ASSESSMENT OF SCHOOL-BASED COUNSELLING STRATEGIES

EMPLOYED BY COUNSELLORS IN REDUCING DRUGS ABUSE AMONG

SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN ILORIN METROPOLIS, KWARA
STATE, NIGERIA

BY
ABDULGANEEY MAKENGUDU ABDULQADRI
B.Ed Guidance and Counselling, 2:1, Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti
SPS/17/MED/00191

A RESEARCH DESERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF

POSTGRADUATE STUDIES THROUGH THE DEPARTMENT OF
EDUCATION, BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF
EDUCATION DEGREE IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

SUPERVISOR

Dr, ISA ADO ABUBAKAR

JANUARY 2021
 APPROVAL SHEET

This research report has been read and approved as meeting the requirements for the award of

Masters of Education Degree in (Guidance and Counselling) of Bayero University Kano,

Nigeria.

______________________ ______________
External Examiner Date

_________________ _______________
Internal Examiner Date

_________________ ______________
Dr. Isa Ado Abubakar Date
Supervisor

_________________ ______________
Dr. Nasiru Sa‟ad Date
PG Coordinator

_________________ ______________
Dr. M.A. Kwankwaso Date
H.O.D/Chief examiner

_________________ ______________
Prof Umaru A. Pate Date
Dean, School of Postgraduate Studies

ii
 CERTIFICATION

I certify that this research work was conducted, written and compiled by me. I also certify

that to the best of my knowledge this research work has never been presented wholly or

partially for the award of any degree or for publication elsewhere.

Abdulqadir Makengudu Abdulganeey

SPS/17/MED/00191 Date

iii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify, that the research work for this dissertation and subsequent write-up of

ABDULQADIR MAKENGUDU ABDULGANEEY with registration number

SPS/17/MED/00191 was carried out under my supervision.

____________________________ ___________________

Dr. Isa Ado Abubakar Date

Supervisor

____________________________ ___________________

Dr. MA. Kwankwaso Date

HOD/Chief Examiner

iv
 DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to God Almighty and my Caring Mother Hajia Khairah

Aduke Abdulganeey and my lovely Wife Hajia Abulqadri Aderonke Khadijat, My Late

grandfather Alhaji Ahmad Ajao Makengudu,My late Uncle Alhaji Abdulrasheed Aliu

Albadawy as well as my God given Children Ayatullah Oladimeji, Khairat Aduke Iyadunni

and Abdulraheed Ajao Abdulqadri Makengudu for their significant and immeasurable

support and contributions to the journey of my life.

v
 ACKNOLEDGEMENTS

Glory be to Almighty Allah,the most merciful and beneficent for giving me the opportunity

to do this masters degree programme ,All praise be to Prophet Muhammed PBUH the most

exalted of all human being and his companions altogether. First and foremost I must convey

my utmost regard and commendation to my able and indefatigable supervisor, in person of Dr

Isa Ado Abubakar Who has never never been weary of my constant consultations may

Almighty Allah Compensates him with county of rewards.

The must also appreciate the good leardership of our respected lecturer and Head of

Department of Education, Faculty of Education, Bayero University Kano, Nigeria in person

of Dr Kabir Bello Dungurawa as well as scholarly roles of our erudite Educationists Prof

Abdulrashid Garba, Prof Muhammad Ibrahim Yakasai ,Prof Auwal Muhammad Auwal and

likes in Faculty of Education Bayero University Kano.

My sincere greetings also goes to my mentor Dr Abdulkadir Olanrewaju Abdulrasaq of

Department of Education Federal University Kashere ,Gombe State Nigeria for his all time

mentorship from my NCE level uptill this moment who also facilitated my admission for this

masters program through the effort of Dr Gali Saidu, may the Almighty reward them

abundantly.

Furthermore, I will be ingrate without extending my appreciation to some notable persons

who support me financially and spiritually toward the successful completion of this program

to like DCP Salman Garba Dogo, Maj Gen Sunday Adedayo Adebayo Rtd , my brother Mr

Yahaya Muritala Olanrewaju (BOUNFRY)and his lovely wife, Mallam Abdulrauph Saad

Sayodun and his lovely wife ,Mr Abdulsalam Olantunji Abdulrahman and Alhaji Abdulfatai

Olanrewaju Yaasheu.

Furthermore, the good gesture and support of my friends, Imam Bashir,Abdulrahman

Abdullahi Kayode,Sulyman and Muhydeen Oyan,Isiaka Gafar Olaitan,Dr Hammed Olawale

vi
Ayuba,Sulaiman Tunji Ibrahim and must not forget and support of The Formal Principal of

Sheikh Abdulkadir College in person of Hajia N.T Mustapha and Current principal Hajia

Mariam Omolola Abdulkareem as well as the entire management and staff of Sheikh

Abdulkadir College, Ilorin, May Almighty Allah continue to uplift each and every one of you

in your day to day engagements.

More so, Cooperation and support of my Entire course mate also need to be commended

most Especially Malam Anas Adamu Siyasiya, Sulaiman Auwal, zahradeen Ibrahim,Maddam

Serrah Onyecka Anebi,Okoi Marry and Rest of others for making my stay in Kano a very

interesting and educative one.

