Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

4
STOLLINGSGESTEENTES / IGNEOUS ROCKS

TEEN DIE EINDE VAN DIE HOOFSTUK, BEHOORT U IN STAAT TE WEES OM… / BY THE
END OF THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO…

• Te weet waaruit magma bestaan / know what magma consists of?

• Die 4 verskillende tipes magma in terme van die relatiewe % van silika
inhoud te ken en beskryf / Name and describe the 4 different types of
magma in terms of the relative silica content.
• Die belangrike prosesse wat verskeie variasies van magma samestellings tot
gevolg het te beskryf en te verstaan hoe die prosesse plaasvind (bv.
gedeeltelike smelting, assimilasie, menging van magmas, fraksionele
kristallisasie) / Describe and understand the important processes that result
in the variations in magma compositions and how these processes occur
(e.g. partial melting, assimilation, mixing of magmas, fractional
crystallization).
• Bowen se reaksie reeks te beskryf en verstaan hoe dit aanleiding gee tot
verskillende tipes stollingsgesteentes (sien Fig. 4.5) / Describe Bowen's
Reaction Series and how it gives rise to different types of igneous rocks (see
Fig. 4.5)
• Te weet wat is die kenmerke van intrusiewe stollingsgesteentes, insluitend
die volgende terme: gebakte sone, verkoelings grens, en xenoliet. / know
what the characteristics of intrusive igneous rocks are including the following
terms: baked zone, chill margin, and xenolith.
• Die invloed van magma indringing op ouer newe gesteentes te verstaan
insluitend: / understand the influence of magma intrusion on older country
rocks including:
− Termiese (hitte) metamorfose en smelting / thermal (heat) metamorphism
and melting
− Inflasie van frakture wat die gesteente wegdruk / inflation of fractures
pushing the rock aside.
− Opneming van wandgesteente fragmente (xenoliete) / incorporation of
country rock fragments (xenoliths)
− Hidrotermiese (warm water) verandering (meer hieroor in hoofstuk 5/
hydrothermal (hot water) alteration (more on this in chapter 5)

65
Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

• Alle tipes intrusiewe rots liggame te noem en beskryf asook om tussen

konkordant en diskordante rots liggame te onderskei (bv. tabulêre vs.
plutoniese liggame, batoliet, lakoliet vs. lopoliet, koepel, en plaat vs. gang) /
Name and describe all kinds of Intrusive rock bodies as well as to
differentiate between concordant and discorcant rock bodies (e.g. tabular
vs. plutonic bodies, batholite, laccolith vs. lopolith, stock, and sill vs. dike).
• Verstaan wat is die drie faktore wat die verkoelings tempo van die magma
beheer / understand what are the three factors that control the cooling time
of magma.
• Tipes stollingsgesteente teksture te noem en beskryf (bv. glasagtig,
ineengeskakelde mineraal-kristalle of kristallyn, fragmentêr), insluitend: /
Name and describe types of igneous rock textures (e.g. glassy, interlocking
mineral crystals or crystalline, fragmental), including:
− Afanities / Aphanitic
− Fanerities / Phaneritic
− Porfirities / Porphyritic
− Pegmatities / Pegmatitic
• Noem en beskryf die klassifikasie van stollingsgesteentes, insluitend: / Name
and describe the classification of igneous rocks, including:
− Glasagtige stollingsgesteentes (bv. obsidiaan, puimsteen, vulkaan slak) /
glassy igneous rocks (e.g. obsidian, pumice, and scoria)
− Piroklastiese stollingsgesteentes (bv. tuf, vulkaniese breksie, en
hialoklastiet) / Pyroclastic igneous rocks (e.g. tuff, vulcanic brecia, and
hyaloclastite)
− Die verskillende kristallyne stollingsgesteentes volgens samestelling en
mineraal inhoud (Fig. 4.13) / the different crystalline igneous rocks
according to composition and mineral content (Fig. 4.13)
• Tipes granitiese gesteentes te ken (bv. graniet, rioliet, granodiorite, en
dasiet) / know the types of granitic rocks (e.g. granite, rhyolite, granodiorite,
and daciet)
• Tipes dioritiese gesteentes te ken (bv. dioriet en andesite) / know the types
of dioritic rocks (e.g. diorite, and andesite).
• Tipes gabbroïese gesteentes te ken (bv. gabbro, basalt, doleriet of diabaas,
en anortosiet) / Know the types of gabbroic rocks (e.g. gabbro, basalt,
dolerite or diabase, and anorthosite).
• Tipes ultramafiese gesteentes te ken (bv. pirokseniet, peridotite, duniet,
komatiïet, kimberliet / Know the types of ultramafic rocks (e.g. pyroxenite,
peridotite, dunite, komatiite, kimberlite).

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

4.1 Inleiding / Introduction

Stollingsgesteentes vorm wanneer gesmelte (of gedeeltelik gesmelte) gesteentes afkoel en
stol. / Igneous rocks form as molten (or partially molten) rock cools and solidify.
Stolling van gesteentes vind plaas op hoë temperature - 1,100°C tot 650°C (hang af van
samestelling). / Solidification of igneous rocks occur at high temperatures - 1,100°C to 650°C
(depends on composition).
Gesmelte gesteentes kan bo of onder die grond afkoel en stol: / Melted rock can cool and
solidify above or below ground:
i) Indien gesmelte gesteentes onder die aard oppervlak (magma) afkoel & stol = intrusiewe,
plutoniese stollingsgesteentes. / If molten rock below earth surface (magma) cool &
solidify = Intrusive, plutonic igneous rocks.
ii) Indien gesmelte gesteentes bo die aard oppervlak (lava) afkoel & stol = ekstrusiewe,
vulkaniese stollingsgesteentes. / If molten rock above Earth surface (lava) cool and solidify
= extrusive, volcanic igneous rocks.

4.2 Ontstaan van magma / Formation of magma

Gedeeltelike smelting in kors en boonste mantel / Partial melting in crust or upper mantle.
Smelting is van: / Melting is from:
i) Druk verligting / Pressure release.
ii) Byvoeg van vlugtige stowwe / Volatile addition.
iii) Hitte oordrag van stygende magma / Heat transfer from rising magma

4.2.1 Smelting as gevolg van druk verligting / Melting as a result of a decrease in

pressure
Geotermiese gradiënt – die koers waarteen die aarde se temperatuur verhoog met diepte,
bv. kors temperatuur verhoog teen 25°C/km met diepte. Die geotermiese gradient varieer
van plek tot plek. / km met diepte. / Geothermal gradient – the rate at which the Earth's
temperature increases with depth, e.g. crustal temperature increases 25°C/km with depth.
The geothermal gradient varies from place to place.
Die basis van die kors is warm genoeg (T ~ 1,280 °C, Marshak, 2008) om die mantel gesteentes
te smelt, maar gesteentes bly solied omdat dit onder hoë druk is van die gewig van die
oorliggende gesteentes. ‘n verlaging in die druk kan dus smelting veroorsaak – drukverligting
smelting (sien Fig. 4-1). / Base of the crust is hot enough (T ~ 1,280 °C, Marshak, 2008) to melt
mantle rock, but the rocks stay solid because it is also under high pressure from the weight of
overlying rock. A decrease in pressure can permit melting – decompression melting (see Fig.
4-1).

