ( x) and f(-8) if they exist.
x  8

Fig 1.4
Solution: As x approaches -8 from both the left and right, the graph approaches the point (-8, 0).
So, lim f ( x)  0 .
x  8

The figure shows that at x = -8 there is a point on the graph at (-8, -10). So f(-8)=-10.
It is obvious that lim f ( x)  f  8 .
x  8

51
5. Use the figure bellow to find lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) and f(-10) if they exist.
x  10 x  10 x  10

Fig 1.5

Solution:
lim f ( x) DNE or lim f ( x)   as x  -10-;
x  10 x  10

lim f ( x) DNE or lim f ( x)   as x  -10+

x  10 x  10

So lim f ( x) DNE.
x  10

Also from the figure we conclude that f(-10) DNE.

6. Use the figure bellow to find lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) and f(2) if they exist.
x 2 x 2 x 2

Fig 1.6
Solution: As x  2 from the left, f x  approaches   , and as x  2 from the right, f x 
approaches   , so f x  does not approach a finite value as x  2. Therefore, lim f ( x) does not
x 2

exist. The graph of y  f x  has a vertical asymptote at x  2 .

From the figure we conclude that f(2) DNE.

52
7. Use the figure bellow to find lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) and f(2) if they exist.
x 2 x 2 x 2

Fig 1.7
Solution:
lim f ( x)  3 ; lim f ( x)  0 .
x 2 x 2

Since lim f ( x)  lim f ( x) , it follows that lim f ( x) DNE.

x 2 x 2 x 2

8. Complete the table and predict the limit, if it exist.

2  x  x2
f x   ; lim f x  =?
x 1 x 1

x f(x)
0,9
0,99
0,999
↓ ↓
1 ?
↑ ↑
1,001
1,01
1,1

Solution:
f 0,9  2,9; f 0,99  2,99; f 0,999  2,999; f 1,001  3,001; f 1,01  3,01; f 1,1  3,1 .
lim f x   3 .
x 1

53
9. Complete the table and predict the limit, if it exists.
4  x 2 for x  2
f x    2 ; lim f x  =?
x  2x for x  2 x 2

x f(x)
-2,1
-2,01
-2,001
↓ ↓
-2 ?
↑ ↑
-1,999
-1,99
-1,9

Solution:
f  2,1  0,41; f  2,01  0,0401; f  2,001  0,004; f  2  0 ;
f  1,999  0,002; f  1,99  0,0199; f  1,9  0,19 .
lim f x   0 .
x 2

10. Use properties of limits and algebraic methods to find the limits, if they exist.
(a) lim (34  x) (b) lim (82  x) (c) lim (4 x 3  2 x 2  2)
x 35 x 80 x  1

1  3x x 2  16
(d) lim(2 x 3  12x 2  5 x  3) (e) lim (f) lim
x 3 x  1 / 3 9 x 2  1 x  4 x  4

x 2  8x  7 x 2  8 x  15 x 2  4x  4
(g) lim (h) lim (i) lim
x 7 x 2  6x  7 x  5 x 2  5x x  2 x 2  3 x  2

x 2  8 x  20 10  2 x for x  3
(j) lim (k) lim f x  , where f  x    2
x 10 x 2  11x  10 x 3
 x  x for x  3
 x3  4
7 x  10 for x  5  for x  2
(l) lim f x  , where f  x    (m) lim f x  , where f  x    x  3
25 for x  5  3  x for x  2
2
x 5
 x 2

 x

x 2  6x  8 x 2  5x  6 2 x  h   2 x 2
2

(n) lim (o) lim (p) lim .

x 5 x5 x  1 x 1 h 0 h

54
Solution:
(a) If f x  is polynomial then lim f x   f c  . So lim (34  x)  34  35  1 .
x c x 35

(b) lim(82  x)  82  80  2 .
x 80

(c) lim ( 4 x 3  2 x 2  2)  4 1  2 1  2  4 .

