• To deteriorate - to degenerate (the lack of dystrophin causes muscle cells

to deteriorate and die)

• To dispose of - to get rid of (Workers involved in handling, treatment,

transport and disposal of medical, laboratory and other waste must be
protected from exposure to Ebola virus)

• Exosomes- small lipid vesicles which play a role in intercellular

communication (Exosomes can deliver therapies into cells that would
otherwise be hard to reach)

• To convey - to transfer (exosomes convey messages between cells in the

body)

• Irrespective of - regardless of (The therapy should work for all patients with
DMD irrespective of their particular mutation)

• Duchenne muscular dystrophy - a genetic disorder characterized by

progressive muscle degeneration and weakness due to the alterations of a
protein called dystrophin that helps keep muscle cells intact.

• Intact - not damaged

• Degeneration -decline or deterioration

• Hemophilia - veritsustõbi/ a disorder linked to a recessive gene on the X

chromosome in which the blood clots more slowly than usual, resulting in
extensive bleeding from even minor injuries ( people with hemophilia are
missing proteins that help their blood form clots. )

• To clot - to coagulate (hüübima)

• A clot - a soft mass of coagulated blood in a vein or an artery (verehüüve)

• Bleeding - hemorrhage (verejooks)

• Clotting factors - (hüübimis faktoris) substances in plasma, called Factor I,

Factor II, and so on, which act one after the other to make the blood
coagulate (coagulation cascade) when blood vessel is damaged .

Deficiency in one or more of the clotting factors results in hemophilia.

• Adeno-associated viral vector - (AAV) non-enveloped virus that can be

engineered to deliver DNA to target cells, and has attracted a significant
amount of attention in the field, especially in clinical-stage experimental
therapeutic strategies.

• Factor IX -protein produced naturally in the body. It helps the blood form
clots to stop bleeding. Injections of factor IX are used to treat hemophilia
B, which is sometimes called Christmas disease.

• Parkinson’s disease - Patients with Parkinson’s disease gradually lose cells

in the brain that produce the signaling molecule dopamine. As the disease
advances, patients lose the ability to control their movements.

• Dopamine - a neurotransmitter (a chemical substance which transmits

nerve impulses from one neuron to another). Lack of dopamine is
associated with Parkinson’s disease.

• Comparatively / relatively - in comparison with something else (Our sample

was relatively / comparatively small)

• Especially / particularly - more than usual (the process was not especially /
particularly difficult)

• Specially - for a specific purpose ( We used specially designed equipment)

• Somewhat (opposite: considerably)- rather, to some degree (The second

experiment involved a somewhat / considerably larger sample)

• Primarily - mainly (The article is primarily concerned with the effects of

pesticides)

• Mostly / largely - almost completely(but not totally so) (The project was
largely/mostly successful.)

• Directly (opposite: indirectly) - without anything else being involves (The

illness is (in)directly linked to poor housing).

• Approximately - around, about (There are approximately 20 000 pairs of

birds on the island)

• Roughly - more or less (The figure of 17% is roughly equivalent to the

decline in population in the north of the country from 1980 to 2010)

• Frequently/ infrequently - often/not often (The phenomenon occurs

relatively frequently/infrequently.

• Eventually- in the end , after some time

• Precisely - completely and accurately

• Ultimately - finally, after other things have been completed

• Exactly - similar to precisely, but is more often used to refer to numbers

• Initially- in the early stages

• Essentially - referring to its main characteristics; also basically

• Explicitly - openly

• Generally - usually, also on the whole

• Implicitly - not directly, suggested or implied rather than stated (opposite of

explicitly)

• Specifically - in particular, opposite of generally

• Broadly - in general, without considering minor details

• Merely - exactly and nothing more (The medication will merely make the
symptoms bearable, it will not cure the disease)

• Simply - plainly , easily, without doubt

• To outweigh - to exceed in value, importance, influence etc

• Solely - only, involving nothing else

• Confined to - to exist in or affect only a particular place or group

• Primarily concerned with - (the study was primarily concerned with urban
alienation)

• Infrequently - not often; rarely.

• Apparently - as far as one knows or can see. Seemingly, evidently.

• Discuss-

• involved in investigating - which are part of/included in

• conduct - organise and do

• Consider the advantages and disadvantages of different methods

• Illustrate - draw something in order to explain something

• Assuming - accepting something to be true

• find - discover by calculating

• calculate - judge the number or amount of something by adding,

multiplying, subtracting or dividing numbers

• demonstrates - shows, makes clear

• identify - recognise someone or something and say or prove who or what

they are

• Challenges- questions whether something is true

• Examine-look at or consider carefully and in detail

• Provide- give

• To truncate- to make shorter

• Surmountable - possible to deal with

• To parse- to divide into parts

• To surmise - to guess

• To extract DNA - eraldama DNA-d

• To have a relapse - haiguse taasteke

• To grow unencumbered into a tumor - kasvama takistamatult

• To encode a different amino acid - kodeerima teistsugust aminovalku

• Mutations that arise sporadically - juhuslikult

• Inheritance pattern - pärandumise viis (PKU follows an autosomal recessive

inheritance pattern)

• Helicase is an enzyme that breaks hydrogen bonds between the base pairs
in DNA, thus separating the two strands of the double helix in the process
of replication.

• Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a rapid technique for in vitro

amplification of specific DNA or RNA sequence, allowing small quantities of
short sequences to be analyzed without cloning.

• CAR T-cell therapy is a type of treatment in which a patient’s T cells are

changed in the laboratory so they will attack cancer cells.

• People with PKU cannot break down the amino acid phenylalanine
(fenüülalaniin).

• Remission - vaibeseisund (Her cancer had been in remission for several

years)

• Devised - töötas välja ( Lamaque devised a rigorous methodology for doing

research in the field)

• Endure - taluma, kannatama (She has already had to endure three painful
operations on her leg)

• Classification of genetic disorders :


-monogenic disorders (cystic fibrosis)

-chromosomal abnormalities (Down syndrome/Trisomy 21)

-multifactorial disorders (ovarian cancer)

• Gene delivery / gene tranfer - geeni transport rakku

• To trigger an immune respone - immuunvastust esile kutsuma

• Customized (diet) - kohandatud (nt dieet)

• Asymptomatic transmission - asümptomaatiline levik

• To corroborate - to add proof

• Elusive - hard to understand and explain

• Containment - the act of controlling or limiting something

• To skew (the data) - to distort

• Discrepancy - erinevus, lahknevus (there was an apparent discrepancy

between the two sets of results)

• Rigorous - täpne (the research used a rigorous methodology which had

been tested on many occasions)

• Outbreak - puhang

• Fuse with - ühinema, ühineb (Genes determine how we develop from the
moment the sperm fuses with the egg.

• Quantitative analysis - based on numbers and statistics

• Qualitative research - using non-number-based methods

• Plasmid - a small circular piece of DNA dounf in bacterial cells. It is distinct

from a cell’s chromosomal DNA. Often genes carried in plasmids provide
bacteria with genetic advantage, such as antibiotic resistance.

• Liposome - a microscopic spherical particle used to deliver vaccines,

drugs, or other subtnaces to target tissues.

• Viral vectors advantages - are effective at entering cells ; can target specific
types of cells

• Viral vectors disadvantages - can carry a limited amount of genetic

material; can cause an immune response

• Detrimental - kahjulik (these chemicals have a detrimental impact on the

environment)

• Mortality - suremus (infant mortality is much higher in the poorest areas of

the city)

• Clotting - hüübimis-(deficiency in one or more clotting factors results in

hemophilia)

• Deteriorated - halvenes (She was taken into hospital last week when het
condition suddenly deteriorated)

• Longevity - pikaealisus (He attributed his longevity to exercise and a

healthy diet)

• Prevalence - levimus (The prevalence of the disease is higher in some

families)

• Circadian clock - ööpäevane, bioloogiline kell (Our circadian clock makes it

difficult to sleep during the day)

• Outweigh - üles kaaluma (The benefits of the treatment far outweigh any
risks)

• Impaired - kahjustunud , halvenenud (She suffers from impaired vision)

• The medicine won’t cure her - it merely stops the pain.

• The government was apparently unaware of the magnitude of the crisis.

• Confined to - existing only in a particular area or group of people

• Implicitly - indirectly

• Explicitly - in a way that is clear and exact

• Phenotype - the outward, visible expression of the hereditary constitution

of an organism

• Neurodegeneration - the progressive loss of structure or function of

neurons

• Exosomes - small nanoparticles whose natural function is to convey

messages between cells in the body. One of the advantages of exosomes
as a way of delivering drugs to patients is that hese are natural particles, so
it is highly likely they will be tolerated by the immune system.

• To perform a cheek / buccal swab - põskkaabe

• DNA annealing - üksikahelast kaksikahelate teke, DNA ahelate

“kokkusulatamine”

• To expand DNA exponentially - kogust / hulka suurendavalt

• The template DNA - matriits

• To purify contaminated DNA - puhastama

• Amplifying - generating multiple copies

• Detect - discover the presence of

• Validated - proved to be correct

• Bacterium - bakter

• Replenished - elongated by adding bases, refilled

• Denaturation - the conversion from double-stranded structure to a single-

stranded structure, usually by heating (an essential stage in PCR)

• Lysis - the dissolution or destruction of cells by the action of a specific lysin

that disrupts the cell membrane.

• Taq polymerase - a temperature-resistant DNA polymerase that can extend

primers at high temperatures.

• Oligonucleotide - a synthetic laboratory-made DNA or RNA strand.

• Histone - a type of protein that forms complexes with nucleic acids.

• Proteinase K used in DNA extraction - Protein K is used for the destruction

of proteins in cell lysates and for the release of nucleic acids (it cuts apart
the histones to free the DNA).

• Biological ingredients needed for PCR: the template DNA, primers, free
nucleotides, DNA polymerase