4.2.2 Smelting as gevolg van byvoeging van vlugtige stowwe / Melting as a result of the
addition of volatiles
Vlugtige stowwe – elemente of molekules bv. H2O & CO2 wat maklik verdamp en wat in gas
fases by die aarde se oppervlak kan bestaan. / Volatiles - elements or molecules e.g. H2O &
CO2 that evaporate easily and can exist in gaseous forms at the Earth’s surface

67
Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks
Fig. 4-1: Die grafiek plot die aarde
se geoterm (soliede lyn), wat die
temperatuur spesifiseer by
verskeie dieptes onder die
oseaniese litosfeer asook die
“liquidus” en “solidus” (stippel
lyne) vir peridotiet, die
ultramafiese gesteente wat die
mantel opmaak. Die solidus
verteenwoordig toestande van
druk en temperatuur waar ‘n
gesteente begin smelt, terwyl die
liquidus die toestande van druk en
temperatuur verteenwoordig
waar die laaste soliede verdwyn.
Die gedeelte van die grafiek tussen
die liquidus en solidus verteen-
woordige toestande waaronder
daar ‘n mengsel van soliedes en
smelte kan bestaan. Let op dat die
geotermiese gradiënt verlaag met
diepte. ‘n Gesteente wat begin by
druk en temperatuur toestande by
punt A en styg na punt B,
ondergaan ‘n
aansienlike verlaag in druk sonder enige verandering in temperatuur. Wanneer dit die toestande by punt B
bereik, begin dit smelt. Die proses word drukverligting smelting genoem./ The graph plots te Earth’s geotherm
(solid line), which specifies the temperature at various depths below oceanic lithosphere, as well as the “liquidus”
and “solidus” (dashed lines) for peridotite, the ultramafic rock that makes up the mantle. The solidus represents
conditions of pressure and temperature at which a rock begins to melt, whereas the liquidus represents the
conditions of pressure and temperature at which the last solid disappears. The region of the graph between the
liquidus and solidus represents conditions under which there can be a mixture of solid and melt. Note that the
geothermal gradient decreases with greater depths. A rock that starts at pressure and temperature conditions
indicated by point A, and then rises to point B, undergoes a significant decrease in pressure without much change
in temperature. When it reaches the conditions indicated by point B, it begins to melt. This process is called
decompression melting (modified after Marshak 2008).

Droë magma – besit geen vlugtige stowwe nie en smelt by hoër temperature (sien Fig. 4-2a).
/ Dry magma – contain no volatiles and melts at higher temperatures (see Fig. 4-2a)
Nat magma – bestaan uit tot 15% vlugtige stowwe en smelt by laer temperature (sien Fig.
4-2a) / Wet magma – contain up to 15% volatiles and melts at lower temperatures (see Fig.
4-2a)
As vlugtige stowwe met warm gesteentes meng, help hulle om die chemiese bindings te
verbreek, so as vlugtige stowwe by ‘n warm soliede gesteente bygevoeg word, begin die
gesteente smelt (sien Fig. 4-2b and c). / When volatiles mix with hot rock, they help break
chemical bonds so if you add volatiles to a solid, hot dry rock, the rock begins to melt (see Fig.
4-2b and c).

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

Fig. 4-2: (a) Die byvoeging van vlugtige stowwe verlaag die smelt temperatuur. Let op dat nat magma
(nat solidus) by laer temperature smelt as droë magma (droë solidus). / The addition of volatiles
decreases the melting temperature. Note that wet magma (wet solidus) melts at lower temperatures
than dry magma (dry solidus) (after Marshak, 2008). (b) Smelting as gevolg van die byvoeging van
vlugtige stowwe vind plaas wanneer H2O deur die warm soliede gesteente sypel. / Melting as a result of
the addition of volatiles occurs when H2O percolates into a solid hot rock (after Marshak, 2008). (c)
Smelting as gevolg van hitte oordrag vind plaas wanneer warm magma opstyg in die kors en die
omringende gesteentes verhit en smelt. / Melting as a result of heat transfer happens when hot magma
rise into the crust, increase the temperature of the surrounding rocks and melt them (after Turback and
Lutgens, 2008).

4.2.3 Smelting as gevolg van hitte oordrag van stygende magma / Melting as a result of
heat transfer from rising magma
Wanneer mantel afkomstige magma (>1100oC) in die kors indring, kan dit die temperatuur
van die omringende kors genoeg verhoog (650o – 850oC) sodat dit smelt (sien Fig. 4-2c). /
When mantle derived magma (>1100oC) intrudes into the crust, it can raise the temperature
of the surrounding crust enough (650o-850oC) to melt it (see Fig. 4-2c).

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

4.3 Waaruit word magma gemaak? / What is magma made of?

Magma / lava bestaan uit drie komponente: / Magma / lava consist of three components:
i) Vloeistof gedeelte = smelt / Liquid portion = melt
ii) Soliedes, indien enige, is silikaat minerale / Solids, if any, are silicate minerals
iii) Vlugtige stowwe = opgeloste gasse in die smelt, insluitend waterstof (H2O), koolstof
dioksied (CO2), en swael dioksied (SO2) / Volatiles = dissolved gases in the melt, including
water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Die maklikste manier om die chemiese samestelling van magma te beskryf is deur die
verhoudings in gewigspersentasie (die persentasie van die magma se gewig wat bestaan uit
die gegewe komponent) oksiedes (kombinasie van ‘n katioon met ‘n suurstof bv. SiO2, FeO,
Fe2O3, MgO) te spesifiseer. / The easiest way to describe the chemical makeup of magma is
by specifying the proportions in weight percent (The percentage of the magma’s weight that
consists of a given component) of oxides (Combination of a cation with oxygen e.g. SiO2, FeO,
Fe2O3, MgO).
Die 4 verskillende tipes magma kan onderskei word van mekaar in terme van die relatiewe
persentasie van silika (SiO2) wat hulle bevat: / The 4 different types of magma can be
distinguished from each other in terms of the relative percentage of silica (SiO2) they contain
• Felsiese magma / Felsic magma = 66% - 76% SiO2, ook bekend as “silisiese” magma / also
known as “silicic” magma
• Intermediêre magma / Intermediate magma = 52% - 66% SiO2
• Mafiese magma / Mafic magma = 45% - 52% SiO2, bevat volop mafiese (“ma” →
magnesium, “fies” – yster) minerale bv. MgO, FeO and Fe2O3 / contains abundant mafic
(“ma” → magnesium, “fic” → iron) minerals e.g. MgO, FeO and Fe2O3
• Ultramafiese magma / Ultramafic magma = slegs / only 38% - 45% SiO2
Eienskappe van magma word bepaal deur hul samestelling: / Magma properties depends on
magma compositions:
i) Viskositeit (weerstand om te vloei) / Viscosity (resistance to flow) –
ii) Digtheid (SiO2 is nie so dig soos MgO en Fe nie) / Density (SiO2 is less dense than MgO
and Fe) – Felsiese magma het laer digtheid, terwyl mafiese magma hoer digtheid besit /
Felsic magmas have lower density, while mafic magmas have higher density
iii) Temperature / Temperatures – Felsiese magma kan in vloeistof fase bly by temperature
van slegs 650o tot 850oC, terwyl mafiese magmas mag temperature van tot 1300oC bereik.
/ Felsic magmas can remain liquid at temperatures of only 650 o to 800oC, while mafic
magmas may reach temperatures of up to 1300oC
Die bogenoemde eienskappe beheer die eruptiewe vulkaniese styl (sien
Table 4-1) / These characteristics govern eruptive volcanic style (see
Table 4-1)
Faktore wat viskositeit beïnvloed: / Factors affecting viscosity:
• Temperatuur - warmer magmas minder viskeuse / Temperature – hotter magmas are less
viscous

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 Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

• Samestelling - silika (SiO2) inhoud, hoër silika inhoud magmas is meer viskeus (bv.,
riolitiese en andesitiese magmas), laer silika inhoud magmas is minder viskeus (bv.,
basaltiese lawas). Silikaat strukture (tetrahedrons) begin om te konekteer in lang kettings
vroeg in die kristallisasie proses. / Composition – silica (SiO2) content, higher silica content
magmas are more viscous (e.g., rhyolitic and andesitic magmas), lower silica content
magmas are less viscous (e.g., basaltic lavas). Silicate structures (tetrahedra) start to link
together in long chains early in the crystallization process.

