Emp 403

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND ENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
KRM 401: GENERAL SOIL MANAGEMENT
WRITTEN BY: Dr. Harun Gitari
VETTED BY: Mr. Erick Otieno
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INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this module on General Soil Management. Previously, you have covered units such
as Principles of soil science and Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition. The knowledge gained in such
units will be vital in this course. Over 70% of Kenyan soil is naturally not suitable for crop
production unless under special management. The major constraints include aridity, alkalinity,
sodicity and acidity.
Soils are complex mixtures of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and countless organisms that
are the decaying remains of once-living things. It forms at the surface of land – it is the “skin of
the earth.” Soil is capable of supporting plant life and is vital to life on earth. It is therefore
important to learn the management of various soil types. Some soil are better managed by being
left fallow whereas other requires only minimal modification to function full. Soil pollution is also
posing a threat to ours soil. Therefore it is equally important to learn how to manage polluted soils.
Finally, it is advisable to understand capability of different soils before even managing them. To
cover this area, this module will introduce soil classification and land capability to enable learners
grasp the concept of management of different soil types.
GENERAL SOIL MANAGEMENT FLOW CHART

Week Topic
Week 0: Introduction (your context, your goals, thoughts about general soil
management)
Week 1: Soil health
Week 2: Soil management: Concepts and principles
Week 3: Introduction to problem soils
Week 4: Management of acid soils and acid sulfate soils
Week 5: Management of saline and sodic soils
Week 6: Management of calcareous soils and heavy cracking clays (vertisols)
Week 7: Soil pollution
Week 8: Management and remediation of polluted soils
Week 9: Soil survey and classiffication
Week 10: Land evaluation and capability classification
Week 11&12 Examination
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OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE
Week 0: Introduction
The purpose of this lesson is to familiarize yourselves with blended learning and create a group of
learners who will motivate and encourage the others to achieve the expected goals of the course.
During this first interaction, you will be required to introduce yourself to your lecturer and fellow
students either during face to face tutorials or during on line before the start of the lessons. It will
be ideal to state your goals and your perception about the General Soil Management.
Week 1: Soil health

During this first lesson, we start by laying the background for the course by defining the concept
of a healthy soil. The purpose of this lesson is to enable you understand the concept of a healthy
soil.
Week 2: Soil management: Concepts and principles

In this lesson, we continue to discuss the key concepts that one needs to know in soil management.
We shall also examine some ways of managing soil to ensure it continues to sustain life now and
in future. The objective of this lesson is to enable the student to understand the principles applied
in development of soil management, and to understand the role of crop rotation and cover crop in
soil management.
Week 3: Introduction to problem soils

This lesson introduces you to the concept of problem soils and various types of such soils.
Hence, we will define a problem soil and go deeper to discuss the various types of problems soil
focusing on the limitations of each category.
Week 4: Management of acid soils and acid sulfate soils

In this lesson, you will learn how to manage acid soils and acid sulfate soils. Specifically, you are
expected to understand how to manage acid soils as well as acid sulfate soils to enable their
cultivation in a sustainable way.
Week 5: Management of saline and sodic soils
In this lesson, we will focus on the management of saline and sodic soils. The lesson will cover
these two problem soils and look at possible management skills for each category.
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Week 6: Management of calcareous soils and heavy cracking clays (vertisols)
In this lesson, we will learn about the management of calcareous soils and the soils with heavy
cracking clays (vertisols). Calcareous soils belong to the Calcisols and are mainly found in dry
areas, which occupy a large portion of Kenyan land. Heavy cracking clay soils mainly belong to
vertisols and occur mainly in (sub) tropical areas with a pronounced dry season. They have a poor
internal drainage and extremely slow hydraulic conductivity, which results in water logging. If
these soil are managed well, then poverty can be reduced significantly in our country.
Week 7: Soil pollution

The lesson will expose you to this menace ‘soil pollution’ which poses a worrisome threat to
agricultural productivity, food safety, and human health. The lesson intends to introduce you to
the basic concepts of soil pollution and focusing on the different sources of soil pollutants.
Week 8: Management and remediation of polluted soils

This lesson will build on lesson 7. We will focus on the various ways of managing polluted
agricultural soils with focus on agronomic practises. We will focus on how soil pollutants diffuse
to agricultural land and various approaches of assessing soil pollution and finally the ways to
rectify such polluted soils.
Week 9: Land Management and Fodder Production Techniques

This lesson will build on lesson 8. We will focus on the various land management practices and
fodder production techniques in ranching enterprises. We will discuss the most appropriate land
management practices and fodder production techniques for effective management of the ranching
enterprises. The purpose of this lesson is to stimulate your mind and start appreciating
management of ranching enterprises as potential areas for improved livestock production.
Week 10: Land evaluation and capability classification

This is the last lesson, which will serve as a conclusion of all the content in the previous lessons.
The lesson will mainly build on lesson 9 and will focus on the various land management of land
based on the land capability classification. The objective of this lesson is to equip you with the
necessary skills to be able to understand land evaluation and state the importance of land capability
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classification as well as to describe the classes of the land classification. With such knowledge
stills you are in a position to do an evaluation of a certain place giving possible management
strategies to improve soil productivity.
Week 11&12: Examination

These last two weeks marks the end your course work in this unit. The course unit will be
examined as per the university examinations regulations policy and will partially contribute to the
award of the degree in the programme that you are undertaking.
MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Acquire skills and knowledge on concepts and principles of a healthy soil.

2. Appreciate the diversity in soils with reference to different limitations to crop production.
3. Appreciate the existence of soil pollution and learn the different management strategies
of polluted soils.
4. Equip yourself with knowledge on management of different soil types for agricultural
productivity and environmental sustainability.
5. Apply knowledge gained to contribute to addressing soil production constraints in
agricultural production.
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This is course unit intended for all students who are taking a Bachelor degree in Agriculture and
Bachelor of Education Science degree (with Agriculture as one of their combination). The
rationale behind offering the course unit is to equip the students in agricultural programmes with
knowledge and skills that can help them to carry out management of different soil despite their
limitation to crop production to improve crop production and better livelihoods. The course unit
is usually taught in the fourth year of study and it has two prerequisite unit: Principles of Soil
Science and Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition. The general purpose of the course unit is to expose
you to various management practices of various types of soils. The key topics to be covered are:
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Soil health, Concepts and principles of soil management, Management of acid soils and acid
sulfate soils, Management of saline and sodic soils, Management of calcareous soils and heavy
cracking clays (vertisols), Soil pollution, Management and remediation of polluted soils, Soil
survey and classiffication and Land evaluation and capability classification.
The lecture hours for the course will be 39 instructional hours which will be shared between face
to face and online activities. This implies that, to be able to complete the course successfully, you
have to set aside approximately 5 hours per lesson.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
This is a blended learning course that will make use of the flex model. This implies that learning
materials and instructions will be availed online. The lessons will be self-guided but the course
instructor will be present briefly for face to face sessions and support and also on-site (online)
regularly. Your course instructor will be available for face to face sessions to introduce a lesson
and expound on the content while your responsibility will be to actively participate in order to
acquire more knowledge by doing various online activities. Therefore, out of the total of 39
instructional course hours, some lessons will be taught through face to face interaction whereas
the remaining hours will be used for online lesson activities.
You need to know that, one instructional hour is equivalent to two online hours. In a week, a total
of three instructional hours will be required. One hour will be utilize for face to face interaction
with your course instructor (e-moderator in the online activities) whereas the remaining task,
which will take two hours will be for online activities (e-tivities). This translates to four hours
giving a total of 5 hours requirement per lesson as stated earlier on. In total, there are 27 online
activities each having a minimum of two hours adding up to 54 online hours. You are therefore
required to use the topic flow-chart provided so as to cover at least one lesson per week.
You will be required to participate and interact online with your peers and the e-moderator who
in this case is your lecturer. Guidelines for the online activities (which we shall keep referring to
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as e-tivities) will be provided whenever there is an e-tivity. Please note that since the online e-
tivities are part of the learning process, they may be graded at the discretion of your e-moderator.
Such grading will however be communicated in the e-tivity guidelines and feedback given as soon
as possible after the e-tivity. The e-tivities will include but will not be limited to online assessment
quizzes, assignments and discussions. There are also assessment questions that you can attempt at
the end of every lesson to test your understanding of the lesson. The answers to all the assessment
questions are provided at the end of the module after lesson 10.
ASSESSMENT
To be able to gauge your own learning progress, this module has embedded certain learner
formative assessment feedback tool. Some of the tools are: online collaborative discussions forums
focusing on team learning and personal mastery of the content to give you peer feedback and
lecturer assessment for self-reflection. In addition, you are expected to do one major
assignment/project to be able to test the application of the skills and knowledge attained during
the course. Therefore, the project score together with scores for e-tivities (where graded) will
constitute 30% of your final examination score while face to face sit-in final written examination
will account for the remaining 70% as per the University examination policy and procedures.
Hope you will have good interactions and learning experiences in this course unit.
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LESSON 1: SOIL HEALTH
1.1 Introduction
In this first lesson, we lay the foundation for the entire course by asking ourselves the question
‘What is a healthy soil and why should we bother to manage it well?’ We shall also examine the
principles applied in improving soil health to ensure it continues to sustain life now and in future.
1.2. Learning outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to;
1.2.1: Understand to concept of a healthy soil

