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Lesson Proper for Week 8

COL001-8- The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts

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17:45

Individualism versus Collectivism

Individualism stresses individual goals and the rights of the person. By contrast,
collectivism focuses on group goals, what is best for the collective group, and personal
relationships.
Individualism
Individualist is motivated by personal rewards and benefits.
Individualist people set personal goals and objectives based on self.
Individualistic workers are comfortable working with autonomy and not a part of a
team.
Geographic clusters of individualism may be found in Anglo countries, Germanic
Europe, and Nordic Europe.

Collectivism
Collectivist is motivated by group goals. Long-term relationships are essential.
 Collectivistic persons readily sacrifice individual benefits or praise to recognize and
honor the team’s success. Being singled out and honored as an individual from the rest
of the group may be embarrassing to the collectivistic person.
Geographic clusters for collectivism are often located in Arab countries, Latin America,
Confucian Asia, Southern Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.
The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts
Different cultures and varying environments carry different perceptions of the “self.”
We usually distinguish between cultures and people using the Eastern-versus-Western
dichotomy, wherein Eastern represents Asia, and Western represents Europe and
Northern America. While countries that are geographically closer to each other may share
commonalities, many factors also create differences. Since the Philippines is made of
different regions, each region may have a similar or varying perception regarding the
“self.” (citation pending)

In Search of the Self: Eastern versus Western Perspectives

“I believe that if we are honest with ourselves, that the most fascinating problem in
the world is ‘Who am I?’ What do you mean, what do you feel, when you say the word I—I,
myself. I don’t think there can be any more fascinating preoccupation than that,” begins a
lecture by the late British philosopher Alan Watts, who is known for his interpretations of
Eastern philosophy and mythology. In his other lectures and many of his books, Alan
Watts discussed the world’s two great myths of the self, that I, the myth in this sense that
is not used as something false but as a way of interpreting oneself and one’s reality.
The myth of the “world as an artifact” pervades in the West, wherein a distinction
between the creator and the created, the godhead and his creations, in the same way as
a potter is distinct from pots and a carpenter from his/her constructions. In the East,
there is the myth of the world as a drama, “in which all of the things in the world are not
made, but acted, in the same way as a player acts parts,” wherein there is no distinction
made between creator and created, and the godhead is not distinct from the creation. All
that exists is a function of the same existence.
According to Alan Watts, “these are the two great images which govern respectively
the religions of the West, descending from Hebraism, that is to say, Hebraism itself,
Christianity and Islam, and on the other hand, the myth that governs those religions
which have had their origins in India, most particularly, Hinduism itself, and to a lesser
extent Buddhism.” Watts quickly clarified his statement by saying that this is how the two
great myths of the self are expressed at a popular level, that is, they are what it is like,
not what it is, and that most sophisticated adherents to the particular religions of the
East or the West have a much deeper and profound understanding of themselves and
their reality.

Genealogical Self and a Confucian Way of Self-Making

In Anglo-European West and East Asia, moral philosophy starts from understanding
the self's true nature. Different conceptions of self or answers to the questions such as
"what am I?" and "how do I become myself?" often lead to varying ways of moral life to
varying answers for the question "what ought I do to live my life?"
 The three main ways of understanding the relationship between myself and the
surrounding contextual others in contemporary studies of Confucianism are as follows:
1. the “universal self”
2. the “organismic self”
3. the "relational self”
All these three influential understandings of the Confucian conception of self either
still stand in the shadow of the Indo-European metaphysical traditions of self or are not
sufficient to go beyond that shadow. Thus, they may not lead us to a complete and
appropriate understanding of the unique and the true spirit of the conception of self in
Confucianism.
Based on how Chinese characters get themselves generated “genealogically,” the
genealogical self is an alternative understanding of the Confucian conception of self. It is
rooted much deeper in the Chinese social, cultural, and linguistic traditions than any
other three conceptions.