Table 4-1: ‘n Opsomming van hoe die eienskappe van magmas die eruptiewe vulkaniese styl beheer. / a Summary
of how the properties of magmas govern the eruptive volcanic styles.
Type / Tipe Density / Digtheid Temperature / Temperatuur Viscosity / Viskositeit
Baie hoog: eksplosiewe
Baie laag/Very low (600 -
Felsies/Felsic Baie laag/Very low erupsies/Very High: Explosive
850°C)
eruptions.
Hoog: eksplosiewe
Intermediêr/Inter
Laag/Low Laag/Low erupsies/High: Explosive
-mediate
eruptions.
Laag: dun, warm lopende
Mafies/Mafic Hoog/High Hoog/High erupsies/Low: Thin, hot
runny eruptions.
Ultramafies/Ultra Baie hoog/Very high
Baie hoog/Very high Baie laag/Very low
-mafic (tot/up to 1,300°C)

4.4 Variasies van magma samestellings / Variation in magma compositions

Die verskeidenheid van magmas is as gevolg van 4 prosesse: / The diversity of magmas is due
to 4 processes:
i) Gedeeltelike smelting / Partial Melting - Verskillende tipes gesteentes kan smelt of
gedeeltelik smelt in verskillende hoeveelhede. / Different types of rock can melt or
partially melt by different amounts.
ii) Assimilasie / Assimilation - Gesteentes wat magma omring mag gedeeltelik smelt en meng
met die oorspronklike magma. / Rock surrounding magma may partially melt and mix with
the original magma.
iii) Fraksionele kristallisasie / Fractional crystallization - Een magma samestelling kan ontstaan
van ‘n ander gedurende kristallisasie. / One magma composition can be derived from
another during crystallization.
iv) Menging van Magmas / Mixing of Magmas - Magmas van verskillende samestellings kan
meng om nuwe, tussen-in samestellings te produseer. / Magmas of different compositions
can mix to produce new, in-between compositions.

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

4.4.1 Gedeeltelike Smelting / Partial Melting

Onvolledige smelting van gesteentes staan bekend as gedeeltelike smelting / Incomplete
melting of rocks is known as partial melting
Die magma wat vorm wanneer ‘n gesteente begin smelt, het nie dieselfde samestelling as die
oorspronklike gesteente waarvan dit gevorm het nie omdat: / The magma that forms as a rock
begins to melt does not have the same composition as the original rock from which it formed
because:
• Nie alle minerale smelt met dieselfde hoeveelheid onder gegewe toestande nie / Not all
minerals melt by the same amount under given conditions
• Chemiese reaksies vind plaas gedurende smelting / Chemical reactions takes place during
melting
Tydens verhitting smelt die silika-ryke minerale eerste - gedeeltelike smelting produseer dus
‘n silika-ryke magma (Fig. 4-3). / Upon heating, silica-rich minerals melt first - partial melting,
then, yields a silica-rich magma (Fig. 4-3).
Verwydering van die gedeeltelike smelt van die bron resulteer in ‘n silika-verryke magma met
‘n silika-verminderde residu, daarom: / Removing a partial melt from its source creates a silica-
enriched magma with a silica-reduced residue, therefore:
• Gedeeltelike smelting van ultramafiese gesteentes produseer mafiese magma / Partial
melting of ultramafic rock produce mafic magma
• Gedeeltelike smelting van mafiese gesteentes produseer intermediêre magma. / Partial
melting of mafic rock produces intermediate magma
• Gedeeltelike smelting van intermediêre gesteentes produseer felsiese magma / Partial
melting of intermediate rock produces felsic magma.
Vorming van mafiese (basaltiese) magmas: / Formation of mafic (basaltic) magmas:
− Meeste het oorsprong van gedeeltelike smelting van mantel gesteentes by oseaan
riwwe. / Most originate from partial melting of mantle rocks at oceanic ridges

Fig. 4-3: Die konsep van gedeeltelike smelting.

Gesteentes smelt nie almal op een slag nie, die
eerste smelt neig om meer silika-ryk te wees as later
gevormde smelt, soos die grafiek wys. Wanneer die
gesteente die eerste keer begin smelt maak die
gesmelte gesteente lagies rondom die steeds soliede
korrels. Korrels wat op laer temperature smelt,
smelt eerste terwyl die korrels wat op hoer
temperature smelt, oorbly. Met verdere smelting
ontwikkel daar ‘n “mineraal moes”, met
oorblywende soliede korrels omring deur smelt. /
The concept of partial melting. Rock does not all
melt at once; at lower temperatures, only part of the
than the later-formed melt, as the graph shows. When the rock melts.
first starts
Theto melt,
first the
melt molten
tends rock
to be makes
more films
silicic
around still-solid grains. Grains that melt at lower temperatures melt first, while grains that melt at higher
temperatures remain. With further melting, a “crystal mush” develops, with relict solid grains surrounded my
melt (after Marshak, 2008).

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

− Groot uitbarstings van basaltiese magma kom algemeen voor op die aarde se oppervlak
/ Large outpourings of basaltic magma are common at Earth’s surface

4.4.2 Assimilasie / Assimilation

Gedurende stollings-indringing, styg magma geleidelik opwaarts in die aardkors waar
gedeeltelik smelting, afbreking en verswelging van blokke van die newegesteentes plaasvind,
'n proses wat bekend staan as afbouing. Die geassimileer materiale verander die samestelling
van die intrusiewe magma (Fig. 4-4). / During igneous intrusion, magma gradually works its
way upward by partially melting, breaking off and engulfing blocks of the country rock, a
process known as stoping. The assimilated materials change the composition of the intruding
magma (Fig. 4-4).

4.4.3 Bowen se reaksiereeks en Fraksionele kristallisasie / Bowen’s reaction series and

Fractional crystallization
Nie alle minerale kristalliseer by dieselfde temperatuur nie, maar kristalliseer in ‘n
voorspelbare opeenvolging – ‘n meganisme genoemd Bowen se reaksie reeks. / Not all
minerals freeze at the same temperature, but rather crystallize in a predictable sequence - a
mechanism called Bowen’s reaction series.
N.L. Bowen het die meganisme voorgestel om die derivasie van intermediêre en felsiese
magmas van ‘n mafiese magma te verklaar. / N.L. Bowen proposed this mechanism to account
for the derivation of both intermediate and felsic magmas from a mafic magma.
Bowen se reaksie bestaan uit twee takke: ‘n diskontinue tak en ‘n kontinue tak (Fig. 4-5).
Soos die temperatuur van die magma verlaag, kristalliseer minerale langs beide van die take
gelyktydig, maar vir gerieflikheid sal die twee apart beskryf word. / Bowen’s reaction series
consists of two branches: a discontinuous branch and a continuous branch (Fig. 4-5). As the
temperature of magma decreases, minerals crystallize along both branches simultaneously,
but for convenience they will be discussed separately.

