Lecture 4: MATERIALS OF THE EARTH – ELEMENTS, MINERALS AND ROCKS

1. Enumerate and define/describe and give some examples of the

different groups of silicates.

Major group Structure Example

Nesosilicates isolated silicon tetrahedra olivine

Sorosilicates double tetrahedra epidote, melilite group

Cyclosilicates rings tourmaline group

Inosilicates single chain pyroxene group

Inosilicates double chain amphibole group

Phyllosilicates sheets micas and clays

Tectosilicates 3D framework quartz, feldspars, zeolites

1. Nesosilates- are made up of units of independent tetrahedral. Some of the

minerals that contain nesosilicates are olivine, garnet, zircon, kyanite, topaz, and
staurolite. Olivine is important in the processes of igneous rock forming. It has a
general formula of (Mg, Fe)2SiO4. As for garnet, it belongs to the isomorphic
group, where it often occurs as dodecahedron crystals, such as pyrope,
almandine, and grossularite. It is usually found in metamorphic rocks, and is
known for being the January birthstone. Zircon, on the other hand, is marketed
as gemstone and is oxidized to produce gemstones that are similar to diamonds
known as cubic zirconia. Kyanite is a part of a polymorphic group (Al 2OSiO4).
2. Sorosilicates- is made up of two tetrahedrals shared by oxygen. Some of the
minerals that are classified as sorosilicates are hemimorphite, epidote, and
allanite. Hemimorphite is usually found as bladed crystals. Epidote belongs to the
isomorphic group, which is important in forming mineral. Lastly, allanite have
metamict structure that is usually black with no cleavage.
3. Cyclosilicates- are made up of closed ring units of tetrahedral sharing two
oxygen atoms. They are known for their hardness and consists a variety of
gemstones. They also have poor cleavage. Some minerals that are classified as
cyclosilicates are beryl, cordierite, and troumaline. The gemstones that are
classified as beryl include emerald (deep green), aquamarine (greenish-blue),
and morganite (red). Tourmalines also have a variety of gemstones, which
include rubellite (red-pink) and indicolite (dark blue). As for cordierite, it often
shows dichroism, meaning that it shows different colors different concentrations.
4. Inosilicates- are made up of continuous double chain units of tetrahedral, each
sharing 2 and 3 oxygen. They include the pyroxene group, which are single chain
minerals without hydroxide, and the amphibole group, which are double chain
with hydroxide. The pyroxene group has two directional 90 degree cleavages.
Some examples are enstatite-ferrosilite, diopside-hedenbergite, augite, and
spodumene. As for amphibole group, it has two directional cleavages at 124-56
degrees. Some examples are tremolite-actinolite and hornblende. Both of these
groups are rock-forming minerals.
5. Phyllosilicates- comprise continuous sheet units of tetrahedral, each sharing 3
oxygen atoms. They include the clay and mica minerals, which are rock-forming
minerals. The clay group is made of hydrous aluminum layered silicates. Some
examples are kaolinite and talc. On the other hand, the mica group consists of
thin sheets and a multitude of ionic substitutions of Al3+ and Si4+. Some examples
are muscovite (light color), biotite (black or dark colored), and lepidolite (pink
colored and a source of lithium). There is also the serpentine group that belongs
to the phyllosilicates. Some examples are serpentine and crysotile.
6. Tectosilicates- consists of continuous framework of tetrahedrals, each sharing
all 4 oxygen atoms. Its structure has a great amount of Al-Si substitution. Some
of the groups that are classified as tectosilicates are SiO2 polymorphic group, K-
feldspar polymorphic group, feldspathoid group and zeolite group.
SiO2 polymorphic group has a variety of quartz, such as smoky quartz, amethyst,
and jasper. Some minerals in the K-felspar polymorphic group include orthoclase
and microcline. Microcline has 1 Pb2+ ion replaced for every 2 K1+ ions, showing
an omission solid solution and causing a blue green color in the mineral. The
felspathoid group minerals are similar to feldspars but only have two-thirds of
 the amount of silica; they form a silica deficient magma. Some examples of it are
leucite and sodalite. Lastly, the zeolite group has hydrous silicates with ionic
exchange and absorption properties that can act as water softeners by
exchanging Na1+ ion for Ca2+ ion in solution.

