Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Major Ruler Politics + Administration State and Religion Economic Policies Society and Culture
Muhammad bin Qasim Hajjaj vs. Dahir Shariah as the supreme law Zakat on Muslims Contact of 2 civilizations
Previous failed attempts Office for its interpretation Jizya on Hindus Trade b/w the two intensified
From Debul to Multan: No jizya on Brahmins Beginning of Islam in India
1. Debul, Nerun and Sehwan Mutual cultural influence:
2. Rewar, Aror, Brahmanabad 1. Script of language
3. Multan 2. Musical influences
4. Expeditions to Rajput areas Translation of works to Arabic
Modern well trained army Educational linkages
Civil admin. set up Arab settlers in India
Peace keeping troops in place Muslim settlements along rivers
Non-Muslims on govt. posts Muslims felt insecure
Change of Caliph
Death of Qasim
Politically insignificant
Mahmud of Ghazna Opening of invasions from NW No formal state structure India as a veritable El Dorado Security for Muslims (Punjab)
17 invasions over 27 years Used religion for fame + repute Imperialistic exploitation of India Spread of Islam by Sufis
1. Jaypal at Peshawar Sufis started coming to India Extraction of tributes from vassals Infrastructure devastated
2. Bhaira (aka Bhatia) No formal economic structures Cultural heritage lost/destroyed
3. Anandapal & then Multan Development in Central Asia Death of youth (killed in wars)
4. Bhatinda (Baji Rao) Central Asia prospered
5. Nawasa Shah of Multan Architecture:
6. Battle of Waihind 1. Museum at Ghazna
7. Fortress of Nagarkot 2. University at Ghazna
8. Abul Fateh Daud of Multan 3. Celestial bride (mosque)
9. Annexation of Punjab Patronized scholars
10. Thaneswar Al-Beruni visited India
11. Kashmir unsuccessful
12. Mathura and Qanauj
13. Kalinjar
14. Kashmir unsuccessful
15. Gwalior and Kalinjar
16. Somnath temple (Gujrat)
17. Jats of Sindh
Loot + plunder
No proper admin. system
System of vassals in India
Formal annexation of Punjab
Questionable motives:
1. Political (Hindushahis, Jats)
2. Religious? (Somnath)
3. Economic
4. Central Asian Empire
Muhammad Ghauri Gahuris vs. Ghaznavids Politics and religion separate No formal economic policy Muslims spread all over India
Conquests of M. Ghauri: Cause of religion taken up Tributes and penalties Infrastructure destroyed
1. Peshawar made stronghold Religion not used for fame/repute Loot and plunder esp. in Bengal India connected to outer world
2. Sindh, Multan and Punjab
3. Chauhan kingdom
4. Bengal + Bihar
5. Qanauj + Klinjar + Badaun
First proper Muslim empire est.
Strong slave system in place
Centralized admin. est.
Iqtadari system as federalism
Conquest without consolidation
Suppression of Khokhars’ revolt
Qutb ud Din Aibak Slave squabbles: No formal policy (little time) No formal economic policy Culture and arts revitalized
1. Taj ud Din Yidiz Mosques were built though Tributes + penalties contd. Architecture:
2. Nasir ud Din Qabbacha 1. Quwwatul Islam mosque
3. Shams ud Din Iltutmish 2. Qutb Minar
Matrimonial alliances 3. Arhai Din ka Jhompra
Consolidation of power
Integration of empire
Independence from Ghazna
Khalji revolt in Bengal suppressed
Lahore as the capital
Shams ud Din Iltutmish Problems faced and solved: Alliance with the ulema Iqtadars as revenue collectors Sectarian tendencies grew
1. Taj ud Din Yildiz Ulema’s will as moral legitimacy Finance + revenue departments Patronized scholars + artists
2. Nasir ud Dun Qabacha Patronage for Suharwardi order Jagirs based on escheat Persian literature grew:
3. Khalji revolt in Bengal Anti-Shia policies Monetary system: 1. Khwaja Abu Nasr
4. Rebellion of the Rajputs Anti-Hindu policies 1. Silver Tanka (coins) 2. Taj ud Din Dabir
5. Revolt in Gangetic valley 2. Copper Jital (coins) 3. Nur ud Din Muhammad
6. Uprising of the Khokhars Music flourished
7. The Mongol menace Architecture:
Policy of consolidation 1. Huz e Shamsi
Truly independent Sultanate 2. Jami Masjid
Deed of investiture from Caliph
Proper est. of iqtadari system
The ‘Forty’ were est. as advisors
Real founder of Slave Dynasty
Delhi chosen as the capital
Gahyas ud Din Balban Turkish theory of kingship Divine legitimacy (divine rights) Checked officials’ excesses Social harmony
Problems faced and overcome: No particular place for ulema Policy of jagirs contd. Law and order prevailed
1. Influence of the Forty Ulema relevant in judiciary Quick justice, harsh punishments
2. Mongols started invading Un-Islamic Persian practices: Architecture – tomb of Balban
3. Lawlessness + disorder 1. Zamin bosi His son patronized scholars:
4. Rebellion in Bengal 2. Pai bosi 1. Amir Khusrau (musician too)
Large standing army 3. Zil e Ilahi 2. Amir Hassan Dehlvi
Defensive policy (no expansion) Society for dancers, actors etc.