Fig. 4-4: Die konsep van magma kontaminasie. Blokke van

gesteentes val in ‘n magma, smelt, en word gemeng met die
magma. Wand gesteentes begin ook gedeeltelik smelt en dra
by tot die nuwe magma wat in die kolom opstyg. / The
concept of magma contamination. Bocks or rock fall into a
magma, melt, and become mixed with the magma. Also, wall
rock begins partially to melt and contributes new magma to
the rising magma column (after Marshak, 2008).

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

Fig. 4-5: Bowen se reaksiereeks. Dit

bestaan uit ‘n diskontinue tak
waarlangs ‘n opeenvolging van
ferromagnesiese silikate kristal-
liseer soos die magma se
temperatuur verlaag, en ‘n
kontinue tak waarlangs plagioklaas
velds-pate met verhoogde
hoeveelhede Na kristalliseer. Let
op dat die samestelling van die
oorspronklike magma verander
soos kristallisasie plaasvind langs
die twee takke. / Bowen’s reaction
series. It consists of a
discontinuous branch along which a
succession of ferro-magnesian
silicates crystallize as the magma’s
temperature de-creases, and a
continuous branch along which
plagioclase feldspars with
increasing amounts of sodium
crystallize. Notice also that the
composition of the initial mafic
magma changes as crystallization
takes place along the two branches
(After Wicander & Monroe, 2006).

• In die linkerkantste tak van Bowen se reaksiereeks (diskontinue tak) wat slegs
ferromagnesiese silikate (olivien, pirokseen, amfibool, en biotiet) bevat, verander een
mineraal na ‘n ander oor ‘n spesifieke temperatuur (T) variasie (Fig. 4-5). Soos die T
verlaag, bereik dit ‘n ruimte waar ‘n spesifieke mineraal begin kristalliseer. Sodra ‘n
mineraal gevorm het reageer dit met die oorblywende smelt sodat dit die volgende
mineraal in die opeenvolging kan vorm. Bv. in ‘n basaltiese smelt sal olivien die eerste
mafiese mineraal wees om te vorm. Soos die magma afkoel bereik dit ‘n temperatuur
ruimte waar pirokseen stabiel is en ‘n reaksie sal dan plaasvind tussen olivien en die
oorblywende smelt om pirokseen te vorm. Met verdere afkoeling van die magma vind ‘n
ooreenstemmende reaksie plaas tussen die pirokseen en smelt, die pirokseen struktuur
herrangskik om amfibool te vorm. Ens... Teen die tyd dat biotiet kristalliseer, is al die
magnesium en yster teenwoordig in die oorspronklike magma opgebruik. / In the left-
hand side of Bowen's Reaction series (discontinuous branch) which contains only
ferromagnesian silicates, one mineral changes to another over specific temperature
ranges (Fig. 4-5). As the temperature decreases, it reaches a range where a given mineral
begins to crystallize. Once a mineral form, it reacts with the melt so that it forms the next
mineral in the sequence. E.g. in a basaltic melt, olivine will be the first mafic mineral to
form. As the magma continues to cool, it reaches the temperature range at which
pyroxene is stable; a reaction occurs between the olivine and the remaining melt, and
pyroxene forms. With continued cooling, a similar reaction takes place between pyroxene
and the melt, and the pyroxene structure is rearranged to form amphibole. By the time

74
Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

biotite has crystallized, all the magnesium and iron present in the original magma have
been used up.
• Plagioklaas veldspate is die enigste minerale in die regterkantste tak van Bowen se
reaksiereeks (kontinue tak) (sien Fig. 4-5). Kalsium-ryke plagioklaas kristalliseer eerste.
Soos die magma verder afkoel, reageer Ca-ryke plagioklaas met die smelt en plagioklaas
wat proporsioneel meer natrium bevat kristalliseer tot al die Ca en Na opgebruik is. /
Plagioclase feldspars are the only minerals in the right-hand side of Bowen's Reaction
Series (continuous branch) (see Fig. 4-5). Calcium-rich plagioclase crystallizes first. As the
magma continues to cool, Ca-rich plagioclase reacts with the melt, and plagioclase
containing proportionately more sodium crystallizes until all the Ca and Na are used up.
• Die reaksies is nie altyd volledig nie. Bv. as olivien kristalliseer en daar is nie genoeg silika
om pirokseen te vorm nie, sal die reaksie dan nie plaasvind nie en olivien sal dan oorbly.
As Olivien kristalliseer en die temperatuur val te vinnig vir die reaksie om plaas te vind, sal
die reaksie dus nie tyd hê om te gebeur nie, die gesteente sal vinnig stol en die minerale
wat oorbly is olivien. Plagioklaas wat onder hierdie toestande vorm is gesoneer, wat
beteken dat hulle ca-ryke kerne besit omring met sones progressief ryker in Na. / The
reactions are not always complete. E.g. if you are crystallizing olivine and there is not
enough silica to form pyroxene, then the reaction will not occur and olivine will remain. If
you are crystallizing olivine and the temperature drops too fast for the reaction to take
place then the reaction will not have time to occur, the rock will solidify quickly, and the
mineral will remain olivine. Plagioclase forming under these conditions is zoned, meaning
that it has a calcium-rich core surrounded by zones progressively richer in sodium.
• Teen die tyd dat die ferromagnesiese silikate asook die kalsium en natrium opgebruik is,
sal enige oorblywende magma verryk wees in kalium, aluminium, en silikon, wat verbind
om die kalium-ryke feldspar, ortoklaas, te vorm (Fig. 4-5). Indien waterdruk hoog is sal die
plaat silikaat muskoviet vorm. Enige oorblywende magma is verder verryk met silikon en
suurstof en vorm die mineraal kwarts. Ortoklaas en kwarts vorm onafhanklik en nie deur
‘n reaksie met die smelt nie. / By the time all the ferromagnesian silicates as well as the
calcium and sodium is used up, any leftover magma will be enriched in potassium,
aluminium, and silicon, which combine to form the potassium feldspar orthoclase (Fig.
4-5). If water pressure is high the sheet silicate muscovite forms. Any remaining magma
is further enriched in silicon and oxygen and forms the mineral quartz. Orthoclase and
quartz form independently rather than by a reaction with the melt.
Fraksionele kristallisasie – Vroeg gevormde kristalle sal of afsak (indien dig) of bly waar hulle
kristalliseer op die wande waar die temperatuur op die koelste is en kristal groei verloop na
binne – fraksionele kristallisasie. Die magma verander samestelling deurlopend soos die
elemente verwyder word van die magma en ingesluit word in die minerale wat vorm. Fe, Mg,
and Ca word verwyder van die vroeë afgesakte soliedes, terwyl Si, Al, Na, and K in die smelt
agterbly en verhoog (Fig. 4-6). / Fractional crystallization - Early-forming crystals will either
settle downward (if denser), or stay where they form on the walls where the temperature is
coolest and then crystal growth progresses inward - fractional crystallization. The magma
changes composition continuously as elements are removed from the magma and included in
the minerals that form. Fe, Mg, and Ca is removed in early settled solids, while Si, Al, Na, and
K remain in melt and increase (Fig. 4-6).