1.2.2: Explain the principles applied in improving soil health
1.2.1: Soil Health: Concepts and Practices

Soil health, which is also referred to as soil quality, is defined as the continued capacity of soil to
function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans. Only "living" things
can have health, so viewing soil as a living ecosystem reflects a fundamental shift in the way we
care for our nation's soils. Soil contain billions of bacteria, fungi, and other microbes that are the
foundation of an elegant symbiotic ecosystem. Soil is an ecosystem that can be managed to provide
nutrients for plant growth, absorb and hold rainwater for use during dryer periods, filter and buffer
potential pollutants from leaving our fields, serve as a firm foundation for agricultural activities,
and provide habitat for soil microbes to flourish and diversify to keep the ecosystem running
smoothly.
Healthy soil is the foundation for profitable, productive, and environmentally sound agricultural
systems. By understanding how the soil processes that support plant growth and regulate
environmental quality are affected by management practices, it is possible to design a crop and
soil management system that improves and maintains soil health over time. This information is
for farmers and gardeners who want to understand the physical, chemical, and biological
components of healthy soil and how to manage them.
Soil is a critical resource—the way in which it is managed can improve or degrade the quality of
that resource. Soil is a complex ecosystem where living microorganisms and plant roots bind
mineral particles and organic matter together into a dynamic structure that regulates water, air,
and nutrients. In an agricultural context, soil health most often refers to the ability of the soil to
sustain agricultural productivity and protect environmental resources. A healthy soil provides
many functions that support plant growth, including nutrient cycling, biological control of plant
pests, and regulation of water and air supply. These functions are influenced by the interrelated
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physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil, many of which are sensitive to soil
management practices.
A healthy soil is expected to perform all its expected functions which include;
 Sustaining biological diversity, activity and productivity.
 Filtering, buffering, degrading organic and inorganic materials.
 Regulating water and solute flow.
 Providing physical stability and support.
 Storing and cycling nutrients and carbon.
E-tivity 1.2.1: Soil Health: Concepts and Practices
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 1.2.1
Title Soil Health: Concepts and Practices

Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to introduce you the
basic principles of soil health
Brief summary of overall task a) Read chapter 3 of the Pdf document by FAO
(2000) pages 13 & 14.
b) Watch this video (August: Soils Support Health).
Spark
Individual task a) Read and listen to all materials provided for this E-
tivity.
b) Define a healthy soil. Hint: Introduction
c) Explain the five desirable edaphological conditions
of a healthy soil. Hint: page 13/4 of the Pdf.
Interaction begins a) Discuss the principles applied in soil management.
Hint: page 13/4 of the Pdf.
b) Read the work posted by your colleagues and make
a positive criticism.
Do this on the discussion forum 1.2.1
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E-moderator interventions a) Ensure that learners are focused on the contents
and context of discussion.
b) Stimulate further learning and generation of new
ideas.
c) Provide feedback on the learning progress.
d) Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This task should take two hours
Next Principles of improving soil health
1.2.2 Principles of improving soil health

Assessment of soil health requires a consideration of chemical, physical and biological
characteristics of soil; these are often strongly interdependent and hence there is no single
recommended approach for the characterisation and measurement of soil health. Well-maintained
soils provide good structure, water retention and nutrient availability. The physical, chemical and
biological properties of soil interact to deliver these functions. The physical structure of soils
(air/water balance) and the chemical environment (pH/nutrient levels) provide the habitats for
biological components (e.g. roots and soil organisms) to interact within the soil matrix.
Although soils and management practices vary from farm to farm and field to field, there are some
general principles that underpin all farming systems that have healthy soils. These aim to keep
chemical, physical and biological properties in balance. Balanced soils reduce requirements for
mechanical intervention. An understanding of soil health can also inform decisions, when any
cultivation or restructuring operation is required. General principles for soil management can be
drawn out of the literature (Fig 1.1) but their implementation requires the development of locally-
adapted practices which fit the soil type / climate and agricultural system.
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Fig. 1.1: A summary of the key principles underpinning the development of farm management
practices to improve soil health.
As an example, in management of sandy soils (which are generally coarse textured until 50 cm
depth and consequently retain few nutrients and have a low water holding capacity) management
practices which lead to an increase in the fine fraction are helpful in improving soil properties and
crop productivity. They include:
 Application of organic manures can supply nutrients in slowly available forms and improve
soil physico–chemical properties.
 Surface application of organic manures to sandy soils does not last so the manure should be
dug deeper into the soil or a carpet-like layer spread of not less than one centimetre thick,
which will improve water storage, biological activity, nutrient status and increase yields.
 Mulch can be added to improved water storage by reducing evaporation. Crop residues, on
the surface of the soil reduce evaporation losses, decrease the range between maximum and
minimum soil temperature, and reduce wind erosion.
 For tillage to be really effective, it has to be done at the earliest possible time after irrigation
or rainfall when the evaporation rate is still high.
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 Minimum tillage, maintenance of a cover crop, strip cropping, crop rotations, control of
grazing and establishment of shelter belts and windbreaks are some of the protective measures
to counter the high susceptibility of sandy soils to erosion.
 Besides the conventional dry vegetation method, use of artificial surface sealants such as
petroleum, synthetic rubber, chemicals and water soluble plastics have also been adopted for
dune and drift sand stabilization.
 Afforestation with selected trees and shrubs is a complementary measure that should follow
stabilization of dunes.
 Overgrazing on coarse textured soils must be avoided. The introduction of rotational grazing
helps to combat this hazard. It might be better not to permit grazing but to use fodder cut on
feeding lots.
E-tivity 1.2.2: Principles of improving soil health