Spy system est.
Jalal ud Din Firoz Khalji Khalji revolution Religious tilt as a Sultan Misplaced generosity Turk-Indian integration
Non-Turkic rule in India Alliance with a few ulema Lenient with thugs + thieves New Muslims (Mongol converts)
Unpopular among the nobles Abandoned Ranthambhor siege Peace and security
Lenient policy of appeasement Maintained a royal orchestra
Rebellions faced:
1. Malik Chajju (Governor)
2. Taj ud Din Kuchi (Governor)
3. Siddi Maula (saint)
Mongol attack + assimilation
Ala ud Din’s exploits
1. Malwa (town of Bhilsa)
2. Deogiri (Ram Chandra Deva)
Ala ud Din Khalji Dealing with the Jalali nobles Secular set up Comprehensive economic policy Muslims flourished
Buying of loyalties Wanted to start his own religion 1. Price control Hindus suffered
Measures to prevent revolts: 2. Food, cloth, cattle control Welfare – unintentional
1. Prohibiting drinking 3. Public stockholdings Muslims began settling in South
2. Prohibiting gatherings 4. Serai Adal est. Architecture:
3. Confiscation of wealth 5. Revenue system reformed 1. Jamat Khana Masjid
4. Increased land revenue 6. Diwan e Riasat est. 2. Alai Darwaza (Quwat ul Islam)
5. Poor condition of Hindus 7. Collective accountability Musicians flourished across India
6. Espionage network 8. Anti-hoarding + profiteering
Expansionary policy: 9. No black markets
1. Northern conquests Policy was an outcome of:
a. Gujrat 1. Expansionary policy
b. Ranthambhor 2. Mongol policy
c. Chittor 3. Not welfare
d. Malwa, Ujjain etc.
2. Southern conquests
a. Deogiri
b. Warangal (Prataparudra)
c. Dwarasamudra (Bhalala)
d. Madura (Pandya kingdom)
Effective Mongol policy
Large standing army + forts
Anti-corruption measures
Ghayas ud Din Tughlaq Domestic Reforms Cordial relations with ulemas Revenue reforms: Peace and prosperity
1. Accountability of nobles Conflict with 1. Heavy taxes discontinued City of Tughlaqabad was built
2. Judicial reforms (Islamic) Biased treatment of Hindus 2. Generation of revenue Music was banned
Foreign policy: a. Increasing tax net
1. Juna Khan in Warangal b. Irrigation system
2. Resolving Bengali civil war c. More land irrigated
3. Mongols were defeated Confiscated properties returned
4. Other conquests/tributes: Higher pay for officials
a. Utkala (Juna Khan)
b. Tirhut (Sultan)
Muhammad bin Tughlaq Ascended by killing his father Secular state Higher taxes in Doab (famine) Purdah had become common
Large standing army Non-Muslims given imp. posts Diwan e Amir Kohi Modern Indian dresses