75
Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

Fig. 4-6: Fraksionele

kristallisasie kan die
samestelling van magma
verander. Vroeg ge-
vormde ferromagnesiese
silikate wat spesifieke
gravitasie hoër as die van
die magma, so hulle sak af
en vergader onder. Vroeg
gevormde minerale in ‘n
meer felsies magma bly
liseer op die wande waar die temperatuur op die koelste is en kristal groei verloopwaarna hulle is en/kristal-
binne. Fractional
crystallization can change the composition of magma. Early-formed ferromagnesian silicates have a specific
gravity higher than that of the magma, so they settle and accumulate. Early-formed minerals from a more silicic
magma stay where they form on the walls where the temperature is coolest and then crystal growth progresses
inward (after Smith, 2006).

4.4.4 Menging van magmas / Mixing of magmas

Verskillende magmas mag meng in ‘n magma kamer en die resultaat is ‘n kombinasie van die
eienskappe van die twee. Somtyds kan menging van magma onvolledig wees wat resulteer in
klonte van een gesteente binne die van ‘n ander. / Different magmas may blend in a magma
chamber and the result is ‘n combination of the characteristics of the two. Often magma
mixing is incomplete, resulting in blobs of one rock type suspended within the other.

4.5 Stollings omgewings / Igneous environments

Wanneer magma gevorm het styg 'n magma liggaam drywend na die oppervlak, as gevolg van
‘n laer digtheid as die omliggende rotse. Soms bereik gesmelte rots die aarde se oppervlak en
lawa bars uit deur 'n vulkaniese erupsie om ekstrusiewe stollingsgesteentes te vorm. Die
gesmelte rots (magma) wat sy mobiliteit verloor voordat die oppervlak bereik is kristalliseer
uiteindelik by diepte om intrusiewe/plutoniese stollingsgesteentes te vorm. / Once magma is
formed, a magma body buoyantly rises toward the surface because it is less dense than the
surrounding rocks. Occasionally molten rock reaches Earth’s surface, extruding lava through
a volcanic eruption forming extrusive igneous rocks. The molten rock (magma) that loses its
mobility before reaching the surface eventually crystallizes at depth, forming
intrusive/plutonic igneous rocks.

4.5.1 Ekstrusiewe omgewings / Extrusive settings

Verkoel by of naby die aardoppervlak. Koel skielik af en daarom te vinnig om groot kristalle
te groei. / Cool at or near the Earth’s surface. Cool rapidly and thus too fast to grow big crystals
Eienskappe van ekstrusies: / Characteristics of extrusives:
• Lava vloeie – plate van afgekoelde lava / Lava flows – Sheets of cooled lava.
• Lava vloeie se uitgang is deur vulkaniese openinge en vloei uitwaarts / Lava flows exit
volcanic vents and flow outward.

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

• Lava verkoel soos dit vloei en stol dan uiteindelik. / Lava cools as it flows, eventually
solidifying.
• Lae viskositeit lavas (basalt) kan lang afstande vloei. / Low-viscosity lava (basalt) can flow
long distances.
• Ontploffende as erupsies – hoë-viskositeit felsiese magma bou vulkaniese druk op en
gewelddadige erupsies besit groot volumes van vulkaniese as wat baie groot omgewings
dek. / Explosive ash eruptions - high-viscosity felsic magma builds volcanic pressure and
violent eruptions yield huge volumes of volcanic ash which can cover large regions.

4.5.2 Intrusiewe omgewings /Intrusive settings

Verkoel by diepte. Verloor hitte stadig en groei dus groot kristalle. Meeste mafiese
gesteentes vloei uit op aardoppervlak terwyl meeste felsiese magma ontwikkel onder
aardoppervlak / Cool at depth. Lose heat slowly and therefore grow large crystals. Most mafic
magmas extrude while most felsic magmas develop below Earth surface.
Eienskappe van intrusies: / Characteristics of intrusive:
• Intrusiewe gesteentes verkoel by diepte en kom nie by aardoppervlak nie. Blootstellings
van diep geërodeer dele van die kors openbaar dat: / Intrusive rocks cool at depth, they
don’t surface. Exposures of deeply erode parts of the crust reveal that:
▪ Basaltiese magmas mees algemeen deur frakture opstyg en verkoel om steil hellende
plaat-vormige intrusies te vorm. / basaltic magmas most commonly rise through
fractures and, on cooling, form steeply dipping sheet-like intrusions.
• Magma wat ouer newe gesteentes indring, inisieer: / Magma invading colder country rock
initiates:
▪ Termiese (hitte) metamorfose en smelting / thermal (heat) metamorphism and
melting
▪ Inflasie van frakture wat die gesteente wegdruk / inflation of fractures pushing the
rock aside
▪ Opneming van wandgesteente fragmente (xenoliete) / incorporation of country rock
fragments (xenoliths)
▪ Hidrotermiese (warm water) verandering / hydrothermal (hot water) alteration.
• Intrusiewe kontakte bewaar bewyse van hoë hitte: / Intrusive contacts preserve evidence
of high heat:
▪ Gebakte sone – ‘n rant van hitte veranderde newe gesteentes / Baked zone – Rim of
heat altered country rock.
▪ Verkoelings grens – magma by die kontak wat skielik verkoel het / Chill margin –
Magma at contact that cooled rapidly.
• Xenoliet – newegesteente fragment in die magma / Xenolith - Country rock fragment in
magma.
▪ Termies verander / Thermally altered.
▪ Magma verkoel voor die xenoliet geassimileer kon word / Magma cooled before
xenolith could be assimilated.

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

4.6 Tipes Intrusiewe Rots liggame / Kinds of Intrusive Rock Bodies

Magmas dring op 2 maniere in ander gesteentes in: / Magma intrudes into other rocks in 2
ways:
• As planêre, tabulêr vormige liggame (gange en plate) / As planar, tabular bodies (dykes
and sills)
• As ballon-vormige klonte (plutone) waarvan die grootte varieer en plutone kan massief
groot wees / As balloon-shaped blobs (plutons) which vary widely in size, plutons can be
massive.

4.6.1 Tabulêr vormige intrusies / Tabular intrusions

Neig om konstante dikte te besit en kan sywaarts gevolg word / Tend to have a uniform
thickness and can be traced laterally.
Twee hoof afdelings: / Two major subdivisions:
i) Plaat / Sill (Fig. 4-7a) – Parallel aan lae = konkordant / Parallel to beds = concordant
ii) Gang / Dyke (Fig. 4-7a) – Dwars snydend = diskordant / Cross cutting = discordant
Gange en plate verander die ingedringde newe gesteentes: / Dikes and sills modify invaded
country rock:
• Veroorsaak die gesteentes om uit te sit en op te blaas. / They cause the rock to expand
and inflate.
• Verander die newe gesteentes termies / They thermally alter the country rock.
Gange sprei gesteentes sywaarts en domineer in ekstensie omgewings (Fig. 4-7b) / Dikes
spread rocks sideways and dominate in extensional settings (Fig. 4-7b) .
Plate lig die hele landskap hemelwaarts en dring gewoonlik in naby die aardoppervlak (Fig.
4-7c). / Sills lift entire landscapes skyward and usually intruded near the surface (Fig. 4-7c).
Beide gange en plate vertoon wye verskeidenheid met groote, dikte (of wydte) en sywaartse
kontinuïteit / Both dikes and sills exhibit wide variability with size, thickness (or width) and
lateral continuity.

