Individualism versus Collectivism

Individualism stresses individual goals and the rights of the individual person. In contrast,
collectivism focuses on group goals, what is best for the collective group, and personal relationships.
Individualism
➢ individualist is motivated by personal rewards and benefits.
➢ individualist people set personal goals and objectives based on self.
➢ individualistic workers are very comfortable working with autonomy and not part of a team.
➢ geographic clusters of individualism may be found in Anglo countries, Germanic Europe, and
Nordic Europe
Collectivism
➢ collectivist is motivated by group goals. Long-term relationships are very important.
➢ collectivistic persons easily sacrifice individual benefit or praise to recognize and honor the
team’s success. In fact, being singled out and honored as an individual from the rest of the team
may be embarrassing to the collectivistic person.
➢ geographic clusters for collectivism are often located in Arab countries, Latin America, Confucian
Asia, Southern Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.
The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts
Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of the “self”
and one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is the Eastern-vs-Western
dichotomy wherein Eastern represents Asia and Western represents Europe and Northern America. It
must be reiterated that while countries who are geographically closer to each other may share
commonalities, there are also a lot of factors that create differences. In the Philippines alone, each
region may have a similar or varying perception regarding the “self”.
In Search of the Self: Eastern vs Western Perspectives
“I believe that if we are honest with ourselves, that the most fascinating problem in the world is
‘Who am I?’ What do you mean, what do you feel, when you say the word I—I, myself. I don’t think
there can be any more fascinating preoccupation than that,” begins a lecture by the late British
philosopher Alan Watts, who is known for his interpretations of eastern philosophy and mythology.
In his other lectures, as well as in many of his books, Alan Watts goes on to discuss the world’s two great
myths of the Self— myth in this sense not used as something false, but rather as a way of interpreting
oneself and one’s reality.
There is the myth that pervades in the West, the myth of the “world as an artifact,” wherein
there is a clear distinction between the creator and the created, the godhead and his creations, in the
same way as a potter is distinct from pots, and a carpenter from his constructions. In East, there is the
myth of the world as a drama, “in which all of the things in the world are not made, but acted, in the
same way as a player acts parts,” wherein there is no distinction made between creator and created,
and the godhead is not distinct from the creation. All that exists is a function of the one same existence.
According to Alan Watts, “these are the two great images which govern respectively the
religions
of the West, descending from Hebraism, that is to say Hebraism itself, Christianity and Islam, and on the
other hand, the myth that governs those religions which have had their origins in India, most
particularly,
Hinduism itself, and to a lesser extent Buddhism.” Watts is quick to clarify his statement by saying that
this is how the two great myths of the Self are expressed at a popular level—that is to say they are what
it is like, not what it is, and that most sophisticated adherents to the particular religions of the East or
the West have a much deeper and profound understanding of themselves and of their reality.
Genealogical Self and a Confucian Way of Self-Making
Both in the Anglo-European West and in the East Asia, moral philosophy starts from an attempt
to understand the true nature of self. Different conceptions of self or different answers to the questions
such as "what am I?" and "how do I become myself?" often lead to the different ways of moral life, that
is, to the different answers for the question "what ought I to live in my life?"

Three main ways in understanding the relationship between myself and the surrounding
contextual others in contemporary studies of Confucianism.
1. the "universal self,";
2. the “organismic self," and
3. the "relational self."
All these three influential understandings of the Confucian conception of self either still stand in
the shadow of the Indo-European metaphysical traditions of self or are not sufficient enough to go
beyond that shadow. Thus, they may not be able to lead us to a full and appropriate understanding of
the unique and the true spirit of the conception of self in Confucianism.
Based on the ways how Chinese characters get themselves generated "genealogically”.
Genealogical self - an alternative understanding of the Confucian conception of self. It is rooted much
deeper in the Chinese social, cultural and linguistic traditions than any of the other three conceptions.