1. Dreams of Tibet + China Ulemas were against him 1. Developing agrarian econ. The Empire presented extremes:
2. Success at Nagarkot (fort) Non-Indians given imp. posts 2. More land for cultivation 1. A few areas prospered
3. Defeat at Qarjal Indian nobles were against him 3. Land for the poor farmers 2. A few suffered (doab e.g.)
4. Deal with Mongols in 1326 4. Loans for the poor farmers Scholars were patronized
Integrating South India formally Issued copper coins (failed) Persian poetry:
Transfer of capital to Deogiri Free hospitals and sirais 1. Sultan was a poet himself
Suppressed a number of revolts 2. Badar ud Din at the court
Empire broke apart: Music was revived
1. Vijayanagar kingdom Rule of law + equality before law
2. Bahmani kingdom
Firoz Shah Tughlaq A welfare theocratic state Sunni ulemas gained importance Reformed on religious lines Dar ul Shifa + Dawakhana (charity)
Conquests varied in motives: Shias + Hindus persecuted Only Quranic taxes imposed: Employment bureau set up
1. Bengal invaded twice Books of both were burnt 1. Zakat Abolition of torture as justice
2. Jajnagar – religious motive Hindu temples were destroyed 2. Jizya More productive slave system
3. Nagarkot – religious motive Mulhids were dealt with strictly 3. Kharaj Education (madaris + maktabs)
4. Sindh invaded – lost on way General massacre in Katehar: 4. Khums Patronization of scholars:
1. Two Syeds were murdered 5. Ushr 1. Barni
2. Massacre was retaliatory Diwan e Khairat (poor girls marriage) 2. Afif
3. 23000 people died Diwan e Istihqaq (financial help) 3. Sultan’s autobiography
4. Story repeated annually Adha and biqh (coins) issued Arranged music recitals
Jagir system reinstated Built four cities:
New wells + canals (irrigation) 1. Hisar Firozah (aka Hisar)
Gardens for revenue at Delhi 2. Jaunpur
3. Fatehabad
4. Firozabad (palace built here)
Old monuments repaired
Great mosque at Firoz Shah Kotal
Syed Dynasty Four rulers in total No proper religious policy No formal economic policy Mosques built by Sharqi rulers
Initial allegiance to Timur Primarily due to: Collapsing economy Developments under provinces:
Later allegiance to Shah Rukh 1. Short reigns Primarily due to: 1. Patronization of scholars
Mubarak Shah as most capable 2. Political bickering 1. Preoccupation with politics 2. Education + health
He repudiated foreign allegiance 3. Revolts 2. No consolidation Delhi ignored everything
Political instability: Rulers remained busy in politics
1. Decline in Muslim power
2. Sharqi dynasty in east
3. Increasing no of revolts
4. Delhi fell to warring factions
5. Conspiracies of nobles
6. Mubarak Shah assassinated
Last ruler abdicated voluntarily
Alam Shah replaced by Bahlol
Lodhi Dynasty Three rulers in total Bahlol had no formal policy Reforms by Sikandar Lodhi: Art + literature patronized
Afghan theory of kingship Sikandar was a religious bigot: 1. Encouraged agriculture
Bahlol Lodhi started expansion 1. Persecuted Hindus happily 2. Removed a no. of duties
Peaked under Sikandar Lodhi: 2. Sacked temples 3. Old roads were repaired
1. Sharqi rulers were defeated 3. Mosques in place of temples 4. New ones were built
2. Spy system strengthened 4. Building temples prohibited
3. Check on governors 5. Barbers not to serve Hindus
Ibrahim became power hungry: 6. Hindus not to bathe at Jumna
1. Rebels vs. royalists
2. Clash of Sultan with nobles
3. Ibrahim alienated himself
4. Nobles allied with Babur
Zaheer ud Din M. Babur Significant battles against: Liberal religious policies Poor financial policies Tuzk e Babri by Babur