4.6.2 Plutoniese intrusies / Plutonic intrusions

Plutoon – 'n liggaam van intrusiewe stollingsgesteentes (bekend as plutoniese gesteente) wat
kristalliseer van magma wat stadig onder die oppervlak van die Aarde verkoel. / Pluton - a
body of intrusive igneous rock (called a plutonic rock) that crystallized from magma slowly
cooling below the surface of the Earth.
Magma ontwikkeling mag oor 10e van miljoene jare voorkom. / Magma generation may occur
of over 10s of Ma.
Plutoniese intrusies kan geklassifiseer word volgens die vorm en grootte van die intrusiewe
liggaam en sy verhouding tot die ander gesteentes wat dit indring: / Plutonic intrusions can be
classified according to the shape and size of the intrusive body and its relation to the other
rocks into which it intrudes:
• Plutons mag saamsmelt om ‘n groter batoliet te vorm – ‘n groot onreëlmatige diskordante
intrusie (Fig. 4-8). Batoliete is byna altyd gemaak van meestal felsiese of intermediêre

78
Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

Fig. 4-7: (a) Gange en plate is onderskeidelik vertikaal of horisontale bande op die gesig van ‘n
dagsoom. / Dikes and sills are vertical or horizontal bands, respectively, on the face of an outcrop
(after Marshak, 2008). (b) Dwars snitte wat wys hoe die kors sywaarts strek om die gang intrusie
te akkommodeer. / Cross sections showing how the crust stretches sideways to accommodate
dike intrusion (after Marshak, 2006). (c) Dwars snitte wat wys hoe intrusies van ‘n plaat die
oppervlak van die aarde opstoot. / Cross sections showing how intrusion of a sill may raise the
surface of the Earth (after Marshak, 2006).

gesteente-tipes, soos graniet of dioriet. / Plutons may coalesce to form a larger batholith
- a large irregular discordant intrusion (Fig. 4-8). Batholiths are almost always made mostly
of felsic or intermediate rock-types, such as granite or diorite.
Koepel – 'n kleiner onreëlmatige diskordante intrusie (Fig. 4-8) met 'n oppervlak
blootstelling van minder as 100 km2, verskil van batoliete deur slegs kleiner te wees.
Meeste koepels is waarskynlik die koepels van die weggesteekte batoliete. Sirkelvormige
of elliptiese koepels mag openinge wees wat voormalige vulkane gevoed het. / Stock - a
smaller irregular discordant intrusion (Fig. 4-8) having a surface exposure of less than 100
km2, differing from batholiths only in being smaller. Most stocks are probably the cupolas
of hidden batholiths. Circular or elliptical stocks may have been vents feeding former
volcanoes.
• Lakoliet - konkordante liggaam met ongeveer ‘n plat basis en ‘n konvekse bokant,
gewoonlik met 'n invoer pyp onder (Fig. 4-8). / Laccolith - concordant body with roughly
flat base and convex top, usually with a feeder pipe below (Fig. 4-8).

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

Fig. 4-8: Tipes intrusiewe gesteente liggame en hul terme. / Kinds of intrusive rock bodies and their
nomenclature. (After Levin, 1990).

• Lopoliet - konkordante liggaam met ongeveer ‘n plat bokant en 'n vlak konvekse basis en
kan 'n invoer gang of pyp onder hê (Fig. 4-8). / Lopolith - concordant body with roughly
flat top and a shallow convex base and may have a feeder dike or pipe below (Fig. 4-8).
• Plutone word gevorm by subduksie sones. ‘n Lang subduksie geskiedenis kan gekoppel
word aan groot batoliete. / Plutons are created at subduction zones. Long subduction
history linked to large batholiths.

4.6.3 Gesamentlike voorkoms van intrusies en ekstrusies / Co-occurance of intrusives and

extrusives
Intrusiewe en ekstrusiewe gesteentes kom algemeen saam voor (Fig. 4-8). / Intrusive and
extrusive rocks commonly co-occur (Fig. 4-8).
Magma kamers voed oorliggende vulkane wat verkoel en plutone vorm. / Magma chambers
feed overlying volcanoes that cool to become plutons
Baie stollings geometrie is moontlik bv. gange, plate, en lakkoliete. / Many igneous geometries
are possible e.g. dikes, sills, and laccoliths.

4.7 Stollings teksture / Igneous textures

Tekstuur – die algehele voorkoms van ‘n gesteente gebaseer op die grootte, vorm en
rangskikking van ineengeskakelde minerale. / Texture - overall appearance of a rock based on
the size, shape, and arrangement of interlocking minerals.
Tekstuur reflekteer direk die geskiedenis van die magma. / Texture directly reflects magma
history.
Faktore wat die mineraal kristal grootte beïnvloed: / Factors affecting crystal size:
• Verkoel tempo / Rate of cooling
▪ Stadig tempo / Slow rate → minder maar groter kristalle / fewer but larger crystals
▪ Vinnig tempo / Fast rate → baie klein kristalle / many small crystals

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

▪ Baie vinnig tempo / Very fast rate → vorm glas (gesteentes wat bestaan uit
ongeordende ione met geen kristallyne netwerk) / forms glass (rocks that consist of
unordered ions without any ordered crystalline network).
• % Silika (SiO2) teenwoordig / % of silica (SiO2) present
• Opgeloste gasse / Dissolved gases
Drie faktore wat die verkoelings tempo van die magma wat onder die aardoppervlak indring
beheer (sien Fig. 4-9): / Three factors control the cooling time of magma that intrudes below
the surface (see Fig. 4-9):
• Die diepte van ‘n intrusie – intrusies diep in die kors verkoel stadiger as vlak intrusies. /
The depth of intrusion – intrusions deep in the crust cool more slowly that shallow
intrusions
• Die vorm en grootte van die magma liggaam – hoe groter die oppervlak area vir ‘n gegewe
volume van intrusive, hoe vinniger verkoel dit bv. plutone verkoel stadiger as tablet
vormige intrusies. / The shape and size of a magma body – the greater the surface area
for a given volume of intrusion, the faster it cools e.g. plutons cools more slowly than
tabular intrusions
• Die teenwoordigheid van sirkulerende grond water – water wat deur ‘n magma beweeg
absorbeer en verwyder die hitte. / The presence of circulating ground water – water
passing through magma absorbs and carries away heat
Tipes teksture: / Types of textures:
i) Glasagtig / Glassy – gemaak van soliede glas of glas skerwe / made of solid glass or glass
shards.

Fig. 4-9: Die verkoelingstyd van ‘n intrusie

verleng met groter diepte (omdat newe
gesteentes warmer is by groter diepte). Die
verkoelingstyd hang ook af van die vorm van
die intrusie (‘n dun plaat verkoel vinniger as
‘n sfeer van dieselfde volume) asook die
grootte van die intrusie (‘n klein intrusie
verkoel vinniger as ‘n groot een). Daarom
verkoel as (gevorm wanneer druppels lawa in
kontak kom met lug) die vinnigste gevolg
deur ‘n dun plaat van lawa, ‘n vlak plaat, ‘n
diep plaat, en ‘n diep pluton. / The cooling
time of an intrusion increases with greater
depth (because country rock is hotter at
greater depth). The cooling time also
depends on the shape of the intrusion (a thin
sheet cools faster than a sheet of the same
volume) and on the size of the intrusion (a
small intrusion cools faster than a large one).
Thus, ash (formed when droplets of lava
come in contact with air) cools fastest,
followed by a thin sheet of lava, a shallow sill,
a deep sill, and a deep pluton (after Marshak,
2008).