Taoism: Deceptiveness of Language
In Taoism, we find the oldest philosophical expression about the deceptiveness of language. Centuries
later, Berkeley argues that words are an impediment to thinking. Taoism predates the philosophy of
linguistic analysis of the 20th century. The Tao De Ching (Classic of the Way and of Potency, see Graham,
1989) begins by asserting:
The Tao is timeless, all encompassing, yet nameless and indescribable. Any representation of
the Tao through language is false: “The knower does not say, the sayer does not know” (Tao De Ching,
see Graham, 1989, p. 220). This presents an insurmountable predicament to Taoists: It places them in
the awkward position of being unable ever to articulate what the Tao really is. However, being mystics,
they are not troubled by this predicament. The point they make is the need to be mindful of the
limitation inherent in language. Chuang-tzu’s witty aphorisms, anecdotes, and arguments are
particularly forceful in inducing skepticism about whether any utterance makes sense at all.
Taoism itself is the embodiment of paradoxes and contradictions. The sage acts without action;
and the ruler rules without governing. The intelligent person is like a little child. AU things are relative,
yet identical because the Tao is unitary. Being and nonbeing produce each other; each derives its
meaning from the coexistence of the other. Taoism predates by centuries Derrida’s (1978) critique of
logocentrism and his deconstructive aim to undo the notions of identity and hierarchy fundamental to
Western thought (cf. Graham, 1989; Sampson, 1989).
Buddhism
As in the case of other great traditions, Buddhism has evolved into many sects, each with its own
school of thought departing in various ways, sometimes radically, from the teachings of its founder
Gautama. Having made the diagnosis that holding onto the illusion of individual selfhood is the source
of suffering. Buddhism provides a prescription for enlightenment. Self-renunciation holds the key to
salvation. Because life is viewed as intrinsically futile, the goal is deliverance from the self, not from
worldly sufferings due to social conditions. The ideal to be attained, Nirvana, is a state of transcendence
devoid of self-reference. Buddhism has worked out an elaborate system of practice to enable one to
attain transcendence. Meditation is an instrumentality central to this system.
Hinduism
In Hinduism, the conception of selfhood is strongly informed by monistic metaphysics. This
conception is elaborated in Vedanta, one of the major orthodox systems of Indian philosophical
thought.
The Social Construction of the Self in Western Thought
• PLATO was one of the first philosophers to state that the soul is eternal, so it is the soul of a man
that makes him an enduring self because even after death the soul continues to exist.
• Rene Descartes stated that “thinking is an attribute of the soul” and that “the continuity of his
thinking mind is what makes him remain the same person.” In other words, our consciousness is a
result of our ‘soul’, or of our ‘enduring self’. He basically believed that, if he could not think, then
he could not exist, and thus ‘thinking’ in and of itself was what constituted a self.
• John Locke said Self is a person’s memory. In other words, it is our memory that allows us to identify
ourselves, and it is the process of identifying ourselves that allows us to formulate the idea of a
‘self’.
West
Eternal reality of the universal truth: self-liberation through getting rid of the false "Me"
and discovering the true "Me”.
• Regarding the lifestyle. Western influence developed early independence. Self-expression is
given freely. You are responsible for yourself and must live on one’s own. One’s own goals take
priority motivated by own preferences, needs, rights “I dominated” materialistic.
• Regarding relationships. Tasks are more important than relationships. Cognitive skills are
independent of social skills. Concepts like arranged marriages are not at all common. They go
for love marriages as they believe in a concept that love comes before marriage.
• How is a child taken care of? The overriding goal of the parents is to make the child independent
and “self- reliant.” Babies are bundles of potential, and a good parent is one who can uncover
the latent abilities and talents in their child, encourage the good while discouraging the bad.
• How does a senior life look like? An elder is given preference over family, so he is more flexible
and freer to take decisions on his own.
• On Education. Western educational systems focus on the ideas of creativity. Obviously, the
system being a system means that numerous things are bound together, but still, it normally
does its best to elevate individual ways to deal with various students. Western education moves
further and facilitates along the road of transforming students into undeniable members of the
training procedure. They are urged to make inquiries and debate with their instructors to think
critically.