Taoism: Deceptiveness of Language

Taoism shows us how language deceives us. (Ho, 1995) Centuries later, Berkeley
argued that words impede thinking. Taoism predates the philosophy of linguistic analysis
of the 20th century. The Tao De Ching (Classic of the Way and of Potency, Graham,
1989) begins by asserting the following:
The Way that can be ‘Way’-ed
Is not the constant Way.
The name that can be named
Is not the constant name. (p. 219)
The Tao is timeless and all-encompassing yet nameless and indescribable. Any
representation of the Tao through language is false, that is, “the knower does not say, the
sayer does not know” (Ho, 1995) (Tao De Ching, see Graham, 1989, p. 220). “This
presents an insurmountable predicament to Taoists; it places them in the awkward
position of being unable ever to articulate what the Tao is.” (Ho, 1995) However, being
mystics, “Taoists are not troubled by this predicament. The point they make is the need
to be mindful of the limitation inherent in language. Chuang-tzu’s witty aphorisms,
anecdotes, and arguments are particularly forceful in inducing skepticism about whether
any utterance makes sense at all.” (Ho, 1995)
“Taoism itself is the embodiment of paradoxes and contradictions. The sage acts
without action, and the ruler rules without governing.” (Ho, 1995) An intelligent person is
similar to a small child. “Things are relative yet identical because the Tao is unitary. Being
and nonbeing produce each other; each derives its meaning from the coexistence of the
other. Taoism predates Derrida’s (1978) critique of logocentrism and his deconstructive
aim to undo the notions of identity and hierarchy fundamental to Western thought (cf.
Graham, 1989; Sampson, 1989).” (Ho, 1995)
Buddhism
Buddhism has evolved into many sects in other great traditions, each of which, with
its school of thought departing in various ways, occasionally radically, from its founder
Gautama's teachings. Making the diagnosis that holds onto the illusion of individual
selfhood is the source of suffering. Buddhism provides a prescription for enlightenment.
Self-renunciation holds the key to salvation. Given that life is viewed as intrinsically futile,
the goal is deliverance from the self and “not from worldly sufferings due to social
conditions.” (Ho, 1995) Nirvana, which is the ideal to be attained, “is a state of
transcendence devoid of self-reference. Buddhism has worked out an elaborate system
of practice to enable one to attain transcendence. Meditation is an instrumentality central
to this system.” (Ho, 1995)