Title Soil Health: Principles of improving soil health

Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you understand
the physical, chemical and biological principles aspect
of improving soil health
Brief summary of overall task a) Read this Pdf document by AHDB (2019) pages 12
& 13.
Spark
tivity.
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b) There is no single recommended approach for the
characterisation and measurement of soil health.
Explain.
Interaction begins a) Discus the principles underpinning the development
of farm management practices to improve soil health.
Hint: Pdf and Fig. 1.1.
b) Read the work posted by your colleagues and make a
positive criticism.
E-moderator interventions a) Ensure that learners are focused on the contents and
context of discussion.
ideas.
d) Close the e-tivity.
Next Soil management: Concepts and principles
1.3 Assessment Questions

1. Differentiate between ‘soil health’ and ‘soil quality’.
2. What are the role of soil organic matter to a healthy soil?
References
1. AHDB (2019). Principles of soil management.
https://projectblue.blob.core.windows.net/media/Default/Imported%20Publication%20Docs/
AHDB/GREATsoils/Principles%20of%20soil%20management.pdf.
2. August: Soils Support Health https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LXUnGntFahE.
3. FAO (2000). Manual on integrated soil management and conservation practices.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/x4799e/x4799e.pdf.
4. Let's talk about soil. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=invUp0SX49g.
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LESSON 2: SOIL MANAGEMENT: CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES
2.1 Introduction
In this lesson, we continue to discuss the key concepts that one needs to know in soil management.
We shall also examine some ways of managing soil to ensure it continues to sustain life now and
in future.
2.2. Learning outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to;
2.2.1: Understand the principles applied in development of soil management.

2.2.2: Explain the role of crop rotation in soil management.
2.2.3: Explain the role of cover crop in soil management.
2.2.1: Principles for the development of soil management practices

Soil management is the application of operations, practices, and treatments to protect soil and
enhance its performance (such as soil fertility or soil mechanics). The goal of good soil
management is to meet essential plant needs. Healthy plants need water, nutrients, oxygen, and a
physical medium that allows seeds to germinate, shoots to emerge and grow up toward the
sunlight, and roots to anchor the plant by growing strong and deep.
In the process of growing crops on farms, we use a number of farming practices to manage soil in
the field. These include tilling, cultivating, adding fertilizers and lime, growing cover crops,
applying compost or manure, rotating crops, and other practices. Many years of agricultural
research have shown us that how and when we use these practices makes a big difference to the
quality of our soils. When we use these practices correctly, we can improve soil fertility, soil
physical structure, and biological activity, and also protect soils from erosion. Soils that are
properly managed for soil quality produce healthier, higher-yielding crops.
Managing soil organic matter is extremely important because organic matter plays a role in almost
all aspects of soil quality. Soil organic matter is composed of plant and animal residues, and
substances produced by decomposition. Most agricultural soils contain only a small proportion of
organic matter, usually less than 5%, but even that small amount strongly influences the vital
functions of soil. Soil organic matter releases plant nutrients as it decomposes, thus improving soil
fertility. Soil organic matter improves the structure of soils by improving water holding capacity,
promoting the aggregation of soil particles, and helping to keep the soil aerated so roots can grow
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easily. Organic matter feeds the microorganisms and other living organisms in the soil, promoting
biological activity and helping to fight pests. Practices such as using cover crops, applying manure
and compost, rotating crops, and controlling erosion for soil conservation, can maintain or increase
soil organic matter. Other practices, especially ploughing, tilling and cultivating, can decrease the
amount of organic matter in the soil.
Soil management practices are used to improve crop production, but each can affect soil quality,
as well. In this section we will examine common soil management practices and how they can
improve or degrade soil fertility, soil structure, soil biological activity, and soil conservation. It is
also useful to think about how each of these practices affects soil organic matter.
E-tivity 2.2.1: Principles for the development of soil management practices
Title Soil Health: Principles for the development of soil

management practices
the role of crop rotations in relation to soil management
Brief summary of overall task a) Read chapter 3 of the Pdf document by FAO (2000)
pages 14 – 26.
b) Watch this video (Let's talk about soil).
Spark
tivity.
b) Define Soil cover.
Interaction begins a) Explain why farmers put in place mechanisms to
reduce run off hence improving infiltration on their
farms. Hint: page 21-23 of the Pdf.
b) Read the work posted by your colleagues and make
a positive criticism.
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ideas.
Next The role of crop rotation in soil management
2.2.3: The role of crop rotation in soil management

Crop rotation refers to repeated cultivation of crops or crops and fallow on the same piece of land
in a certain order. It involves growing different crops in succession on a piece of land in a specific
period of time, with an objective to get maximum profit from least investment without impairing
the soil fertility. Crop rotation is very critical in maintenance of physical condition of the (soil
tilth), organic matter, fertility, and as a preventive strategy to minimize pest menace. Suggested
crops to include in rotations are green manures, cover crops and catch crops. The rotation adopted
ought to resolve any relevant challenges with soil erosion, soil organic matter content, deficient or
excess plant nutrients and pest management.
E-tivity 2.2.2: The role of crop rotation in soil management
Title The role of crop rotation in soil management

the role of crop rotations in relation to soil management
Brief summary of overall task a) Read the Pdf document by Fancies (2005) on crop
rotation.
b) Read this slideshare on crop rotation by Sethi K.A.
c) Watch this video (Best4Soil: Crop rotation).
Spark
tivity.
b) Define crop rotation. Hint: link.
c) Summarize the general types of crop rotation. Hint:
page 3 of the Pdf.
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Interaction begins a) Post five principles of crop production.
b) Explain how crop rotation contributes to soil fertility
and nutrient cycling. Hint: page 3 of the Pdf.
c) Read the work posted by your colleagues and make a
positive criticism.
ideas.
Next The role of cover crops in soil management
2.2.3: The role of cover crops/green manure in soil management

In agriculture, a cover crop is a plant that is grown mainly for the benefit of the soil rather than its
yield. This implies that cover crops provides a cover for the soil in fields between cropping
seasons, but they are not harvested. If the crop is incorporated into the soil then it is termed as
‘green manure’. Cover crops are grown to prevent soil erosion by wind or water, to add organic
matter to the soil, to improve the soil structure and stimulate soil microorganisms besides playing
a great role in control of weeds, pests and diseases. They are planted before and after the main
designated cash crop in a rotation, and then tilled into the soil where they decompose into organic
matter. Grass or grain crops are commonly used as cover crops; for example, rye, wheat, oats,
barley, and perennial ryegrass. Such crops do not add additional nutrients to the soil, but they do
scavenge and recycle nutrients that might otherwise wash out of the soil through leaching or
erosion. Legume cover crops such as vetch, clover, and field peas have the ability to take nitrogen
from the air and “fix” it into a form that plants can use. So legume cover crops can add additional
nitrogen to the soil when they are tilled under. Cover crops with taproots helps in alleviating
compaction by creating macropores. Fibrous-rooted cover crops promotes aggregation and
stabilize the soil. Species of cover crops that host mycorrhizal fungi can sustain and increase the
population of these beneficial fungi.
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E-tivity 2.2.3: The role of cover crops/green manure in soil management
Title Cover Crop/Green Manure

the role of cover crop in soil management
Brief summary of overall task a) Read chapter 10 of the Pdf document by FAO
(2000).
b) Watch these two videos: video1 (Best4Soil: Green
manures & cover crops – Practical information) and
video 2 (Best4Soil: Green manures & cover crops –
advantages and disadvantages).
Spark
tivity.
b) Explain how green manure contributes to recycling of
the nutrients in the soil. Hint: page 119 of the Pdf.
c) Summarize the factors to consider when selecting the
crops to be used as green manure. Hint: page 108 of
the Pdf.
Interaction begins a) What are the merits and demerits of cover crops/green
manure? Hint: videos.
positive criticism.
ideas.
Next Introduction to problem soils

1. Post five mechanisms that a farmer can adopt to increase chemical fertility and productivity of
the soils. Hint: page 24/5 of the Pdf.
2. Post eight functions of green manure in relation to soil management. Hint: page 107 of the Pdf.
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References
1. Best4Soil– Practical information: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3-xjgCWMED0.