3 2
x  1

(d) lim(2 x 3  12x 2  5 x  3)  2  33  12  3 2  5  3  3  36.

x 3

1  3x 1  3 1 / 3 2
(e) lim   1
x  1 / 3 9 x  1 9 1 / 32  1 2
2

(f) lim
x 2  16
 lim
x  4x  4  lim x  4  8 .
x  4 x  4 x 4 x4 x  4

(g) lim
x 2  8x  7
 lim
x  7x  1  lim x  1  6  3 .
x 7 x  6 x  7 x7 x  7 x  1 x7 x  1 8 4
2

(h) lim
x 2  8 x  15
 lim
x  5x  3  lim x  3   2  2 .
x 5 x  5x
2 x 5 x  x  5 x 5 x 5 5

(i) lim
x 2  4x  4
 lim
x  2  lim x  2  0  0 .
2

x  2 x 2  3 x  2 x  2  x  2  x  1 x  2 x  1 1

(j) lim
x 2  8 x  20
 lim
x  2x  10  lim x  2  12  4 .
x 10 x  11x  10
2 x 10  x  1 x  10 x 10 x  1 9 3

(k) Since lim f  x   10  2  3  4 , lim f x   32  3  6 and lim f  x   lim f  x  , it follows that

x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3

lim f x  DNE.
x 3

(l) Since lim f  x   7  5  10  25 and lim f  x   25 , it follows that lim f x   25 .

x 5 x 5 x 5

(m) Since lim f  x   4 and lim f  x   1 / 2 , it follows that lim f x  DNE.

x2 x2 x 2

x 2  6x  8 3
(n) lim  . The limit does not exist. The function is unbounded as x  5 .
x 5 x5 0
x  6x  8 3
2
x 2  6x  8 3
lim     and lim     . The line x  5 is vertical asymptote.
x 5  x5 0 x 5  x5 0
x 2  5x  6 2
(o) lim  is undefined. The line x  1 is vertical asymptote.
x  1 x 1 0

2 x  h   2 x 2 2 x 2  4 xh  2h 2  2 x 2 h4 x  2h 
2

(p) lim  lim  lim  lim4 x  2h   4 x .

h 0 h h 0 h h 0 h h 0

55
11. If lim f x   g x   5 and lim g x   11 , find
x 2 x 2

3g x 
(a) lim f x 
x 2 x2

(b) lim  f  x   g  x 
2 2
 (c) lim
x 2 f x   g x 
.

Solution:
(a) lim f x   lim f x   g x   lim g x   5  11  6 ,
x 2 x 2 x 2

x2
 2 2

(b) lim  f  x   g  x    6   112  36  121  85 ,
2

3g x  3  11 33
(c) lim   .
x 2 f x   g x   6  11 17

12. If lim f x   4 and lim g x   2 , find

x 3 x 3

g x 
(a) lim f x   g x  (b) lim f x   g x  (c) lim f x   g x  (d) lim .
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 f x 
Solution:
(a) lim f x   g x   4  2  2 ,
x 3

(b) lim f x   g x   4   2  6 ,
x 3

(c) lim f x   g x   4 2  8 ,

x 3

g x   2 1
(d) lim   .
x 3 f x  4 2

13. If lim f  x   3 , lim f  x   0 and f 0  0 , find lim f x  , if it exists. Explain your conclusions.
x0 x0 x 0

Solution:
lim f x  DNE because lim f  x   lim f  x  .
x 0 x 0 x 0

56
14. For each given x-value, use the figure to determine whether the function is continuous or
discontinuous at that x-value. If the function is discontinuous, state which of three conditions that
define continuity is not satisfied.

Fig 1.8

(a) x  5 (b) x  1 (c) x  3 (d) x  0

(e) x  2 (f) x  4 (g) x  2 (h) x  5 .
Solution.
(a) The function is continuous at x  5 since lim f x   10  f  5 .
x 5

(b) The function is discontinuous at x  1 since f 1 DNE.