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

ii) Ineengeskakelde mineraal-kristalle / Interlocking mineral crystals – minerale wat pas

soos stukkies van ‘n puzzle / Minerals that fit like jigsaw pieces.
iii) Fragmetêr / Fragmental – stukke van voorafbestaande gesteentes. / pieces of pre-existing
rocks.

4.7.1 Glasagtige teksture / Glassy Textures

Vorm deur die baie vinnige verkoeling van lawa in water of lug (Fig. 4-10C). / Form by very
rapid cooling of lava in water or air (Fig. 4-10C).
Blussing vorm obsidiaan (vulkaniese glas) / Quenching forms obsidian (volcanic glass).
Basalte mag blus en groot bobbels van lawa vorm genoemd kussing lawas / Basalts may
quench into blobs of lava called pillow lavas.
Glas mag eksplosief fragmenteer. / Glasses may fragment explosively.

4.7.2 Kristallyne teksture / Crystalline Textures

Kristallyn - ineengeskakelde mineraal kristalle / Crystalline - intergrown mineral crystals

Fig. 4-10: Stollings gesteente teksture / Igneous rock textures. A. Stollings gesteentes wat by of naby die
aardoppervlak verkoel en gereeld ‘n fyn-korrelrige (afanitiese) tekstuur vertoon. / Igneous rocks that form at or
near Earth’s surface cool quickly and often exhibit a fine-grained (aphanitic) texture. B. Grof-korrelrig (fanerities)
stollings gesteentes vorm wanneer magma stadig kristalliseer by diepte. / Coarse-grained (phaneritic) igneous
rocks from when magma slowly crystallizes at depth. C. Gedurende ‘n vulkaniese erupsie waarby silika-ryke lawa
in die atmosfeer uitskiet, vorm daar ‘n skuimerige glas genoemd puimsteen. /During a volcanic eruption in which
silica-rich lava is ejected into the atmosphere, a frothy glass called pumice may form. D. ‘n Porfiritiese tekstuur
vorm wanneer magma wat alreeds ‘n paar groot kristalle bevat, migreer na ‘n nuwe ligging waar die verkoelings
tempo verhoog het. Die gevolglike gesteente bestaan uit groter kristalle (fenokriste) binne ‘n matriks van kleiner
kristalle (grondmassa). / A porphyritic texture results when magma that already contains some large crystals
migrates to a new location where the rate of cooling increases. The resulting rock consists of larger crystals
(groundmass) (after Tarbuck & Lutgens, 2008).

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

a) Afanities (Fyn kristallyn, slegs mikroskopies sigbaar) / Aphanitic (finely crystalline, only
microscopic visible)
Vinnige verkoeling (ekstrusief), kristalle het nie genoeg tyd om te groei nie (Fig. 4-10A). / Rapid
cooling (extrusive.). Crystals do not have time to grow (Fig. 4-10A).

b) Fanerities (Grof kristallyn, mm-cm) / Phaneritic (coarsely crystalline, mm-cm)

Stadige verkoeling (intrusief), kristalle het baie tyd om te groei (Fig. 4-10B). / Slow cooling
(intrusive), crystals have a long time to grow (Fig. 4-10B).

c) Porfirities - groter kristalle in fyner matriks / Porphyritic – A mixture of coarse and fine
crystals
Dui ‘n 2-fase geskiedenis aan – aanvanklike stadige verkoeling ontwikkel groot fenokriste
oftewel eersteling kristalle (eerstelinge), gevolg deur vinnige verkoeling van oorblywende
magma (Fig. 4-10D). / Indicates a 2-stage history - initial slow cooling creates large phenocrysts
or primocrysts (primary crystals), subsequent eruption cools remaining magma quickly (Fig.
4-10D).

d) Pegmatities – buitengewone growwe mineraal kristalle / Pegmatitic - Exceptionally

coarse mineral crystals (Fig. 4-11)
Vorm van water-ryke smelte waar atome vinnig kan rondbeweeg sodat groot kristalle vinnig
kan groei. / Form from water-rich melts in which atoms can move around so rapidly that large
crystals can grow very quickly
Kenmerkend van laat fase kristallisasie van granitiese magmas. / Characteristic of late stage
crystallization of granitic magmas.
Vorm baie ongewone minerale in pegmatiete en somtyds baie waardevolle minerale wat as
edelstene gebruik word. / Many unusual minerals are found in pegmatites and sometimes rich
prized minerals that are used as gemstones.

4.7.3 Fragmentêr / Fragmental

Gesteentes met ‘n gefragmenteerde tekstuur bestaan uit fragmente van onstuimige

Fig. 4-11: ‘n Graniet pegmatite wat hoofsaaklik

saamgestel is uit kwarts en veldspaat (pienkerige kleur).
Die verlengde, donker kwarts kristal regs is ongeveer die
grootte van ‘n persoon se wysvinger. / A granite
pegmatite composed mainly of quartz and feldspar
(salmon colour). The elongated, dark quartz crystal on the
right is about the size of a person’s index finger (after
Tarbuck and Lutgens, 2008).

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

vulkaniese erupsies wat teen mekaar gepak, gesmelt, of aan mekaar gebind is met sement na
solidifikasie. / Rocks with a fragmental texture consist of fragments of violent volcanic
eruptions that are packed together, welded together, or cemented together after having
solidified.

4.8 Klassifikasie van Stollingsgesteentes / Classification of Igneous Rocks

4.8.1 Glasagtige stollingsgesteentes / Glassy igneous rocks
Obsidiaan / Obsidian – Vulkaniese glas van vinnige verkoelde lawa. Blussing vorm indien lawa
in water invloei (Fig. 4-12a). / Volcanic glass from rapidly cooled lava. Quenching occurs when
lava flow into water (Fig. 4-12a).
Hoë silika lawas kan glas vorm sonder blussing / High-silica lavas can make glass without
quenching.
Puimsteen / Pumice – Skuimagtige felsiese gesteente vol gasblasies en kan dryf (sien Fig.
4-10C) / Frothy felsic rock full of vesicles and it can float (see Fig. 4-10C).
Vulkaan slak / Scoria – vulkaniese glas wat meer as 30% gasblasies bevat, meer as puimsteen
(Fig. 4-12b) / Volcanic glass that contain more than ~30% vesicles, larger than those in pumice
(Fig. 4-12b).

4.8.2 Kristallyne klassifikasie / Crystalline Classification

Gebaseer op samestelling en tekstuur (sien Fig. 4-13): / Based upon composition and texture
(see Fig. 4-13):
• Samestelling / Composition – Felsies, intermediêr, mafies, en ultramafies. / Felsic,
intermediate, mafic, ultramafic.
• Tekstuur / Texture – Fyn (afanities), grof (fanerities) / Fine (aphanitic), coarse (phaneritic).

Fig. 4-12: Algemene glasagtige stollingsgesteentes. / Common glassy igneous rocks. (a) Obsidiaan / obsidian. (b)
Vulkaan slak / scoria.