1. Ibrahim Lodhi Pro-Shia attitude Money distributed among nobles Disintegration and uncertainty
2. Rajputs (Rana Sanga + Rao) Jagirdari system kept intact No order
3. Afghans (Lodhis + Khans) Architecture:
No administrative system set up 1. Babri Masjid
Dawn of a new era 2. Several other mosques
Revival of Muslim rule in India
Naseer ud Din M. Hamayun Conspiracy against Hamayun Liberal religious policies No reforms Painters from Iran came to India
Weak empire: Pro-Shia attitude Continuation of ad hoc policies Wooden architecture:
1. The “brothers problem” Wealth wasted on pleasures 1. Qasr e Rawan
2. Ethnically divided army Jagirdari system kept intact 2. Bazar e Rawan
3. Multiple rebellions 3. Bagh e Rawan
Suppression of revolts:
1. Afghan chiefs
2. Bhadur Shah of Gujrat
Successful coup of Sher Khan
Sher Shah Suri Usurper or not? Liberal religious policies Liberalization of trade Social integration + tolerance
Defeated + exiled Hamayun Secularism in practice Roads + serais built all over Daily langar for the poor
Expansionary policy: Jizya still imposed on Hindus Tariffs at only two points Education for Muslims + Hindus
1. Punjab + Gakkhars + Multan Revenue reforms by Todar Mal Architecture:
2. Rajput states Debased coins replaced by rupee 1. Qila Rohtas (Jehlum)
3. Bengal 2. Purana Qila (Delhi)
Turkish theory of kingship 3. His own mausoleum (Bihar)
Welfare oriented + people’s will
Strict central control
Iqtadari system contd.
More efficient spy system (fast)
Jalal ud Din M. Akbar Consolidation of Empire Islamic state in theory Revenue reforms by Todar Mal: Social integration + tolerance
True founder of Mughal Empire Compromise with the ulema 1. Multiple systems in place: Art + painting began to flourish
Elimination of rival to throne: Akbar’s title “Khalifa tul Zaman” a. Zabti system (efficient) Mughal School of Painting est.
1. Hemu (2nd Battle of Panipat) Secularism in practice b. Ghalla Bakhshi State gallery was opened
2. Bairam Khan Ibadat khana gatherings c. Nasq + Kankut Patronized all scholars
3. Harem party Infallibility Decree + Sulh e Kul 2. Broke jagirdar’s powers Integrated education policy:
Expansionary policy: Deen e Ilahi 3. Uniform implementation 1. Persian + Sanskrit for all
1. Kandahar to Bengal Pro-Rajput policy 4. Treasury augmented 2. Co-education promoted
2. Kashmir to Berar Hindus given govt. posts No system of artificial irrigation 3. Madrassas + Pathshalas
Strong mansabdari system est. Akbarnama by Abul Fazl
1. Mix of civ-mil admin.
2. Ranked hierarchy
3. Fixed salary + escheat
Efficient spy system
1. Simple spies to spy on all
2. Special spies to spy on spies
Nur ud Din M. Jahangir Liberal policy mixed with greed State declared as Islamic European traders allowed: Art/painting flourished
Suppression of revolts: Compromise system in place 1. Boom in industrial sector Perfumes became common
1. Khusrau (son of Jahangir) Continued Sulh e Kul 2. Boom in mining activities Architecture:
2. Guru Arjun Dev (Sikh Guru) Some features of Deen e Ilahi Roads + rivers for internal trade 1. Tomb of Itimad ud Daula
Expansionary policy: Ibadat-khana type gathering Roads + seas for external trade 2. Tomb of Jahangir (Lahore)
1. Rajputs in Mewar Dastur ul Amal in place No system of artificial irrigation
2. Southward expansion Funds for building mosques
Influence of Nur Jahan’s junta Funds for building temples
Ascendency of Nur Jahan Clash with Sheikh Ahmad
Revolts put down by Nur Jahan: No jizya on Hindus
1. Prince Khuram (Shah Jahan) No Muslim girl-Hindu marriage
2. Mahabt Khan (coup) Beginning of anti-Sikh policies
Nepotism over meritocracy
Mansabdari system contd.