• When I regard with Leadership. It is informal and egalitarian, believing in the principle that all
people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities. -Oxford Languages
• On Leadership. People are most comfortable with their social equals; the importance of social
rankings minimized. Hands-on; walking ahead of people; speech is golden. "Leadership is done
from in front. Never ask others to do what you, if challenged, would not be willing to do yourself."
~ Xenophon. When it comes to evolution and improvement, hence has a goal. Development
stops when the goal is reached.
• Regarding beauty. Men are more attracted to tanned, copper skin, hot mature features, whilst
women are attracted to muscular hot guys. Personality wise though, they like sassy, witty,
strong, and real.
Confucianism: Concept of Religion and Spirituality
According to Confucians, spiritual development comes after physical, emotional, and mental
development. One must first learn to know oneself and to respect and honor oneself as one goes about
daily business. As Confucius said, "if you don't know how to live as a person, how can you serve the
spirit?" (Confucian Analects, Confucius 1971 [500 B.C.E.]).
Concept of Jen as loving relationship. Jen is a proper relationship between two parties, a loving
and caring relationship to reach humanity. Meditation is considered a cornerstone to search for self,
find truth, and achieve individual and collective goals.
Concept of harmony. A central feature of Confucianism is harmony between people and their
environment, Nature, or Tao. The Tao Chi (Yin-Yang diagram) is an example of the value of harmony
withthe environment. It is also applied to the concept of health for energy (qi/chi), balance for disease
prevention, healing, and the development of human potential. Meditation is a way of managing energy
that is applied to reach physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual harmony for individual holistic health.
This core value of Confucianism has had positive and negative effects on Chinese history; it
became quite detrimental to women and children. Contemporary Confucians prescribe family conflict
resolution to remedy this. The younger generations are not allowed to express their opinions before
their elders. According to social standards, women and children who were abused are still expected to
be submissive. Social workers and helping professionals must understand the hidden cultural dynamics
to deal with the root philosophies and beliefs as they try to help people.

Family conflict resolution. Based on the Yin Yang theory from the Tai Chi diagram, contemporary
Confucians such as Douglas K. Chung (1993a) prescribe the family conflict resolution model. It is an
example of innovation of Confucianism in redefining the image of Tao through daily practice. In the
model, any systems' solutions to conflict resolutions and goals for development aim to integrate love
(Jen), justice, freedom, and fidelity (the image of Tao) in the dynamics. The approach aims to fulfill
human needs (love). Justice is seen by the end of the cycle under perfectly equal treatment. Freedom is
practiced by volunteer choice and participation in negotiation and compromise—the flexibility of mean
line and possibility of forming new systems. Faithfulness is reached by the stability, repeatability, and
accountability of leadership and/or revealed by the natural laws. Role equity and role change, therefore,
are the core implication of the Yin-Yang Theory.
Humanistic Psychology
Between the 1930s and the 1970s, the “cognitive revolution” replaced B.F. Skinner’s radical
behaviorism as the reigning psychological paradigm. Cognitive psychology is the study of mental
processes such as “attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and
thinking.” Humanistic psychology rose into prominence in response to the limitations of both Freudian
psychoanalysis theory, seen as unscientific, and Skinner’s narrowly reductionist behaviorism.
Abraham Maslow’s book Motivation and Personality (1954) started a philosophical revolution
out of which grew humanistic psychology. This changed the view of human nature from a negative
view—man is a conditioned organism—to a more positive view in which man is motivated to realize his
full potential. This is reflected in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and in his theory of self-actualization.
Maslow saw “self-actualization” to be the desire for self-fulfillment of capability or potential, a
motivation for constant betterment.
Theory of the Universe – (Humanism or secularism as opposed to the supernatural.) Confucius
cared about human beings, the human condition—not metaphysics (grand theories of the
universe.) Worry about humans, not gods; worry about life, not death, he said. He emphasized that
good
government would promote social harmony and the general well-being. [Confucius is primarily a
political thinker.]