(c) The function is discontinuous at x  3 since lim f x  DNE ( lim f  x   1  2  lim f  x  )

x 3 x 3 x 3

(d) The function is discontinuous at x  0 since lim f x  DNE.

x 0

(e) The function is continuous at x  2 .

(f) The function is discontinuous at x  4 since f  4 DNE.

(g) The function is discontinuous at x  2 since lim f x  DNE ( lim f  x   4  0  lim f  x  ).

x 2 x  2 x  2

(h) The function is discontinuous at x  5 since lim f x  DNE.

x 5

57
15. Determine whether each function is continuous or discontinuous at the given x-value. Examine the
three conditions in the definition of continuity.
x2  4
(a) f x   , x  2
x2
x2  9
(b) f  x   , x3
x3
x2  9
(c) f  x   , x  3
x3
x2  4
(d) f x   , x2
x2
 x  3 if x  2
(e) f  x    , x2
4 x  7 if x  2

 x 2  1 if x  1
(f) f x    2 , x  1.
2 x  1 if x  1
Solution.

(a) f  2  
 2  4
2

0
 0; lim f x   lim
x2  4
 0.
22 4 x  2 x  2 x  2

f  2  lim f x  , so the function f x  is continuos at x  2 .

x 2

(b) f 3  0; lim f x   0 , so the function f x  is continuos at x  3 .

x 3

(c) The function is not defined at x  3 .

lim f x   lim
x2  9
 lim
x  3x  3  lim x  3  6 . Since the definition of the continuity of a
x 3 x 3 x  3 x 3 x3 x 3

function, it follows that f x  is discontinuous at x  3 .

(d) The function is not defined at x  2 .
lim f x   lim
x2  4
 lim
x  2x  2  limx  2  4 . Since the definition of the continuity of a
x 2 x 2 x  2 x 2 x2 x 2

function, it follows that f x  is discontinuous at x  2 .

(e) f 2  2  3  1 . lim f x  DNE since lim f  x   1 and lim f  x   4  2  7  1 . So, f x  is

x 2 x2 x2

discontinuous at x  2 .
(f) f 1  12  1  2 . lim f x  DNE since lim f  x   2 and lim f x   2  12  1  1 . So, f x  is
x 1 x 1 x 1

discontinuous at x  1.

58
16. Determine whether the given function is continuous. If it is not, identify where it is discontinuous
and which condition fails to hold.
4 x 2  3x  2
(a) f x   4 x 2  1 (b) f x   5 x 3  2 x (c) f x  
x2
4x 2  4x  1 2x  1
(d) f x   (e) f  x   (f) f  x  
x
x  1/ 2 x 1
2
x2  3
3 if x  1  x3  1 if x  2
(g) f  x    2 ( h) f x    2 .
 x  2 if x  1 x  4x  1 if x  2

Solution.
(a) f x   4 x 2  1 is second degree polynomial. Every polynomial function is continuous for all real
numbers.
(b) f x   5 x 3  2 x is continuous function for all real numbers since it is a polynomial of third degree.

4 x 2  3x  2
(c) f x   is a rational function. Every rational function is continuous for all values of x
x2
except those that make the denominator 0. So f x  is discontinuous at x  2 (Figure 1.9)

Figure 1.9
4x 2  4x  1
(d) f x   is continuous function except at x  1/ 2 .
x  1/ 2

(e) f  x  
x
is continuous function for all real numbers since its denominator is always different
x 1
2

than 0.
2x  1
(f) For the same reasons as in previous case, the function f  x   is continuos for all real
x2  3
numbers.

59
(g) f(x) is a piecewise defined function in which each part is polynomial. We need only to check the
value of x for which the definition changes.
lim f  x   lim 3  3 ; lim f x   lim x 2  2  3 . So lim f x   3 and it is equal to functional value
 
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1

f 1 . Hence, f x is continuous function at x  1 and this implies that f x is continuous for all real
numbers.
(h) f(x) is a piecewise defined function in which each part is polynomial. The definition changes at

x 2 x 2
  x 2 x 2
 
x  2 . lim f x   lim x 3  1  9 ; lim f x   lim x 2  4 x  1  11 . So lim f x  DNE and therefore
x 2

f x  is discontinuous at x  2 .