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

Fig. 4-13: Die mineralogie van algemene stollings gesteentes en die magmas waarvan hul vorm. /
Mineralogy of common igneous rocks and the magmas from which they form (after Turback and Lutgens).

a) Granitiese Gesteentes / Granitic rocks

Graniet (plutonies) - Kwarts, K-veldspaat, Na-plagioklaas ± glimmer ± amfibool (Fig. 4-13, Fig.
4-14a). / Granite (Plutonic) - Quartz, K-feldspar, Na-plagioclase + mica + amphibole (Fig. 4-13,
Fig. 4-14a).
Vulkaniese ekwivalent = rioliet (Fig. 4-14b) / Volcanic equivalent = rhyolites (Fig. 4-14b)
Granodioriet (plutonies) - Kwarts, Ortoklaas, Na, Ca-plagioklaas (oligoklaas) + amfibool. /
Granodiorite (plutonic) - Quartz, orthoclase, Na, Ca-plagioclase (oligoclase) + amphibole.
Vulkaniese ekwivalent = dasiet (Fig. 4-13) / Volcanic equivalent = dacite (Fig. 4-13)

b) Dioritiese Gesteentes / Dioritic rocks

Dioriet (plutonies) - Amfibool (horingblende) + Na, Ca-plagioklaas (Andesien) (Fig. 4-13, Fig.
4-14c.) / Diorite (plutonic) - Amphibole (hornblende) + Na, Ca-plagioclase (Andesine) (Fig.
4-13, Fig. 4-14c).
Vulkaniese ekwivalent = Andesiet (Fig. 4-13, Fig. 4-14d) / Volcanic equivalent = Andesite (Fig.
4-13, Fig. 4-14d).

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

Fig. 4-14: Algemene stollingsgesteentes. / Common igneous rocks. (a) Graniet / granite. (b) Rioliet /
rhyolite. (c) Dioriet / diorite. (d) Andesiet / andesite. (e) Gabbro / gabbro. (f) Basalt / basalt. (g)
Anortosiet / anorthosite. (h) Pirokseniet / pyroxenite.

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

c) Gabbroïese Gesteentes / Gabbroic rocks

Gabbro (plutonies) - Ca, Na-plagioklaas (Labradoriet, bytowniet, anortiet) + pirokseen (Fig.
4-13, Fig. 4-14e). / Gabbro (plutonic) - Ca, Na-plagioclase (Labradorite, bytownite, anorthite)
+ pyroxene (Fig. 4-13, Fig. 4-14e).
Vulkaniese ekwivalent = Basalt (Fig. 4-13, Fig. 4-14f)/ Volcanic equivalent = Basalt (Fig. 4-13,
Fig. 4-14f)
Gang en Plaat = Doleriet of Diabaas / Dyke or Sill = Dolerite or Diabase
Anortosiet → Ca, Na-plagioklaas met minder Pirokseen (Fig. 4-14g). / Anorthosite → Ca, Na-
plagioclase with less Pyroxene (Fig. 4-14g).

d) Ultramafiese Gesteentes / Ultramafic rocks

Pirokseniet (plutonies) - net pirokseen (Fig. 4-14h) / Pyroxenite (plutonic) - only pyroxene (Fig.
4-14h).
Peridotiet (plutonies) - pirokseen + olivien (Fig. 4-13, Fig. 4-15a) / Peridotite (plutonic) -
pyroxene + olivine (Fig. 4-13, Fig. 4-15a).
Duniet (plutonies) - net olivien (Fig. 4-15b) / Dunite (plutonic) - only olivine (Fig. 4-15b)
Vulkaniese (lawa) ekwivalent van peridotiet = Komatiïet (Fig. 4-15c) / volcanic (lava)
equivalent of peridotite = Komatiite (Fig. 4-15c).
Prop (vulkaniese nek), gang of plaat = Kimberliet - Pirokseen, olivien, granaat, Fe-oksiedes,
diamant (Fig. 4-15d) / Volcanic neck, dyke, or sill = Kimberlite - Pyroxene, olivine, garnet, Fe-
oxides, diamond (Fig. 4-15d).

4.8.3 Piroklastiese klassifikasie / Pyroclastic Classification

Piroklasties / Pyroclastic – fragmente van ontstuimige vulkaniese erupsies / fragments of
violent volcanic eruptions.
Tuf / Tuff – vulkaniese as wat op die land geval het (Fig. 4-15e). / volcanic ash that has fallen
on land (Fig. 4-15e).
Vulkaniese breksie / Volcanic breccia – bestaan uit groot hoekvormige fragmente van
vulkaniese afval (Fig. 4-15f). / Consists of large angular fragments of volcanic debris (Fig.
4-15f).
Hialoklastiet / Hyaloclastite – fragmente van lawa wat ontplof het in water (Fig. 4-15g). /
fragments of lava exploded into water (Fig. 4-15g).

4.9 Plaattektoniek en stollingsgesteente verspreiding / Plate tectonics and

igneous rock distribution (Fig. 4-16)
In terme van aard prosesse kom fraksionering voor by twee hoof liggings: / In terms of earth
processes, fractionation occurs at two main locations:
i) Divergerende plaatgrense / Divergent plate boundaries
Die plaatgrense is meestal onder water en hul werking word dus nie algemeen gesien nie. Hier
styg magma van diep onder die aardoppervlak en sypel uit op die oseaan vloer om nuwe
oseaniese litosfeer te vorm. In die proses fraksioneer die moedergesteente onder die aard

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

Fig. 4-15: Verdere algemene stollingsgesteentes. /

More common igneous rocks. (a) Peridotiet /
peridotite. (b) Duniet / dunite. (c) Komatiiet /
komatiite. (d) Kimberliet / kimberlite. (e) Tuf / tuff.
(f) Vulkaniese breksie / volcanic breccia. (g)
Hialoklastiet / Hyaloclastite.

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Stollingsgesteentes / Igneous rocks

Fig. 4-16: Verspreiding van stollingsgesteentes in die aarde se litosfeer. / Distribution of Igneous Rocks in the
Earth's Lithosphere (after Fichter, 2000).

oppervlak om mafiese gesteentes te vorm bv. basalt op die oppervlak en gabbro by diepte. /
These plate boundaries are mostly under water so we do not easily see them working. Here
magma rises up from deep in the earth and oozes out onto the ocean floor to form new
oceanic lithosphere. In the process the parent rock of the earth's interior fractionates to form
mafic igneous rocks, e.g. basalt and, at depth, gabbro.
ii) Konvergerende plaatgrense / Convergent plate boundaries
By konvergerende plaatgrense sink ‘n gedeelte van die oseaniese litosfeer weer in die aarde
in waar dit verhit en gedeeltelik smelt. Die gedeeltelike smelting van mafiese gesteentes
genereer eerstens intermediêre gesteentes soos diorite. Soos die intermediêre magma
opstyg en indring in die newe gesteentes van die kontinent, vind verdere gedeeltelike smelting
plaas wat uiteindelik felsiese stollings gesteentes vorm bv. graniet onder die aardoppervlak
en rioliet by die aardoppervlak. / At convergent plate boundaries (drawing or definition) part
of the ocean lithosphere (created at divergent plate boundaries) descends into the earth
again, where it heats up and fractionally melts (drawing). This generates intermediate rocks
at first, such as diorite. As the intermediate magma rises into the wall rocks of the continent,
further partial melting results in the formation of felsic igneous rocks.
Die eenvoudigste opsomming is dus dat kontinente bestaan uit felsiese stollingsgesteentes
(soos graniet) en oseaan komme bestaan uit mafiese stollingsgesteentes (soos basalt en
gabbro), en vulkaniese boë bestaan uit intermediêre stollingsgesteentes (soos diorite en
andesite). / At its simplest, continents are made of felsic igneous rocks (such as granite), ocean
basins made of mafic igneous rocks (such as basalt and gabbro), and volcanic arcs of
intermediate igneous rocks (such as diorite and andesite.)

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