Hinduism
“In Hinduism, the conception of selfhood is strongly informed by monistic
metaphysics. This conception is elaborated in Vedanta, which is one of the major
orthodox systems of Indian philosophical thought.” (Ho, 1995)
The Social Construction of the Self in Western Thought
Plato was one of the first philosophers to state that the soul is eternal (H, 2017); thus, a
man's soul makes up his enduring self because the soul continues to exist even after
death.
Rene Descartes stated that “thinking is an attribute of the soul” and that “the continuity
of his thinking mind is what makes him remain the same person.” In other words, our
consciousness is a result of our “soul” or “enduring self.” He believed that if he cannot
think, then he cannot exist. Thus, thinking in and of itself is what constitutes a self.
John Locke said that the self is a person’s memory. In other words, our memory allows
us to identify ourselves, and the process of identifying ourselves enables us to
formulate the idea of a self.
West
The eternal reality of the universal truth is self-liberation by getting rid of the false
“Me” and discovering the true “Me.”
Regarding the lifestyle. Western influence developed early independence. Self-
expression is given freely. You are responsible for yourself and must live on your own.
One’s own goals take priority as motivated by “I-dominated” materialistic preferences,
needs, and rights.
Regarding relationships. Tasks are more important than relationships. Cognitive skills
are independent of social skills. Concepts such as arranged marriages are not
expected. They go for unions based on love as they believe in the idea that love comes
before marriage.
How is a child taken care of? The overriding goal of the parents is to make the child
independent and “self-reliant.” Babies are bundles of potential, and a good parent is
one who can uncover the latent abilities and talents in their child and encourage the
good while discouraging the bad.
How does senior life look like? An elder is given preference over the family. Thus, he is
flexible and free to make decisions on his own.
 On education. Western educational systems focus on the ideas of creativity. The
system means that numerous things are bound together, but it still does its best to
elevate individual ways to deal with various students. Western education moves further
and aims to transform students into undeniable members of the training procedure.
They are urged to make inquiries and think critically.
Leadership. It is informal and egalitarian, believing that all people are equal and
deserve equal rights and opportunities (source: Oxford Languages).
On Leadership. People are the most comfortable with their social equals because the
importance of social rankings is minimized. Hands-on; walking ahead of people; speech
is golden. “Leadership is done from in front. Never ask others to do what you, if
challenged, would not be willing to do yourself.” – Xenophon. In terms of evolution and
improvement, hence has a goal. Development stops when the goal is reached.
Regarding beauty. Men are more attracted to women with tanned, copper skin with
mature features. Meanwhile, women are attracted to muscular guys—however,
personality-wise, women like sassy, witty, strong, and real men.
Confucianism: Concept of Religion and Spirituality
“According to Confucians, spiritual development comes after physical, emotional, and
mental development. One must first learn to know, respect, and honor oneself as one
goes about daily business. As Confucius said, “if you don't know how to live as a person,
how can you serve the spirit?” (Confucian Analects, Confucius 1971 [500 B.C.E.]).”
(JRank, n.d.)
Concept of Jen as a loving relationship. Jen is a proper relationship between two
parties, that is, “a loving and caring relationship to reach humanity. Meditation is
considered a cornerstone to search for self, find the truth, and achieve individual and
collective goals.” (JRank, n.d.)
Concept of harmony. “A central feature of Confucianism is harmony between people
and their environment, nature, or Tao. The Tao Chi (Yin-Yang diagram) is an example of
the value of harmony with the environment. It is also applied to the concept of health for
energy (qi/chi), balance for disease prevention, healing, and the development of human
potential. Meditation is a way of managing energy that is applied to reach physical,
emotional, mental, and spiritual harmony for individual holistic health.” (JRank, n.d.)
This core value of Confucianism had positive and negative effects on Chinese
history; it became detrimental to women and children. Contemporary Confucians
recommended family conflict resolution as a solution to this problem. “Younger
generations are not allowed to express their opinions before their elders. According to
social standards, women and children who have been abused are still expected to be
submissive. Social workers and helping professionals must understand the hidden
cultural dynamics to deal with the root philosophies and beliefs as they help people.”
(JRank, n.d.)
Family conflict resolution. “According to Yin Yang theory from the Tai Chi diagram,
contemporary Confucians, such as Douglas K. Chung (1993a), recommended the family
conflict resolution model. It is an example of an innovation of Confucianism in redefining
the image of Tao through daily practice. In the model, any system’s solutions to conflict
resolutions and goals for development aim to integrate love (Jen), justice, freedom, and
fidelity (the image of Tao) in the dynamics. This approach aims to fulfill human needs
(love). Justice is seen by the end of the cycle under perfectly equal treatment. Freedom
is practiced by volunteer choice and participation in negotiation and compromise, that is,
the flexibility of mean line and the possibility of forming new systems. Faithfulness is
reached by the stability, repeatability, and accountability of leadership and/or revealed by
natural laws. Therefore, role equity and change in the role are the core implications of
Yin-Yang theory.” (JRank, n.d.)
Humanistic Psychology
Between the 1930s and 1970s, the “cognitive revolution” replaced B.F. Skinner’s
radical behaviorism is the reigning psychological paradigm. Cognitive psychology is the
study of mental processes such as “attention, language use, memory, perception,
problem solving, creativity, and thinking.” (Wikipedia, 2020) Humanistic psychology rose