2. Best4Soil: Green Manures & Cover Crops – Advantages & Disadvantages.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXtKMS-UXUc.
3. Best4Soil: Green Manures & Cover Crops – Practical Information.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zk_SPAtCd8g.
4. FAO (2000). Manual on integrated soil management and conservation practices.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/x4799e/x4799e.pdf.
5. Francis, C.A. (2005). Crop rotation. In: Encyclopedia of soils in the Environment, 318–
322.
6. Let's talk about soil. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=invUp0SX49g.
7. Sethi K.A. https://www.slideshare.net/krishnaSethi1/crop-rotation-and-its-principle.
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LESSON 3: INTRODUCTION TO PROBLEM SOILS
3.1 Introduction
In this lesson, you will understand the meaning of a problem soil. This information is important
because it enables you understand how the basics in management of problem soils. Classical
examples of problem soils will be covered in subsequent lessons.
3.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, the leaner is expected to:
3.2.1 Define a problem soil.
3.2.2 Understand the different categories of problem soils
3.2.1 Problem soils: Basic Concepts
Soils that have serious constraints to cultivation and that need special management techniques are
called problem soils. Soils are neither “good” nor “bad” because the distinction is often based on
their intended use. However, many soils have characteristics that make specific management
interventions desirable to avoid problems for agricultural production or environmental
degradation. An arbitrary differentiation is made between “problem soils” in which the soil
characteristics themselves pose problems for their optimal use, and “degraded soils” in which
unwise management interventions create supplementary environmental and productive problems.
The main problem soils include the heavy clacking soils, saline soils, sodic soils, acidic soils and
calcareous soils. Management of soils on steep lands will be covered in KRM 406 (Soil and Water
Conservation).
E-tivity 3.2.1: Problem soils: Basic Concepts
Title Problem soils: Basic Concepts

the basics on problem soils
Brief summary of overall task a) Read section 11.1 of the Pdf document by Osman
(2013).
b) Check more notes here.
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Spark
tivity.
b) Define a problem soil.
Interaction begins a) Differentiate between a ‘problem soils’ and a
‘degraded soil’
positive criticism.
ideas.
Next Categories of problem soils based on their limitations to

cultivation
3.2.2 Categories of problem soils based on their limitations to cultivation
Some soils have serious physical and chemical limitations to cultivation. They are problem soils.
These soils need special management for satisfactory crop production. Physical limitations can be
managed by irrigation, drainage, mulching, manuring, tillage, and soil conservation measures such
as terracing, contouring, and cover crops whichever is appropriate. Use and disturbance of soils
on steep slopes and in wetlands should be avoided because of the risk of their degradation. They
should be left under natural conditions. Saline soils are managed through adequate irrigation,
leaching, draining, and growing salt-tolerant crops. Sodic soil management needs chemical
amendments such as application of sulphur and gypsum along with leaching and draining.
Management of acid soils involves liming, leaching, and safe disposal of acid-wash water along
with cultivating acid-tolerant crops. The problem soil have limitations that can be physical (such
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as wetness, dryness, steepness, and extreme textures) and chemical (such as acidity, sodicity,
salinity and lack of fertility).
E-tivity 3.2.2: Categories of problem soils based on their limitations to cultivation
Title Categories of problem soils based on their limitations to

cultivation
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you understand the
different types of problem soils
Brief summary of overall task a) Read section 11.1/2 of the Pdf document by Osman
(2013).
b) Watch this video (Saline and sodic soils - the
difference).
Spark
Individual task a) Read and listen to all materials provided for this E-tivity.
b) Explain the different categories of problem soils?
Interaction begins a) Explain the common problems associated with dryland
soils and sandy soils stating how one can overcome such
problems.
positive criticism.
b) Stimulate further learning and generation of new ideas.
Next Acid soils and their management

1. Identify different categories of problem soils.
2. Steepland soils should better be left under natural conditions. Explain.
22
References
1. Osman K.T. (2013) Problem Soils and Their Management. In: Soils. Springer, Dordrecht.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5663-2_11.
2. Saline and sodic soils - the difference. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3QLeSReHnYY.
3. Management of problem soils. https://www.slideshare.net/rajeshdebnath545/problem-soil-
management.
23
LESSON 4: MANAGEMENT OF ACID SOILS AND ACID SULFATE
SOILS
4.1 Introduction
In this lesson, you will learn how to manage acid soils and acid sulfate soils. Whereas acid soils
have a pH value of less than 5.5 for most of the year, acid sulfate soils contains chemical
compounds known as metal sulphides.

4.2.1 Be in a position to understand how to manage acid soils.
4.2.2 Define acid sulfate soils and understand how they can be cultivated in a sustainable way.
4.2.1 Acid soils and their management
Acid soils are common in highland that receives high rainfall. These soils have a pH value of less
than 5.5 for most of the year. They are associated with a number of toxicities (Aluminum) as well
as deficiencies (Molybdenum) and other plant restricting conditions. Many of the acid soils belong
to Acrisols, Alisols, Podzols and Dystric subgroups of other soils. An integrated approach to acid
soil management comprises a spatially variable liming strategy, the use of acid-tolerant species,
efficient use of fertilizers, suitable crop rotations and crop diversification. Soil testing needs to be
carried out every two to three years to determine the lime requirements of the field. The buffering
capacity needs to be assessed to work out the amount of lime needed to neutralize soil acidity to
the desired level. The negative effects of soil acidity on physical and chemical soil conditions can
be partly compensated by ensuring high organic matter content.
E-tivity 4.2.1: Acid soils and their management
Title Acid soils and their management

how to manage acid soils
(2013).
b) Check more notes from Agegnehu et al (2019) and
here.
c) Watch this video (Acid soils).
24
Spark
tivity.
b) What is an acid sulphate soil?
c) What are the major causes of soil acidity? Hint:
Agegnehu et al (2019).
Interaction begins a) Discuss the problems associated with acidity of soils.
b) Liming alone is not enough for managing acid Soils.
Explain.
positive criticism.
Next Management of acid sulfate soils
4.2.2 Management of acid sulfate soils

Acid sulfate soils contain iron sulfides in the reduced form and sulphuric acid in the oxidized
conditions. They commonly occur in coastal lowlands, estuaries, floodplains, wetlands, and
mangrove environments. There are two types of acid sulphate soils: actual and potential. Actual
acid sulfate soils are drained soils where the sulfide is oxidized to sulfuric acid giving the soil an
extremely acid condition, the pH value being as low as 3.0.
25
E-tivity 4.2.2: Management of acid sulfate soils
Title Management of acid sulfate soils

how to manage acid sulfate soils
(2013).
b) Watch this video (What is acid sulfate soil?).
c) Watch this video (Distribution of acid sulphate soils
and their management).
Spark
tivity.
b) Differentiate between actual and potential acid sulfate
soils
Interaction begins a) Discuss the management options for acid sulfate soils.
positive criticism.
Next Saline soils and their management

1. List five characteristics of acid soils.
2. Discuss the management options for acid sulfate soils.
26
References
1. Acid sulfate soils. https://www.waterquality.gov.au/issues/acid-sulfate-soils.
2. Distribution of acid sulphate soils and their management.
https://www.slideshare.net/Himashikt/distribution-of-acid-sulphate-soils-and-their-
management.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5663-2_11.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5663-2_11.
5. Soil Acidity https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uXg9k72mORc.
6. Soil Acidity Management by Agegnehu et al (2019).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330039969_Soil_Acidity_Management.
7. What is acid sulfate soil? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g0Bhe-HZ2tE.
27
LESSON 5: MANAGEMENT OF SALINE AND SODIC SOILS
5.1 Introduction
In this lesson, you will learn about saline and sodic soils and their management. Whereas saline
soils have a high salt content, sodic soils have high sodium content. Soils may also have both high
salt and sodium contents at the same time.