Still Confucius is somewhat metaphysical when he says that morality is embedded in the
universe, and that it is within human beings. Its essence is a concern with the general welfare. [Plato,
Aristotle, Locke, Hobbes, and the American Presidents Jefferson, FDR, LBJ, Jimmy Carter and others
shared this view. Such concern is obviously out of fashion with large parts of American politics today.]
Rulers who rule for their own benefit rather than the general welfare, Confucius claimed, will not be
supported by the decree of heaven.
Another metaphysical concept in Confucian thinking is the idea that some things are beyond our
control—they are the result of destiny. Confucius talked as if destiny was a design of the heaven’s that
was beyond human understanding. Humans can conform to the decree of heaven if they choose—by
promoting the general welfare—but our destiny is beyond our understanding and control. Humans
should follow the decree of heaven by being unconcerned with wealth, status, longevity, etc.
The tao is the way of the sages, essentially the way that previous good rulers followed the
decree of heaven and promoted the common good, promoted social cohesion.
Theory of Human Nature – Confucius was optimistic about human potential; he wanted people
to be sages or wise persons who instantiate the goodness of the heavens within them. This is
accomplished by being benevolent. The result of being moral, essentially benevolent, is joy.

Confucius was not clear on why so few people become wise, benevolent sages, but he suggested
that it might be that we freely choose not to be good. He also thought that our environment plays a
large role in shaping us. Thus, we need to be molded so as to achieve moral perfection, molded
especially
by a culture and a social system conducive to our moral development.
Diagnosis – Social discord is “caused by selfishness and ignorance of the past. Consequently,
human interaction is marred by strife, rulers govern with attention only to personal gain, common
people suffer under unjust burdens, and social behavior in general is determined by egoism and greed.”
Why is life so bad? Confucius answers it is bad because of 1) Profit motive; 2) lack of respect for parents;
3) lying; 4) ignorance of the past; 5) little benevolence.
Prescription – Confucius prescribes self-discipline for individuals and rulers in order to cure the
ills of society. In other words, society will be better when the people who make it up are better. This
approach provides answers to the 5 problems listed above.
• Do what is right because it is right, not for profit. By struggling to be moral, we align ourselves
with the decree of heaven, with something like the natural order. We also shield ourselves
against disappointment because we care about moral virtue rather than those things, we cannot
be assured of getting—like fame and fortune. Moral excellence is its own reward, whether we
are recognized for it or not. This encourages us to keep working for righteousness in the world
even if no one else appreciates it. If we are motivated by what is right, we will find joy in our
efforts even if we do not fully succeed. Thus, we also accept that destiny plays a role in human
life. But moral excellence is within our control and we should struggle to attain it through selfdiscipline.
We should cultivate self, not social recognition, fame or fortune.
• Cultivating self implies you will be a better family member. Being a good family
member reverberates through society. A person who is good to their parents and siblings and
children will be good to others as well. Transformation of the self and benevolence begin in the
family and spread outward.
• Regarding lying, Confucius says we need word and deed to conform, in other words, actions
should reflect words. If we all lie, trust will evaporate. “Words are easy to produce; if a person
or government uses them to conceal the truth, then social chaos ensues. Trust is a critical
ingredient of all dependable social interaction.”
• The answer to ignorance of the past is education, study, and scholarship. Most important for
Confucius is the study of the cultural legacy of our past, for the purpose of revealing how moral
perfection might be achieved. Such education is also crucial for good government. Only after a
good education should one be allowed to be a leader.
• Benevolence refers to kindness, goodwill, charity, compassion, generosity, munificence. It is the
primary means of moral perfection. For Confucius, the process of becoming benevolent involves
3 elements: a) clinging to benevolence at all times; b) treating others as you would like to be
treated and not doing to others what you don’t want done to you; and c) habituating action
according to moral rules, which we learn from studying the classics. Benevolence is achieved by
acting in accord with the moral rules we learn by studying which is to live according to the way
of the heavens.