Shahab ud Din M. Shah Declining liberalism State declared as Islamic Measures taken against famines Books translated into Persian
Jahan Suppression of Revolts: Compromise system in place Peasant friendly policies Architecture:
1. Bundella problem Liberalism still dominant Spread of Europeans 1. Taj Mahal (Agra)
2. Khan Jahan Lodhi Funds for building mosques 2. Moti Masjid (Agra)
3. Marathas in the South Theologians exempted from: 3. Red Fort (Delhi)
Expansionary policy: 1. Sajda e Tazeemi 4. Jama Masjid (Delhi)
1. Deccan campaign (50/50) 2. Zamin bosi and pai bosi 5. Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)
2. Central Asia + Afghanistan Destruction of temples 6. Peacock throne
New problems: Destruction of churches
1. Portuguese presence (wars) No jizya on Hindus
2. The Sikhs (war) No Muslim girl-Hindu marriage
Mansabdari system contd. Anti-Sikh policy
Muhi ud Din M. Aurangzeb Fighting rebels: Orthodox religious policy Religious taxes Social disintegration
1. Jats got a separate state Ulema’s role increased Low trade due to wars all over Promoted puritanical Islam
2. Satnamis were defeated Imposition of jizya Crops damaged by wars Promoted Islamic culture
3. Sikhs became militant Destruction of temples Rise of criminal activity Architecture:
4. Rise of Marathas/Shivaji No Hindus on govt post Royal servants’ excesses 1. Badshahi Masjid
Expansionary campaigns: Anti-Shia policy Exploitation of the poor 2. Marble mosque (Delhi fort)
1. North West frontier Anti-Rajput policy 3. Alamgiri gate (Lahore)
2. North East frontier Anti-Sikh policy Ignored art + literature
3. Deccan campaign
New Problem - Europeans
Strong army and spies
Decline in mansabdari system
Islamic theory of kingship
4. English EIC as the Dominant Political Force in the Indo Pak Sub Continent
With the death of Aurungzeb, the Mughal Empire started to decline and to take advantage of the vanity of the successors
of Aurungzeb, the EIC sent its agents to Delhi. Farrukh Syar issued three firmans to the EIC in 1713 which granted them
the right to duty free and tax free trade in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. But without a strong Emperor at the center,
local rulers started to become independent, and refused to recognize any settlement the EIC had entered into with the
Mughal Emperor at Delhi. In 1717, Murshid Quli Khan became the first independent Nawab of Bengal. His successors –
Alivardi Khan and Siraj ud Daula – followed his line in taking a hard stance against the British over the matter of non-
payment of taxes and fortifications of their factories.
a. Battles of Plassey and Buxar: Nawab Siraj ud Daula attacked and took Calcutta from the British in 1756 and EIC
under Robert Clive took it back. But instead of waiting for an opportune moment, Clive took the initiative and
turned Siraj ud Daula’s commander in chief, Mir Jaffar, against him. Clive defeated Siraj ud Daula in the Battle of
Plassey in 1757, effectively making EIC the kingmaker in Bengal. EIC replaced a number of Nawabs within a few
months. One of them, Mir Qasim, showed independent tendencies, forged an alliance with Nawab Shuja ud Daula
of Oudh with whom resided at the time, the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, and faced the EIC in the Battle of Buxar
in 1764. EIC emerged victorious and got diwani rights in Bengal i.e. the right to collect taxes. This effectively made
the EIC, the supreme power in Bengal for all practical purposes.
b. EIC’s Domination of South India: Southern India posed a different challenge for the EIC. Opposition in this region
was organized and there were multiple forces to be dealt with including the Mysorean Dynasty led by Haider Ali
and then his son, Tipu Sultan; the Nizam of Hyderabad; the Marathas who with the help of the French, were
expanding towards Central India from the West, challenging the British who were approaching Delhi from the
East; and the French East India Company which initially led by Dupleix had defeated the EIC on every diplomatic
front. But the tide began to turn with Robert Clive’s victory at Arcot in 1751 after which despite a few temporary
setbacks that ended in treaties of restitution with the rulers of Mysore, there was no stopping the EIC, who settled
their rivalry with the French for all practical purposes at the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760, followed by a defeat of
the Dutch, and a decisive victory over the Mysorean Dynasty in a series of four Anglo-Mysore Wars fought by
various Governor Generals of the EIC between 1767 and 1799.