5.2.1 Differentiate between saline and sodic soils.
5.2.2 Be in a position to understand how to manage saline and sodic soils.
5.2.1 Saline soils and their management
All soils contain some soluble salts. Some of these soluble salts are plant nutrients. However, some
soils accumulate salts in levels that are harmful for germination of seeds and growth of crops.
Then the soils are called saline. The criterion for a soil to be saline is its electrical conductivity of
the saturation extract because electrical conductivity is proportional to the concentration of salts
in solution. Saturation extract is obtained by adding water to the soil up to its maximum water-
holding capacity and then drawing the soil solution under suction
E-tivity 5.2.1: Saline soils and their management
Title Saline soils and their management

how to manage saline soils
Brief summary of overall task a) Read section 11.2 and 11.8 of the Pdf document by
Osman (2013).
b) Check more notes from this Pdf document by
Choudhary and Kharche on Soil Salinity and Sodicity,
and from this FAO page
c) Watch this video (Fixing Saline Soils) and this one on
unavailability of Water in Saline.
28
Spark
tivity.
b) List five characteristics of saline soils.
c) Give five crops that can tolerate saline soils?
Interaction begins a) Discuss three methods used to reclaim salt affected
areas
positive criticism.
Next Sodic soils and their management
5.2.2 Sodic soils and their management
A sodic soil refers to a soil with an exchangeable sodium percentage of greater than 6% of the
cation exchange capacity. Some soils, saline or nonsaline, contain high exchangeable sodium.
Non-saline sodic soils are usually dispersive in the presence of fresh water. Saline-sodic clays are
less dispersive than non-saline-sodic soils and have higher infiltration rate. The criteria are
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR).
29
E-tivity 5.2.2: Sodic soils and their management
Title Sodic soils and their management

how to manage sodic soils
(2013).
b) Check more notes from this Pdf document by
Choudhary and Kharche on Soil Salinity and Sodicity
and from FAO page.
c) Watch this video (Repairing Sodic Soil).
d) Watch this video (Distribution of acid sulphate soils
and their management).
Spark
tivity.
b) Explain how you can reclaim a sodic soil?
Interaction begins a) Explain why gypsum is most commonly used in
reclamation of sodic soils?
positive criticism.
Next Calcareous soils and their management

1. Differentiate between saline and sodic soils.
2. Explain why saline and sodic soils occur in dry regions.
30
3. Explain why dispersion of soil colloids is caused by high sodium and not calcium levels?
References
1. Acid sulfate soils. https://www.waterquality.gov.au/issues/acid-sulfate-soils.

2. Fixing Saline Soils. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=htQL_keYvXM.
3. Management of Salt Affected Soils. http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-
management/management-of-some-problem-soils/salt-affected-soils/en.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5663-2_11.
5. Repairing Sodic Soil. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lqw2Wp4M0MI.
6. Sodic soils and their management.
http://www.fao.org/3/x5871e/x5871e05.htm#4.%20sodic%20soils%20and%20their%20man
agement.
7. Soil Salinity and Sodicity.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327824188_Soil_Salinity_and_Sodicity.
8. Unavailability of Water in Saline Soils. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zJ_zi53UjF8.
31
LESSON 6: MANAGEMENT OF CALCAREOUS SOILS AND HEAVY
CRACKING CLAYS (VERTISOLS)
6.1 Introduction
In this lesson, you will learn about the management of calcareous soils and those soils with heavy
cracking clays. Calcareous soils belong to the Calcisols and they often have more than 15% CaCO3
in the soil that may occur in various forms such as powdery, nodules and crusts. They are relatively
widespread in the drier areas of the earth. Heavy cracking clay soils mainly belong to vertisols and
occur mainly in (sub) tropical areas with a pronounced dry season. They have a poor internal
drainage and extremely slow hydraulic conductivity, which results in water logging.

6.2.1 Be in a position to understand how to manage management of calcareous soils.
6.2.2 Appreciate vertisols (heavy cracking clays) and how they can be managed.
6.2.1 Calcareous soils and their management
The potential productivity of calcareous soils is high where adequate water and nutrients can be
supplied. The high calcium saturation tends to keep the calcareous soils in well aggregated form
and good physical condition. However where soils contain an impermeable hard pan (petricalcic
horizon) they should be deeply ploughed in order to break the pan. This should be followed by the
establishment of an efficient drainage system. Furrow irrigation is better than basin irrigation on
slaking calcareous soils. On undulating lands, contour and sprinkler irrigations are better options
than flood irrigation. Drip irrigation may also be practiced. Calcareous soils generally have low
organic matter content and lack nitrogen. Nitrogen fertilizer may be applied any time from just
before planting up to the time the plant is well established. Application of nitrogen through side-
dressing to the growing crop is an efficient way of nitrogen application. Care should be exercised
so as not to apply nitrogen close to the seed as it may prevent germination. Ammoniac sources of
nitrogen and urea should not be left on the surface of calcareous soils, since considerable loss of
ammonia through volatilization may occur, and they should be incorporated in the soil instead.
32
E-tivity 6.2.1: Calcareous soils and their management
Title Calcareous soils and their management

how to manage cacarious soils
Brief summary of overall task d) Read section 11.2 and 11.8 of the Pdf document by
Osman (2013).
e) Check more notes from this Pdf document by
Choudhary and Kharche on Soil Salinity and Sodicity,
and from this FAO page
f) Watch this video (Fixing Saline Soils).
Spark
tivity.
b) Explain three characteristics of calcarious soils.
c) What challenges do farmers face when cultivating
calcareous soils. Hint: page 3 of the Pdf by Taalab et
al. (2019).
Interaction begins a) From the IPNI Webinar Series, discuss the nutrient
management in calcareous soils.
positive criticism.
Next Heavy cracking clays and their management
6.2.2 Heavy cracking clays and their management
Soil water management, tillage, cropping systems, and nutrient management pose special
problems in heavy cracking clays. Management of soil water is the important aspect of soil
33
management in the semi-arid tropics. The poor internal drainage and extremely slow hydraulic
conductivity, leads to water logging, and delay in planting. Extreme consistency properties of the
soil permit tillage operations within a narrow soil moisture range only: because soils are sticky
when wet and hard when dry. Use of tillage implements under wet conditions may result in soil
sticking to implements and the formation of large clods. Wide deep cracks in the dry season,
permit easy entry of rainfall and water moves freely into the cracks. Although chemically rich,
these soils under sustained, high-input systems, may suffer from fertility problems on account of
limited availability of N.P and micronutrients.
E-tivity 6.2.2: Heavy cracking clays and their management
Title Heavy cracking clays and their management

how to manage heavy cracking clay soils
(2013).
b) Check more notes from FAO.
c) Watch this video (Improve clay soil).
Spark
b) Explain how expansion occurs in vertisols?
Interaction begins a) Discuss the land use problems of deep cracking soils
(Vertisols).
positive criticism.
34
Next Soil pollution: Basic Concepts

1. What causes soil cracking?
2. What are the characteristics of deep cracking soils?
References
1. Improve Clay Soil. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bA7unW5ZGEE.

