John Karl M.

Pontino
Kenneth B. Ignacio
Leonard Luis B. Peña EEE 113 THU
Jon Edilpert J. Murano
Alexiss Victor W. Asotigue

Photovoltaic Effect
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect)

The photovoltaic effect or photovoltaics refers to the generation of electricity through the
conversion of light at the atomic level. Specific materials could harness the property called
photoelectric effect where the absorption of photons of light increases the energy level of an
electron causing it to be released.[1]
While photoelectric and photovoltaic effects are often confused, they are closely related to
each other. In either case, light is absorbed, causing excitation of an electron or other charge
carrier to a higher-energy state. The main distinction is that the term photoelectric effect is
now usually used when the electron is ejected out of the material (usually into a vacuum)
and photovoltaic effect used when the excited charge carrier is still contained within the
material. In either case, an electric potential (or voltage) is produced by the separation of
charges, and the light must have enough energy to overcome the potential barrier for
excitation. The physical essence of the difference is usually that photoelectric emission
separates the charges by ballistic conduction and photovoltaic emission separates them by
diffusion, but some "hot carrier" photovoltaic device concepts blur this distinction.
Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect in 1839 when he observed
the generation of voltage when light was directed on platinum coated with silver chloride or
silver bromide.[2] Willoughby Smith supported this discovery with one of his on the
photoconductivity of selenium, allowing it to create electricity when it absorbs light. William
Grylls Adams and Richard Day discovered that exposing solidified selenium to light created
electricity[3], and that it could be easily maintained due to how there were no need for
mechanical parts.[4] They published their findings “The action of light on selenium” in
“Proceedings of the Royal Society”.[5] Charles Fritts used selenium coated with a thin layer of
gold to create the first known solar cell[6]; however, it only had less than one percent
efficiency.[7] Heinrich Heinz observed the photoelectric effect when he discovered that some
electrons from metals are ejected from the material when electromagnetic wave of high
frequency is introduced.[8] Albert Einstein used these findings to form his new theory that
light is made up photons with fixed energy depending on the frequency of light.[9] The second
breakthrough in the development of photovoltaics occurred when the Czochralski method
was developed in producing highly pure silicon crystalline. Bell Telephone laboratories used
this method create a solar cell with 4% efficiency at the beginning, increasing to 11%,
sparking the new interest on photovoltaics.[10]
The most familiar form of the photovoltaic effect uses solid-state devices, mainly
in photodiodes, a semiconductor device utilized in the conversion of light to electrical
current[11]. When sunlight or other sufficiently energetic light is incident upon the photodiode,
the photons dislodge and transfer its energy to the electron—now called photoelectron—
causing it to break away from the valence band. [12] These free electrons move towards a
more positive semiconductor and crossing over the diode p-n junction, creating a voltage
difference[13] and where they are accelerated into the p-type semiconductor material by the
built-in potential (Galvani potential). This generates a flow of electrical current electromotive
force, and thus some of the light energy is converted into electric energy. The photovoltaic
effect can also occur when two photons are absorbed simultaneously in a process
called two-photon photovoltaic effect.
New methods have been discovered to harness photovoltaics without the use of sun. In
2016, researchers on University of California, Berkeley discovered new properties
surrounding a new nanomaterial, in which it glows when heated. Combined with
thermophotovoltaic cells, it allows the use of heat to produce electricity even without the
need for a direct access to the sun. [14] The heating leads to increased temperature of the
semiconductor material, which is accompanied by temperature gradients. These thermal
gradients in turn may generate a voltage through the Seebeck effect. Whether direct
excitation or thermal effects dominate the photovoltaic effect will depend on many material
parameters.
In most photovoltaic applications the radiation is sunlight, and the devices are called solar
cells. In the case of a semiconductor p-n (diode) junction solar cell, illuminating the material
creates an electric current because excited electrons and the remaining holes are swept in
different directions by the built-in electric field of the depletion region.
1[]
How do Photovoltaics Work? - NASA Science. (n.d.). Retrieved 8 18, 2019, from https://science.nasa.gov/science-
news/science-at-nasa/2002/solarcells/
2[]
Edmond Becquerel. (n.d.). Retrieved August 18, 2019, from Wikipedia:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Becquerel
3[]
C., V. (n.d.). The History of Solar Power. Retrieved August 18, 2019, from Experience:
https://www.experience.com/advice/careers/ideas/the-history-of-solar-power/
4[]
Baker, A. (n.d.). A History of Solar Cells: How Technology Has Evolved. Retrieved August 18, 2019, from Solar
Power Authority: https://www.solarpowerauthority.com/a-history-of-solar-cells/
5[]
Fraas, L. (2014). Chapter One: History of Solar Cell Development. In L. Fraas, Low Cost Solar Electric Power.
Retrieved August 18, 2019, from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274961489_Chapter_1_History_of_Solar_Cell_Development
6[]
Bellis, M. (2019, July 03). History and Definition of a Solar Cell. Retrieved August 18, 2019, from Thought Co.:
https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-solar-cells-1992435
7[]
Fraas, L. (2014). Chapter One: History of Solar Cell Development. In L. Fraas, Low Cost Solar Electric Power.
Retrieved August 18, 2019, from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274961489_Chapter_1_History_of_Solar_Cell_Development
8[]
Baker, A. (n.d.). A History of Solar Cells: How Technology Has Evolved. Retrieved August 18, 2019, from Solar
Power Authority: https://www.solarpowerauthority.com/a-history-of-solar-cells/
9[]
Photoelectric Effect. (n.d.). Retrieved August 18, 2019, from Encyclopedia Britannica:
https://www.britannica.com/science/photoelectric-effect
10[]
Basic Photovoltaic Principles and Methods. (n.d.). Retrieved August 18, 2019, from
https://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/1448.pdf
11[]
Photodiode. (n.d.). Retrieved August 18, 2019, from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodiode
12[]
Howell, E. (n.d.). Photoelectric Effect: Explanation & Applications. Retrieved August 18, 2019, from LiveScience:
https://www.livescience.com/58816-photoelectric-effect.html
13[]
Photovoltaic effect & photoelectric effect. (n.d.). Retrieved August 18, 2019, from Electrical Engineering 123:
https://www.electricalengineering123.com/photovoltaic-effect-photoelectric-effect-solar-panels-work/
14[]
Baker, A. (n.d.). A History of Solar Cells: How Technology Has Evolved. Retrieved August 18, 2019, from Solar
Power Authority: https://www.solarpowerauthority.com/a-history-of-solar-cells/