c. EIC’s Conquest of Central India: after the assassination of Narayan Rao, the fifth Peshwa of the Marathas, the
largest and most powerful confederacy in India had been busy in a civil war. The British saw this as an opportunity
to interfere in the internal matters of the Marathas and weaken them from the inside – classic divide and rule
tactics that the British were so good at. In the Maratha civil wars of 1775 and 1803, the British sided with the
weaker claimant to the office of Peshwa but failed to achieve a decisive settlement in their favour. It was only in
1818 when the British faced them for the third time that the British emerged victorious. The third battle with the
Marathas had been a result of the refusal of the Marathas to help the British against the Pindaris in 1817. In the
absence of French support and decline in Maratha power due to continuous internal strife, they proved to be no
match for the British. In 1818, after the third Anglo-Maratha war, the office of the Peshwa was abolished. There
was no other serious contender for Delhi after that.
d. EIC’s Control of Delhi: by the time Akbar Shah II, the second last Mughal Emperor was on the throne in 1806,
Mughal control of the Red Fort at Delhi was only in name since the EIC had its regent placed at the Red Fort. Even
within Delhi, the city to which the extent of the Mughal Empire was restricted, law and order was maintained by
the EIC and taxes were also collected by the EIC. The final blow was to come later in the form of a failed attempt
at a revolution in 1857 when the EIC was replaced by the British Crown. Till then, EIC did as it pleased in India. Its
internal and external sovereignty was unchallenged in India for a while.
e. EIC’s Annexation of Sindh after the Failure in Afghanistan: frontier regions of India were of special interest to the
English East India Company, especially once the EIC was convinced that the Southward expansion of Tsarist Russia
under the Romanovs was a threat to its own imperial/colonial interests. When diplomatic missions to Afghanistan
failed, the EIC organized its “Army of the Indus” to invade Afghanistan in 1839 and replace the Afghan Emir Dost
Muhammad with Shah Shuja. While the army was successful at first, the Afghans rose up in rebellion against the
alien invaders and drove the British out in 1842. To rescue the Englishmen left behind in Afghanistan, the EIC
organized another “Army of Retribution” in 1843 and rescued the Englishmen whom the Afghans had taken as
prisoners. With the conclusion of the First Anglo-Afghan War, the EIC wanted to have a secure launching board in
Sindh, not to mention that it wanted to cut its military costs of maintaining an army in Sindh. Thus, Sindh was
annexed though many saw it as a move to emphasize the EIC’s dominant position in India – the company did not
want the Indians to take the disaster in Afghanistan as a sign of EIC’s weakness and wanted them to know that it
could still do with India whatever it wanted.
f. The Sale of Kashmir and EIC’s Annexation of Punjab: one of the strongest successor Kingdoms of the Mughal
Empire was the Sikh Kingdom under Maharaja Ranjit Singh who had founded it officially after the occupation of
Lahore in 1799. EIC entered into an agreement with Ranjit Singh in 1809 according to which the Sutlej was
demarcated as the boundary between the EIC’s possessions in India and the Sikh Kingdom. This was respected by
both sides till the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839 after which the Sikh Kingdom stated to weaken and disintegrate.
As the EIC posted its troops on the South-East bank of Sutlej to prevent a spillover effect and the Sikhs posted
their soldiers on the North-West bank of Sutlej as a precaution against a possible invasion by the EIC, both armies
launched a preemptive attack on each other due to mutual suspicions. The First Anglo-Sikh War led to a Sikh
defeat after which Kashmir was stripped off from the Sikh Kingdom and sold off to Gulab Singh Dogra in 1846.
Two years later, a small quarrel between the locals and the EIC officials in Multan spiraled into the Second Anglo-
Sikh War which concluded in 1849 with a decisive EIC victory as a result of which Punjab was annexed by the EIC.
Starting off in Eastern India and moving towards Western India, the EIC had Delhi and Agra surrounded by the time the
War of Independence broke out, because of which the uprising remained confined to Central India. Other factors too
played their part but they all had to do with the political and economic might of the EIC which was restrained not by some
Indian force but by its own imperial overstretch that led to practices inviting the attention and involvement of the British
Government which took over the Indian possessions of the EIC in 1858.