2. IPNI Webinar Series: Nutrient Management in Calcareous Soil
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KO_lbu2BMzU.
3. Management of calcareous soils. http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-
management/management-of-some-problem-soils/calcareous-soils/en.
4. Management of heavy cracking clays. www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-
management/management-of-some-problem-soils/heavy-cracking-clays/en.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5663-2_11.
6. Taalab et al. (2019). Some Characteristics of Calcareous soils. A review.

http://www.curresweb.com/mejar/mejar/2019/96-105.pdf.
35
LESSON 7: SOIL POLLUTION
7.1 Introduction
Soil pollution poses a worrisome threat to agricultural productivity, food safety, and human health,
but far too little is known about the scale and severity of that threat.
Industrialization, war, mining and the intensification of agriculture have all left a legacy of soil
contamination across the planet, while the growth of cities has seen soil used as a sink for ever
greater amounts of municipal waste. Soil pollution affects the food we eat, the water we drink, the
air we breathe, and the health of our ecosystems. The potential of soils to cope with pollution is
limited; the prevention of soil pollution should be a top priority worldwide. But even though
agricultural intensification, industrial output, and urbanization continue at a rapid pace, no
systematic assessment of the status of soil pollution at global level has ever been undertaken.
Soil pollution often cannot be visually perceived or directly assessed, making it a hidden danger
with serious consequences. It impacts food security both by impairing plant metabolism and thus
reducing crop yields, as well as by making crops unsafe for consumption. Pollutants also directly
harm organisms that live in soil and make it more fertile.
Soil contaminated with dangerous organic chemicals like PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls),
elements (such as, arsenic, lead, and cadmium), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs or
pharmaceuticals such as endocrine disruptors or antibiotics pose serious risks to human health.
Most soil pollution is due to human activities such as, industrial activities including smelting,
mining and manufacturing; domestic, livestock and municipal wastes; herbicides, pesticides,
fertilizers used in agriculture; petroleum-derived products that are released into or break-down in
the environment; fumes generated by transportation etc.

7.2.1 Define soil pollution.
7.2.2 Understand the different sources of soil pollutants
7.2.1 Soil pollution: Basic Concepts
FAO defines soil pollution as the presence of a chemical or substance out of place and/or present
at a higher than normal concentration that has adverse effects on any non-targeted organism (and
ITPS, 2015). Although the majority of pollutants have anthropogenic origins, some contaminants
can occur naturally in soils as components of minerals and can be toxic at high concentrations.
Soil pollution often cannot be directly assessed or visually perceived, making it a hidden danger.
Soil pollution should not be confused with ‘soil contamination’ which occurs when the
36
concentration of a chemical or substance is higher than would occur naturally but is not necessarily
causing harm whereas soil pollution refers to the presence of a chemical or substance out of place
and/or present at a higher than normal concentration that has adverse effects on any non-targeted
organism.
E-tivity 7.2.1: Soil pollution: Basic Concepts
Title Soil pollution: Basic Concepts

basics on soil pollution
Brief summary of overall task a) Read section 1.1/2 of the Pdf document on Soil
Pollution, A hidden reality.
b) Watch these three video clips video 1, video 2 and
video 3
Spark
tivity.
b) Differentiate between a ‘soil pollution’ and ‘soil
contamination’
Interaction begins a) Differentiate between ‘point source pollution’ and
‘diffuse pollution’
positive criticism.
ideas.
37
Next Types of soil pollutants and their sources
7.2.2 Types of soil pollutants and their sources
The most common and problematic soil pollutants include Lead (Pb), Mmercury (Hg), Arsenic
(As), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Nickel (Ni), PAHs (polyaromatic hydrocarbons) and
Herbicides/Insecticides. Although most of these pollutants originates from anthropogenic
processes some of these elements and compounds occur naturally in soils. Nonetheless, human
interventions are the main drivers of soil pollution. This module discusses only a small subset of
the most common pollutants affecting agricultural areas, and the properties that make these
compounds pollutants. Fig. 7.1 presents a systematic categorization of pollutants.
Fig. 7.1: A summary of the key soil pollutants
E-tivity 7.2.2: Types of soil pollutants and their sources
38
Title Types of soil pollutants and their sources

different types of soil pollutants and their sources.
b) Watch these three video clips video 1 and video 2.
Spark
tivity.
b) Differentiate between ‘Bioaccumulation’ and
‘Biomagnification’
Interaction begins a) Discuss any two groups of soil pollutants.

b) Explain how soil pollution leads to global warming.
positive criticism.
Next Risk assessment approaches
39
1. Discuss the fate of pesticides once sprayed on crops that lead to soil pollution.
2. With classical examples, explain how the use of fertilizers can lead to soil pollution and give
possible remedies.
References
1. Soil Pollution, A hidden reality. http://www.fao.org/3/I9183EN/i9183en.pdf.

2. What are the causes of soil pollution|| soil pollution effects?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIHw8gf6LqY.
3. Soil Pollution | Causes Of Soil Pollution | Impact | Measures | - Environmental Science.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cy6W5fHPBLg.
4. Soil Pollution. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5QAic0mJ8g.
5. What is Soil Contamination? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3uv0o1O9g5E.
6. Pollution, PointSource, and Non-Point Source.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XFpCgjb29sM.
40
LESSON 8: MANAGEMENT AND REMEDIATION OF POLLUTED
SOILS
8.1 Introduction
In assessment and management of polluted soils, the first step is the identification of the problem,
which in this case, is the pollutions in the soil. When an area is affected by an accident such as an
oil spill, the rupture of a dam tailing or a nuclear accident, measures to control the extent and
prevent further occurrences should start immediately. Nevertheless, in legacy polluted soils or
where diffuse pollution could be an issue, there are often no established protocols to be followed.
To reclaim polluted soils, a comprehensive assessment of the risk that pollutants pose to the
Environment and humans and food safety needs to be done. The characterization of such risks is
not an easy task, due to the lack of knowledge on the fate of contaminants in soil, complexity of
the matrix and the scarcely available information of toxicological and integrated studies.