17. Find the limit if it exists

3 4 x3 1 3x 2  2
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim (d) lim
x  x  1 x   x  2x
2 x   x3  4 x   x 2  4

5x 3  4 x 4 x 2  5x 3x 2  5 x 7x3  8
(e) lim (f) lim 2 (g) lim (h) lim 2 .
x   3 x 3  2 x   x  4 x x   6 x  1 x   4 x  5 x

Solution.
3
(a) lim
x  x  1

The highest power of x present is x1. We divide each term in the numerator and denominator by x and
3 3
3 0
use the properties for limits at infinity. So lim  lim x  lim x   0.
x  x  1 x  x 1 x  1 1 0
 1
x x x
3
The graph of the function y  is:
x 1

Fig 1.10
y-coordinates of the graph approach 0 as x + and x -. So y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
Also there is a discontinuity (vertical asymptote) at x = -1.

60
 4 4
4 x2 2 0
(b) lim 2  lim 2  lim x   0.
x   x  2 x x   x 2x x   2 1 0
 1
x2 x2 x
4
The graph of the function y  2 is:
x  2x

Fig 1.11
So y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. Since there is a discontinuity at x = 0 and x = 2, the lines x = 0 and
x = 2 are vertical asymptotes.

x3 1 1
 3 1
x3 1 x 3
x x3  1  0  1.
(c) lim 3  lim 3  lim
x   x  4 x   x 4 x   4 1 0
 3 1
x 3
x x3
x3 1
The graph of the function y  3 is:
x 4

Fig 1.12
x 1
3
Since lim  1 , it follows that the line y  1 is a horizontal asymptote. Since the function is
x   x 3  4

discontinuous at x  3 4 , it follows that the line x  3 4 is a vertical asymptote.

61
 3x 2 2 2
 2 3 2
3x 2  2 2
x  3  0  3.
(d) lim 2  lim x 2 x  lim
x   x  4 x   x 4 x   4 1 0
2
 2
1  2
x x x
3x 2  2
The graph of the function y  2 is:
x 4

Fig 1.13
3x  22
Since lim  3 , it follows that the line y  3 is a horizontal asymptote. Since the function is
x2  4
x  

discontinuous at x  2 and x  2 , it follows that the lines x  2 and x  2 are vertical asymptotes.

5x 3 4 x 4
 3 5
5x 3  4x x3 x  lim x2  5  0  5 .
(e) lim  lim
x   3 x 3  2 x   3 x 3 2 x   2 30 3
 3 2
x3 x3 x
5x 3  4 x
The graph of the function y  is:
3x 3  2

Fig 1.14
The line y  5 / 3 is a horizontal asymptote and the line x  3 2 / 3 is a vertical asymptote.

62
 4x 2 5x 5
 2 4
4x 2  5x 2
x  40  4.
(f) lim 2  lim x 2 x  lim
x   x  4 x x   x 4x x   4 1 0
 1 
x2 x2 x
The line y  4 is a horizontal asymptote and the lines x  0 and x  4 are vertical asymptotes.

3x 2 5 x 5
 2 3
3x 2  5 x 2
x  3 …So the limit does not exist and there is no
(g) lim  lim x x  lim
x   6 x  1 x   6 x 1 x   6 1 0
2
 2  2
x x x x
horizontal asymptote. The line x  1/ 6 is a vertical asymptote.

7x3 8 8
 3 7 3
7x  8
3 3
x  7 ... The limit does not exist and there is no
(h) lim 2  lim x 2 x  lim
x   4 x  5 x x   4 x 5x x   4 5 0
3
 3
 2
x x x x
horizontal asymptote. The lines x  0 and x  5 / 4 are vertical asymptotes (the function is
discontinuous at the points x  0 and x  5 / 4 ).

63