2. Enumerate and define/describe and give some examples of the rock-

forming minerals.
 Some common rock forming minerals are
Feldspars,quartz,micas,olivine,calcite,pyroxenes,and dolomite.

 Feldspar- is the name of a large group of rock-forming silicate minerals that

make up over 50% of Earth’s crust. They are found in igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rocks in all parts of the world. Feldspar minerals have very
similar structures, chemical compositions, and physical properties. Common
feldspars include orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), albite (NaAlSi3O8), and anorthite
(CaAl2Si2O8).
 Quartz- is a chemical compound consisting of one part silicon and two parts
oxygen. It is silicon dioxide (SiO2). It is the most abundant mineral found at
Earth's surface, and its unique properties make it one of the most useful natural
substances.
 Micas- Any of various minerals consisting of hydrous silicates of aluminium or
potassium etc. that crystallize in forms that allow perfect cleavage into very thin
leaves; used as dielectrics because of their resistance to electricity.
 Olivine- is the name of a group of rock-forming minerals that are typically found
in mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro, dunite, diabase,
and peridotite. They are usually green in color and have compositions that
typically range between Mg2SiO4 and Fe2SiO4. Many people are familiar with
olivine because it is the mineral of a very popular green gemstone known as
peridot.
 Calcite- is a rock-forming mineral with a chemical formula of CaCO3. It is
extremely common and found throughout the world
in sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. Some geologists consider it to
be a "ubiquitous mineral" - one that is found everywhere. Calcite is the principal
constituent of limestone and marble. These rocks are extremely common and
make up a significant portion of Earth's crust. They serve as one of the largest
carbon repositories on our planet. The properties of calcite make it one of the
most widely used minerals. It is used as a construction material, abrasive,
 agricultural soil treatment, construction aggregate, pigment, pharmaceutical and
more. It has more uses than almost any other mineral.
 Pyroxenes- are a group of dark-colored rock-forming minerals found
in igneous and metamorphic rocks throughout the world. They form under
conditions of high temperature and/or high pressure.
 Dolomite- is a common rock-forming mineral. It is a calcium magnesium
carbonate with a chemical composition of CaMg(CO3)2. It is the primary
component of the sedimentary rock known as dolostone and the metamorphic
rock known as dolomitic marble. Limestone that contains some dolomite is
known as dolomitic limestone.Dolomite is rarely found in modern sedimentary
environments, but dolostones are very common in the rock record. They can be
geographically extensive and hundreds to thousands of feet thick. Most rocks
that are rich in dolomite were originally deposited as calcium carbonate muds
that were postdepositionally altered by magnesium-rich pore water to form
dolomite.

Here are the physical properties and uses of some rock-forming minerals which I
putted into the table:

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

FELDSPAR

Chemical Classification Silicate

Color Usually white, pink, gray or brown. Also

colorless, yellow, orange, red, black, blue,
green.
Streak White

Luster Vitreous. Pearly on some cleavage faces

Diaphaneity Usually translucent to opaque. Rarely

transparent.
Cleavage Perfect in two directions. Cleavage planes
usually intersect at or close to a 90 degree
angle.
Mohs hardness 6 to 6.5

Specific Gravity 2.5 to 2.8

Diagnostic properties Perfect cleavage, with cleavage faces


Chemical composition
Crystal system
usually intersecting at or close to 90
degrees. Consistent hardness, specific
gravity and pearly luster on cleavage faces.
A generalized chemical composition of
X(Al,Si)4O8, where X is usually potassium,
sodium, or calcium, but rarely can be
barium, rubidium, or strontium
Triclinic, monoclinic

Uses Crushed and powdered feldspar are

important raw materials for the
manufacture of plate glass, container
glass, ceramic products, paints, plastics
and many other products. Varieties of
orthoclase, labradorite, oligoclase,
microcline and other feldspar minerals
have been cut and used as faceted and
cabochon gems.