8.2.1 Explain the various approaches of assessing soil pollution.

8.2.2 Define soil pollution.
8.2.1 Risk assessment approaches

Assessing risks means that, the ability to estimate the likelihood of a certain outcome and the
gravity based on scientific evidence and use this knowledge to help in decision making.
Uncertainties must be reduced when possible, and clearly the remaining uncertainties need to be
clearly identified and explained. Risk management decisions for soils or sediments focus on
identifying relevant pathways of exposure that pose a risk to human health or the environment and
developing appropriate remedial measures. These could include treating or removing sources, or
cutting off pathways, or both. Risk assessment tools often use a chemical-by-chemical approach,
focusing on a single medium, a single source, and a single toxic endpoint, although integrated
approaches are gaining popularity.
41
E-tivity 8.2.1: Risk assessment approaches
Title Risk assessment approaches

various approaches of assessing soil pollution.
b) Watch this video clip video.
Spark
tivity.
b) Differentiate between a ‘soil pollution’ and ‘soil
contamination’
Interaction begins a) Differentiate between ‘point source pollution’ and
‘diffuse pollution’
positive criticism.
Next Types of soil pollutants and their sources
8.2.2 Agronomic techniques for remediating polluted soils

Soil pollution probably represents the most faced problem in environmental pollution. This is
because soil is a point of concentration and recovery of toxic compounds, chemicals, salts,
radioactive materials, or disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth and
42
animal health. Soil pollutants can contaminate water: water infiltration is the movement of water
from the soil surface into the soil profile and soil is a valuable resource that support cultures and
plant life. Soil pollution is the decrease in the productivity of soil due to the presence of soil
pollutants. Moreover soil pollutants have an adverse effect on the physical, chemical, and
biological properties of the soil and reduce its productivity. The Voluntary Guidelines for
Sustainable Soil Management (VGSSM) aim to provide countries, farmers and other stakeholders
with generally accepted, practically proven and scientifically based principles to promote
sustainable soil management (SSM). These guidelines describe SSM as follows: "Soil
management is sustainable if the supporting, provisioning, regulating, and cultural services
provided by soil are maintained or enhanced without significantly impairing either the soil
functions that enable those services or biodiversity."
E-tivity 8.2.2: Agronomic techniques for remediating polluted soils

Title Agronomic techniques for remediating polluted soils

different agronomic techniques used in remediating
polluted soils.
Brief summary of overall task a) Read section 3.3 of the Pdf document on Soil Pollution,
A hidden reality.
b) Read this slideshare (Best management practices reduce
soil pollution and improve health of all) by Dr.
Amanullah.
c) Watch this video clip video.
Spark
tivity.
b) From the slideshare list 10 key indicators of a soil that
is recovering from pollution menace.
43
c) Differentiate between ‘Bioremediation’ and
‘Phytoremediation’
Interaction begins a) In which ways can we reduce plastic pollution?
b) What are the effects of soil pollution.
positive criticism.
Next Sodic soils and their management

1. Discuss the bioavailability and mobility of soil contaminants.
2. Explain the steps taken to identify and assess whether pollutants have caused or are causing soil
pollution, and to what extent that pollution is posing a risk to the environment and to human
health.
References
1. Soil Pollution, A hidden reality. http://www.fao.org/3/I9183EN/i9183en.pdf.

2. What are the causes of soil pollution|| soil pollution effects.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIHw8gf6LqY.
3. Best management practices reduce soil pollution and improve health of all.
https://www.slideshare.net/ExternalEvents/best-management-practices-reduce-soil-
pollution-and-improve-health-of-all-a-review.
4. Soil pollution: A major problem. https://pt.slideshare.net/govindarajjoshi/soil-pollution-
57515662.
5. Causes effects and prevention of soil pollution | soil pollution definition.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TMPOx1ujDks.
6. Impacts of Soil Pollution. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S9Z2NXwUs60.
44
LESSON 9: SOIL SURVEY AND CLASSIFFICATION
9.1 Introduction
In this lesson, you will learn the basic of soil survey and classification skills. Such information is
important because it enables you organize knowledge about soils and puts soils into groups for
ease of management. There are many classification systems around the world. However, this
lecture will focus on 3 classification systems, namely, FAO-UNESCO; World Reference Base for
soil resources (WRB), and the USDA soil taxonomy.
In appraising the productivity capacity of an area, one needs to know: the kinds and distribution
of the soil, their input requirements and the expected responses – to the input application. One of
the purposes of a soil survey is to delineate areas of soils to aid in predicting the management or
input needs and the expected crop yields or output. The prediction of input needs and expected
output requires the knowledge of soil characteristics and the effects of characteristics on response
to application technology.

9.2.1 Define soil survey and explain different kinds of soil surveys.
9.2.2 State the purpose of classification and describe the 12 orders of soil classification system.
9.2.1 Soil survey: Basic Concepts
Soil survey, or soil mapping, is the process of classifying soil types and other soil properties in a
given area and geo-encoding such information. It applies the Principles of Soil Science, and draws
heavily from geomorphology, theories of soil formation, physical geography, and analysis of
vegetation and land use patterns. Primary data for the soil survey are acquired by field sampling,
supported by remote sensing, (principally aerial photography).
Soil survey or soil mapping is the process of classifying soil types & other soil properties in a
given area. A soil map is therefore a map showing distribution of soil types and / or soil properties
(pH, texture, OM, depth) in an area of interest. A soil survey indicates the location and extent of
each type of soil, its characteristics and its potentials and limitations for various uses. From the
soil map, interpretations can be made to show the various alternatives of safe use of a soil &
potential for production of plants and animals. Soil mapping can enable comparisons to be made
between the results gained from different areas of survey. It can also enable extrapolation of the
45
resource to similar areas where experiments have not been conducted and thus ensure that the
available knowledge is used without unnecessary duplication
The term soil survey may also be used as a noun to describe the published results. Each published
soil survey is a comprehensive report on the soil resources of a given county, or location. The
publication has maps with soil boundaries and aerial photos and narrative descriptions and tables
explaining specific soil properties and features. Published soil surveys are used by farmers, real
estate agents, city personnel, land use planners, engineers and others who desire information about
the soil resource. For example, the information is used by farmers and ranchers to help determine
whether a particular soil type is suited for crops or livestock and what type of soil management
might be required. An architect or engineer might use the engineering properties of a soil to
determine whether or not it was suitable for a certain type of construction
E-tivity 9.2.1: Soil Survey Soil survey: Basic Concepts

Title Soil Survey Soil survey: Basic Concepts
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you understand the basics of soil
survey and classification.
Brief summary a) Watch these clips: link 1 and link 2
of overall task b) Read notes from this link (the main objectives of soil survey) and from
this link (Kenya soil survey).
Spark
b) Identify reasons for carrying out soil survey and uses of soil survey
Interaction a) Differentiate between exploratory and reconnaissance survey methods.
begins b) Read the work posted by your colleagues and make a positive criticism.
46
E-moderator a) Ensure that learners are focused on the contents and context of
interventions discussion.
b) 4. Closing the e-tivity
Schedule and This task should take two hours
time
Next Soil classification
9.2.2 Soil classification
The purpose of any classification is so to organize our knowledge that the properties of objects
may be remembered and their relationships may be understood most easily for a specific objective.
Classification of natural phenomena like soils is typically done for the following purposes:
i. Organize knowledge about the subject to enable investigation and communication to be both
logical and comprehensive (structure/organization for scientific/technical development).
ii. Provide a framework for establishing relationships among soils and their environment that leads
to advancement of theoretical and experimental aspects of soil and related science (academic
focus).
iii. Establish groupings of soils for which useful and reliable interpretations can be made
(utilitarian focus). For example: optimal use(s), hazard/limitation/remediation assessment,
potential productivity, framework for technology transfer/information dissemination.
E-tivity 9.2.2: Soil classification

Title Soil classification
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you understand the soil
classification systems
Brief summary Read notes from this from FAO link on the major soils of the world and
of overall task from the pdf on Soil Classification.
47
Spark
b) From the notes discuss five soil orders found in your country.
Interaction a) Identify the 6 epipedons of the USDA taxonomy.
begins b) Read the work posted by your colleagues and make a positive
criticism.
d) Closing the e-tivity
time
Next Concept of land capability classification and definitions

1. Explain any five formative elements of great-group names in soil survey.
2. Explain the uses of soil surveys.
References
1. Chapter 2 Soil Classification. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)70095-3.