into prominence in response to the limitations of Freudian psychoanalysis theory that is
seen as unscientific and Skinner’s narrowly reductionist behaviorism.
Abraham Maslow’s book Motivation and Personality (1954) started a philosophical
revolution that grew humanistic psychology. It changed the view of human nature from a
pessimistic view that a man is a conditioned organism to a more positive perspective. A
man is motivated to realize his full potential. This phenomenon is reflected in Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs and his theory of self-actualization. Maslow saw “self-actualization”
as the desire for the self-fulfillment of capability or potential or motivation for constant
betterment.
“Theory of the Universe – (humanism or secularism as opposed to the supernatural)
Confucius cared about humans, that is, the human condition and not metaphysics (grand
theories of the universe.) Confucius said, ‘worry about humans, not gods; worry about
life, not death.’ He emphasized that good government would promote social harmony and
general well-being (Confucius is primarily a political thinker).” (Messerly, 2014)
Confucius remains metaphysical when he says that morality is embedded in the
universe and within humans. The essence of morality is a concern with the general
welfare. Plato, Aristotle, Locke, and Hobbes, and American Presidents Jefferson, FDR,
LBJ, Jimmy Carter, etc., shared this view. Such concern is out of fashion with large parts
of American politics today. Confucius claimed that the decree of heaven would not
support rulers who rule for their benefit instead of the general welfare.
“Another metaphysical concept in Confucian thinking is the idea that several things
are beyond our control—they are the result of destiny. Confucius talked as if destiny is a
design of the heavens that is beyond human understanding. Humans can conform to the
decree of heaven if they choose by promoting the general welfare, but our destiny is
beyond our understanding and control. Humans should follow the decree of heaven by
being unconcerned with wealth, status, longevity, etc.” (Messerly, 2014)
The Tao is the way of the sages, essentially the way that previous good rulers
followed the decree of heaven and endorsed the common good, thereby promoting social
cohesion.
“Theory of Human Nature – Confucius was optimistic about human potential; he
wanted people to be sages or wise persons who instantiate the goodness of the heavens
within them. This is accomplished by being benevolent. The result of being moral,
essentially benevolent, is joy.” (Messerly, 2014)
 Confucius was not clear on why few people become wise, benevolent sages, but he
suggested that it may be because we freely choose not to be good. He also thought
that our environment plays a significant role in shaping us. Thus, we need to be molded
to achieve moral perfection that is “molded especially by a culture and a social system
conducive to our moral development.” (Messerly, 2014)
Diagnosis – “Social discord is ‘caused by selfishness and ignorance of the past.
Consequently, human interaction is marred by strife, rulers govern with attention only to
personal gain, common people suffer under unjust burdens, and social behavior in
general is determined by egoism and greed.’” (Messerly, 2014) Why is life so bad?
According to Confucius, it is because of 1) profit motive, 2) lack of respect for parents, 3)
lying, 4) ignorance of the past and 5) minimal benevolence.
Prescription – Confucius prescribed self-discipline for individuals and rulers to cure
the ills of society. “In other words, society will be better when the people who make it up
are better. This approach provides answers to the five problems listed above.” (Messerly,
2014)
“Do what is right because it is right and not for profit. By struggling to be moral, we
align ourselves with the decree of heaven, with something similar to the natural order.
We also shield ourselves against disappointment because we care about moral virtue”
(Messerly, 2014) instead of things we cannot be assured of achieving, such as fame
and fortune. Moral excellence is its reward, whether we are recognized for it or not. It
encourages us to keep working for righteousness in the world, although no one
appreciates you for it. If we are motivated by what is right, we will find joy in our efforts,
although we do not fully succeed. Thus, destiny plays a role in human life. However,
moral excellence is within our control, and we should struggle to attain it through self-
discipline. We should cultivate self and not social recognition, fame, or fortune.
Cultivating self implies that you will be a better family member. “Being a good family
member reverberates through society. A person who is good to their parents and
siblings and children will be good to others as well.” (Messerly, 2014) The
transformation of the self and benevolence begins in the family and spreads outward.
About lying, Confucius said that we need word and deed to conform; in other words,
actions should reflect words. If we all lie, then trust will disappear. “Words are easy to
produce; if a person or government uses them to conceal the truth, then social chaos
ensues. Trust is a critical ingredient of all dependable social interaction.” (Messerly,
2014)
“The answer to ignorance of the past is education, study, and scholarship.” (Messerly,
2014) The most important thing for Confucius is the study of the cultural legacy of our
past to revealing how moral perfection can be achieved. “Such education is also crucial
for good government.” (Messerly, 2014) Only after one received good education should
one be allowed to be a leader.
Benevolence refers to kindness, goodwill, charity, compassion, generosity, and
philanthropy. It “is the primary means of moral perfection. For Confucius, the process of
becoming benevolent involves three elements, that is, a) clinging to benevolence at all
times, b) treating others as you would like to be treated and not doing to others what you
do” (Messerly, 2014) not want to be done to you, and c) habituating action according to
moral rules that we learn from studying the classics. Benevolence is achieved by acting
following “the moral rules we learn by studying, which is to live according to the way of
the heavens.” (Messerly, 2014)

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