Endogenic Processes

(Erosion and Deposition)

Lagumbay I Alibong I Veloso I Marfil

Competencies
• Describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to changes in
pressure and temperature (metamorphism) (S11ES-llc-d-26)

• Describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as compression, pulling
apart, and shearing (S11ES-lld-27).

Metamorphism
• Meta means ‘change’, Morph means ‘form’

• A change in form of pre-existing rocks of all types. Sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic
by the action of:

- Heat alone (Contact)

- Pressure alone (Dynamic)

-Heat and Pressure in combination (Regional)

• As a response to heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids, minerals become unstable and
change into another mineral without necessarily changing the composition. For example,
coal, which is composed entirely of carbon, will turn into a diamond (also composed of
carbon) when subjected to intense pressure

 The mineral composition of the resulting metamorphic rock is influenced by the

following:

- Mineral composition of the original or parent rock

- Composition of the fluid that was present

- Amount of pressure and temperature during metamorphism

Index Minerals for Metamorphic Rocks

 Factors controlling the mineral assemblage of metamorphic rocks include:

- Bulk composition of the original rock

- Attained pressure during metamorphism

- Attained temperature during metamorphism

- Composition of fluid phase that was present during metamorphism (Nelson, 2011).

• Certain minerals identified as index minerals are good indicators of the metamorphic
environment or zone of regional metamorphism in which these minerals are formed
(Tarbuck and Lutgens, 2008)
 • Pelitic rock - or ‘pelite’ is a term applied to metamorphic rocks derived from a fine-grained
(<1/16 mm) sedimentary protolith. The term usually implies argillaceous, siliciclastic
sediments as opposed to carbonate mudstones (Imperial College London, 2013). e.g. shale

• The resulting metamorphic rock is also dependent on the original or ‘parent’ rock. No
amount of metamorphism will transform shale into marble. Marble can only be formed from
the metamorphism of limestone (where heat is the main agent of metamorphism)

Index Minerals for Metamorphic Rocks

• In general, the grain size of metamorphic rocks tends to increase with increasing
metamorphic grade. With the increasing metamorphic grade, the sheet silicates become
unstable and mafic minerals, such as hornblende and pyroxene, start to grow.

• At the highest grades of metamorphism, all of the hydrous minerals and sheet silicate
become unstable and thus there are few minerals present that would show preferred
orientation. This is because the fluids from these hydrous minerals are expelled out due to
the high temperature and pressure

• Most metamorphic textures involve foliation, which is generally caused by a preferred

orientation of sheet silicates (silica minerals with sheet-like structures), such as clay
minerals, mica and chlorite. Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss are foliated rocks, are texturally
distinguished from each other by the degree of foliation.

Foliation - pervasive planar structure that results from the nearly parallel alignment of sheet silicate
minerals and/or compositional and mineralogical layering in the rock (Nelson, 2012). This is brought
about by the preferred alignment of sheet silica minerals with respect to the stress being applied.

• Differential stress is formed when the pressure applied to a rock at depth is not
equal in all directions. If present during metamorphism, effects of differential stress
in the rock’s texture include the following (Nelson, 2012):
 Rounded grains can be flattened perpendicular to the direction of the maximum
compressional force
  When subjected to differential stress field, minerals may develop a preferred
orientation. Sheet silicates and minerals that have an elongated habit will grow with
their sheets or direction of elongation perpendicular to the direction of maximum stress

Metamorphic processes involved under the agent of

metamorphism
Agents of metamorphism
 High Temperature

 High Pressure

High Temperature

• Minerals convert to new high temperature minerals

• Fluids are released (e.g. clay = mica + H2O)

• Crystals grow larger

• Rocks become weaker and easier to deform

High Pressure

• Minerals may recrystallize into more compact/stable forms

 • Platy or elongate minerals may align in a preferred direction

Non foliated metamorphic rocks

- Formed when heat is the main agent of metamorphism. Generally, non-foliated rocks are
composed of a mosaic of roughly equi-dimensional and equi-granular minerals.
- Hornfels and granulite are examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks. In hornfels, the
individual mineral grains are too small, whereas in granulites, the grains are large enough to
be identified in hand specimens (visible without the use of microscopes) (Nelson, 2011).

Quartzite Granulite

Hornfels
Types of Metamorphism
1) Contact Metamorphism
• Occurs adjacent to igneous intrusions and results from high temperatures associated
with the igneous intrusion.

• Changes due to the action of heat alone

Controlling Factors - Contact

• Size and shape of the igneous body

• Composition – Acid magma 800 degrees centigrade, basic magma 1200 degrees

• Thermal conductivity of the country rocks

• Volatile content of the magma

• Distance from edge of igneous body of any location in the country rocks

Happens Around Intrusions, Shallow: 0-6 km; Low Pressure; Local heat source
Metamorphism is restricted to the zone surrounding the intrusion,
called contact aureole.   The grade of metamorphism increases in all directions toward
the intrusion.  Because the temperature contrast between the surrounding rock and
the intruded magma is larger at shallow levels in the crust where pressure is low,
contact  metamorphism is often referred to as high temperature, low pressure
metamorphism.  The rock produced is often a fine-grained rock that shows no
foliation.
2) Regional Metamorphism
• Produces the greatest quantity of metamorphic rock.

• Occurs due to progressive increase in pressure and temperature conditions.

• Regional metamorphic rocks show foliation, a banding/layering/ alignment of crystal

long axes as they crystallized under directed stress.
 What Happens During Metamorphism
Minerals React to Form New Minerals New Materials Are Added (Metasomatism)

• 2SiO2 + CaMg(CO3) 2 == CaMgSi2O6 + • CaMg(SiO2)2 + 2CO2 == CaMg(CO3)2 +

2CO2 2SiO2

• Quartz + Dolomite == Pyroxene • Pyroxene + CO2 == Dolomite + Quartz

Minerals Change Form • Minerals in Solution == Ore Bodies

• Al2SiO5 == Al2SiO5 Recrystallization

• Andalusite == Kyanite

How Rocks Behave When Under Stress

Unbalanced forces acting on Earth’s crust cause crustal movement. Some of the forces
acting on the crust are gravity (including gravitational attraction by the Sun and Moon) and
forces caused by Earth’s rotation, by the expansion and contraction of rock material due to
heating and cooling, and by density currents in Earth’s mantle.

Tension, Compression, and Shear

The many forces acting on rock are called stress. Stress can act upon rock in several
different ways. A rock is under uniform stress when the stress in all directions is equal.
Tension
- stresses act in opposite directions, pulling rock apart or stretching it.

Compression
- stresses act toward each other, pushing or squeezing rock together.
Shear
- stresses may act toward or away from each other, but they do so along different lines of
action, causing rock to twist or tear.

Deformation and Fracture

When rock is stressed, it goes through a series of changes.

 Elastic deformation

The rock strains, but the change is not permanent. If the stress is removed, the rock will
return to its original shape and size.

 Ductile deformation

Begins when stress reaches a point called elastic limit. At the elastic limit, the stress
exceeds the strength of the rock's internal bonding and permanent changes occur. If the
stress is then removed, the deformation is permanent and the rock no longer returns to its
original shape or size.

 Fracture

The stress causes the rock to break or fracture. In general, high temperatures and pressures
favor ductile behavior and make fracture less likely to occur.