2. FAO (2001). The major soils of the world. http://www.fao.org/3/y1899e/y1899e00.htm#toc.
3. Kenya soil survey: Inventory of soil surveys in Kenya.
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8
&ved=2ahUKEwiSybiK6PTrAhWj4YUKHbM7AjUQFjABegQIChAD&url=https%3A%2
F%2Flibrary.wur.nl%2Fisric%2Ffulltext%2Fisricu_i00006473_001.08.pdf&usg=AOvVaw
3b0yLRbfut3w94O11n4GR7.
48
4. Lecture 49: Soil Survey: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YwqRKNM4ljw.
5. Soil Survey: Objectives and Types. https://www.biologydiscussion.com/soil/soil-survey-
objectives-and-types/7222.
6. What is SOIL SURVEY? What does SOIL SURVEY mean? SOIL SURVEY meaning,
definition & explanation. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=leDouXAcOto.
49
LESSON 10: 10.1 LAND EVALUATION AND CAPABILITY
CLASSIFICATION
10.1 Introduction
In this lesson, you will learn about land capability classification. It is presented in a way that is
easy to understand the eight soil classes of the hierarchy. The lesson also presents information on
the aims, principles of land evaluation and some definitions.

10.2.1 Define land evaluation and state the importance of land capability classification.
10.2.2 Describe the classes of the land classification.
10.2.1 Concept of land capability classification and definitions

Land classification is a technique which allows determination of the most suitable use for any area
of land. It helps to facilitate land use planning whose need is frequently brought about by changing
needs and pressures, involving competing uses for the same land. Land evaluation is concerned
with the assessment of land performance when used for specified purposes. It involves the
execution and interpretation of basic surveys of climate, soils, vegetation and other aspects of land
in terms of the requirements of alternative forms of land use. A great number of systems of land
classification are in use, varying mainly according to the purpose for which the land is classified.
Land may be classified according to its present land use, its suitability for a specific crop under
the existing forms of management, its capability for producing crops or combinations of crops
under optimum management, or its suitability for non-agricultural types of land use. A good
knowledge of the land capability and suitability are important to more productive and sustainable
agriculture.
E-tivity 10.2.1: Concept of land capability classification and definitions

Title Concept of land capability classification and definitions
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to equip you with the basic knowledge about
land evaluation and capability classification.
Brief summary a) Watch this video clip on Land capability classification.
of overall task
50
b) Read notes from this link (Land suitability classifications) and from
this link (Basic concepts- Land suitability classifications).
Spark
b) Identify four answers questions that any land evaluation exercise
should answer.
c) Differentiate between ‘multiple land utilization type’ and compound
land utilization type’
Interaction a) Define the following terms as used in land evaluation: land, land
begins mapping unit, land suitability and land use.
b) Discuss the principles applied in land capability classification.
c) Read the work posted by your colleagues and make a positive
criticism.
time
Next Land capability classification
10.2.2 Land capability classification

This was first developed in the USA. It is used for a ranked system based on the severity of land
limitations for general agricultural use and refers in particular to the quality of the land to produce
51
common cultivated crops and pasture without deterioration over a long time. Individual soil map
units are classified / grouped together if have similar management requirements. Its aim is to rank
all soils from 'best' to 'worst' according to the degree of relatively permanent physical limitations
to productive land use (agriculture, grazing, forestry). Its purpose is to study and record all data
relevant to finding the combination of agricultural and conservation measures which would permit
the most intensive and appropriate agricultural use of the land without undue danger of soil
degradation.
E-tivity 10.2.2: Land capability classification

Title Land capability classification
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you understand how land
capability classification is done
Brief summary Watch these two video clips video 1 and video 2
of overall task Read notes from this link (Land suitability classifications)
Spark
b) Differentiate between ‘Land suitability orders’ and ‘Land suitability
classes’
Interaction a) From the videos and links provided, discuss the different suitability
begins classes.
b) Read the work posted by your colleagues and make a positive
criticism.
c) Do this on the discussion forum 10.2.2
b) 2. Stimulate further learning and generation of new ideas.
52

time
Next This is the end

1. Discuss the fundamental principles that are employed in land evaluation.
2. Explain the various shareholders of any land evaluation project.
References
1. The nature and principles of land evaluation. http://www.fao.org/3/X5310E/x5310e02.htm.
2. Land Capability Classification ICAR-JRF Agriculture officer Bank Exam.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8tjzR1NrOFs.
3. Land Capability Classes. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XgPrZhgTnsI.
4. Land suitability classifications. http://www.fao.org/3/X5310E/x5310e04.htm.
53

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND ENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

KRM 401: GENERAL SOIL MANAGEMENT

WRITTEN BY: Dr. Harun Gitari

VETTED BY: Mr. Erick Otieno

GENERAL SOIL MANAGEMENT FLOW CHART

Week 1: Soil health

Week 2: Soil management: Concepts and principles

Week 3: Introduction to problem soils

Week 4: Management of acid soils and acid sulfate soils

Week 5: Management of saline and sodic soils

Week 7: Soil pollution

Week 8: Management and remediation of polluted soils

Week 9: Land Management and Fodder Production Techniques

management of ranching enterprises as potential areas for improved livestock production.

Week 10: Land evaluation and capability classification

strategies to improve soil productivity.

Week 11&12: Examination

award of the degree in the programme that you are undertaking.

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. Acquire skills and knowledge on concepts and principles of a healthy soil.

have to set aside approximately 5 hours per lesson.

the remaining hours will be used for online lesson activities.

1.2. Learning outcomes

1.2.1: Understand to concept of a healthy soil

1.2.1: Soil Health: Concepts and Practices

E-tivity 1.2.1: Soil Health: Concepts and Practices

Numbering, pacing and sequencing 1.2.1

Title Soil Health: Concepts and Practices

Next Principles of improving soil health

1.2.2 Principles of improving soil health

E-tivity 1.2.2: Principles of improving soil health

Title Soil Health: Principles of improving soil health

Next Soil management: Concepts and principles

1.3 Assessment Questions

2.2. Learning outcomes

2.2.1: Understand the principles applied in development of soil management.

2.2.1: Principles for the development of soil management practices

E-tivity 2.2.1: Principles for the development of soil management practices

Numbering, pacing and sequencing 2.2.2

Title Soil Health: Principles for the development of soil

Next The role of crop rotation in soil management

2.2.3: The role of crop rotation in soil management

E-tivity 2.2.2: The role of crop rotation in soil management

Numbering, pacing and sequencing 2.2.2

Title The role of crop rotation in soil management

Next The role of cover crops in soil management

2.2.3: The role of cover crops/green manure in soil management

Numbering, pacing and sequencing 2.2.3

Title Cover Crop/Green Manure

Next Introduction to problem soils

2.3 Assessment Questions

1. Best4Soil– Practical information: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3-xjgCWMED0.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

3.2.1 Problem soils: Basic Concepts

E-tivity 3.2.1: Problem soils: Basic Concepts

Numbering, pacing and sequencing 3.2.1

Title Problem soils: Basic Concepts

Next Categories of problem soils based on their limitations to

3.2.2 Categories of problem soils based on their limitations to cultivation

E-tivity 3.2.2: Categories of problem soils based on their limitations to cultivation

Numbering, pacing and sequencing 3.2.2