QUARTZ

Chemical Classification Silicate

Color Quartz occurs in virtually every color.

Common colors are clear, white, gray,
purple, yellow, brown, black, pink, green,
red
Streak Colorless (harder than the streak plate)

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage None - typically breaks with a conchoidal

fracture
Mohs hardness 7

Specific Gravity 2.6 to 2.7

Diagnostic properties Conchoidal fracture, glassy luster,

hardness
Chemical composition SiO2
 Crystal system Hexagonal

Uses Glass making, abrasive, foundry sand,

hydraulic fracturing proppant, gemstones

OLIVINE

Chemical Classification Silicate

Color Usually olive green, but can be yellow-

green to bright green; iron-rich specimens
are brownish green to brown
Streak Colorless

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Poor cleavage, brittle with conchoidal

fracture
Mohs hardness 6.5 to 7

Specific Gravity 3.2 to 4.4

Diagnostic properties Green color, vitreous luster, conchoidal

fracture, granular texture
Chemical composition Typically (Mg, Fe)2SiO4. Ca, Mn, and Ni
rarely occupy the Mg and Fe positions.
Crystal system Orthorhombic

Uses Gemstones, a declining use in bricks and

refractory sand

CALCITE
Chemical Classification Carbonate

Color Usually white but also colorless, gray, red,

green, blue, yellow, brown, orange
Streak White

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect, rhombohedral, three directions

Mohs hardness 3

Specific Gravity 2.7

Diagnostic properties Rhombohedral cleavage, powdered form

effervesces weakly in dilute HCl, curved
crystal faces and frequent twinning
Chemical composition CaCO3

Crystal system Hexagonal

Uses Acid neutralization, a low-hardness

abrasive, soil conditioner, heated for the
production of lime

PYROXENE
Chemical Classification Silicate

Color Usually dark green to dark brown or black.

Some, such as jadeite and spodumene,
occur in a range of colors
Streak White

Luster Vitreous to dull

Diaphaneity Semi-translucent to opaque

Cleavage Most pyroxene minerals exhibit two

directions of cleavage that intersect at
approximately 87o and 93o. Cleavage
fragments often have a nearly square
cross-section.
Mohs hardness 5 to 7

Specific Gravity 3 to 4

Diagnostic properties Stubby prismatic crystals. Angle of

cleavage plane intersection.
Chemical composition A generalized composition of XYZ2O6, as
described in the accompanying sections.
Crystal system Monoclinic or orthorhombic

Uses Most pyroxenes have no regular use as

industrial minerals. Pyroxene minerals are
minor to secondary components of some
rocks that are used as crushed stone and
dimension stone. A few pyroxene minerals
are used as gem materials, but only in rare
instances when they have attractive color
and clarity. Jadeite, diopside, and
spodumene are the most important
pyroxene gem materials. Spodumene was
once an important source of lithium.

DOLOMITE
Chemical Classification Carbonate

Color Colorless, white, pink, green, gray, brown,

black
Streak White

Luster Vitreous, pearly

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect, rhombohedral, three directions

Mohs hardness 3.5 to 4

Specific Gravity 2.8 to 2.9

Diagnostic properties Rhombohedral cleavage, powdered form

effervesces weakly in dilute HCl, hardness
Chemical composition CaMg(CO3)2

Crystal system Hexagonal

Uses Construction aggregate, cement

manufacture, dimension stone, calcined to
produce lime, sometimes an oil and gas
reservoir, a source of magnesia for the
chemical industry, agricultural soil
treatments, metallurgical flux