Bye and large, I am sincerely appreciate my brothers and sisters Hajia Fatimoh Adeyi

Raliat,Tawakalitu,,Idayyat,Nafisat,Ismail,Fauziyat Olajumoke Abdulganeey Makengudu,Aliu

Shifau Iyabo May Almighty Allah Continue Bless them All

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page

Title Page i

Approval Page ii

Declaration iii
Certification iv
Dedication v
Acknowledgements vi
Abstract vii
Table of Contents viii
List of Tables ix
List of Appendices xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 2
1.3 Objectives of the Study 4
1.4 Research Questions 4
1.5 Hypotheses 5
1.6 Significance of the Study 5
1.7 Scope and Delimitation of the Study 6

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Conceptual Framework 8
2.2.1 Drug Abuse 8
2.2.3 Causes of Drug Abuse 15
2.2.4 Effects of Drug Abuse 18
2.2.5 Prevalence of Drug Abuse 21
2.2.6 Drugs Commonly Abuse 29

viii
2.2.7 Strategies used in reducing Drug Abuse 42
2.2.8 School –Based Strategies 44
2.2.9 Parental roles in drug abuse prevention 51
2.2.10 Gender and drug Abuse 53
2.3 Theoretical Framework 55
2.4 Review of Empirical Studies 56
2.5 Summary and uniqueness of the study 62
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 64
3.2 Research Design 64
3.3 Populations and Sample 64
3.3.1 Population of the Study 64
3.3.2 Sample Size 65
3.3.3 Sampling Technique 65
3.4 Data Collection Instrument 66
3.5 Validation of the Instrument 67
3.5.1 Validity of the Instrument 67
3.5.2 Reliability of the Instrument 67
3.6 Procedures for Data Collection 67
3.7 Procedures for Data Analysis 68
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Data Presentation 69
4.3 Data Analysis 70
4.3.1 Answer to Research Questions 70
4.3.2 Hypotheses Testing 72
4.4 Summary of Findings 73
4.5 Discussion of Findings 74
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction 76
5.2 Summary 76
5.3 Conclusions 77
5.4 Recommendations 78
ix
5.4.1 Recommendation from the study 78
5.4 Recommendations for Further Studies 79
References 80
Appendices 88

x
 ABSTRACT
This study investigated school-based counselling strategies employed by counsellors in
reducing drug abuse among senior secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara
State Nigeria. Descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. The population for the
study consist of counsellors in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State and sample of 169 were used.
The instrument used in gathering data for the study was a questionnaire, the instrument was
validated with reliability coefficient of 0.83. Percentage was used to present the demographic
data while the generated hypotheses were analyzed using t-test at 0.05 level of significance.
The findings of the study revealed that educational programs like school Orientation
Programme to prevent/reduce drug abuse behaviour, providing relevant knowledge and
information on drug abuse to students, encourage the adolescent to focus more directly and
effectively on learning behaviour to promote their health needs among others are the school-
based counselling strategies employed by counsellors in reducing drug abuse among senior
secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State Nigeria. There was no
significant difference in the school-based counselling strategies employed by male and
female schools counsellors in reducing drug-abuse among senior secondary students in Ilorin
metropolis Kwara state, Nigeria. There was significant difference in the school- based
counselling strategies in reducing drug abuse employed by counsellors in boarding and day
senior secondary students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State, Nigeria., it was recommended
that counsellors should counsel the students on dangers as well as health consequences of
drug abuse, Seminars, conferences and workshops should be organised to educate students
on the dangers involved in drug abuse and stakeholders in education irrespective of their
gender and school type should ensure that proper care is accorded to students in their care.

xi
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Drug abuse among youth in school and beyond is alarming; this has endangered the life of

many youth and also put their future in an uncertainty scenario. According to the National

survey on drug use and health (2013), about 10 million Nigerian aged 12 years and older

(46%) used at least one illicit drug or the other. Efforts of agencies and counsellors in schools

are being used in order to reduce the incessant consumption and abuse of drugs in school

society at large. Schools can play a crucial role through various school based strategies such

as drug free club, drama, role play, involving home and community partnership. Efforts by

the counsellors are geared towards complementing the general efforts into a way to reducing

the drug addiction menace. However, the efficacy of measures used in schools remains

subject empirical investigation. Botvin, (2009) noted that educational programmes either by

focusing on promotion of knowledge of the students about addictive drugs and their adverse

effects, or on improvement skills such as decision-making and resisting peer pressure.

These educational programmes play an important role in decreasing the prevalence of drug

abuse among adolescents. Peer education also discouraged advertising of cigarettes, alcohol,

and proprietary drugs that are responsible for students exposure to drug use. The educator

should give comprehensive health education on drug addiction and proffer solution to

rehabilitation. It encourages the adolescent to focus more directly and effectively on learning

behaviour to promote their health needs but despite all these strategies both school based and

other organization strategies drug abuse among students in schools is often prevalent at high

level.

The menace of drug abuse has reverted into various settings, home and other public places.

Schools are parts of the community that suffers from the menace; the school managers are

1
putting measure to curtail the menace. The war on drugs and its operational strategies have

continued to come under the spotlight with increasing scrutiny by many writers.

Educating youth can be form of organizing programmes so as to enlighten youth on the

effects of indulging into substance abuse and the benefit of avoiding these substances. The

aim of the programmes is to assist people acquire knowledge on decision marking and

resistance skill, and to modify intension to use tobacco, alcohol and marijuana as well as

other illicit drugs. The program targeted on the mediator to this behaviour, (Sloboda, 2009).

In view of the above background the researcher intend to examine the assessment of school-

based counselling strategies employed by Counsellors in reducing drug abuse among

secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State, Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Drug abuse remains one of the major problems in the world with millions of people

especially the youth, abusing legal and illegal drugs. Drug abuse has negative physical,

psychological and social effects on individuals, families, friends and society. The ill effects of

substance abuse include; medical problems, academic problems, conflicts, crime, financial

problems, psychological disorders and increase in social vices. The role of school based

counselling strategies in reducing drug abuse is to develop strategies through the use of

school curriculum, staff personnel development, student personnel development and the

school community based programmes for effective management of schools to curb drug

abuse among students. Through the school curriculum, religious education, social education

and ethics and life skills are taught to reduce the menace of drug abuse

Approximately one third of the crimes committed by adolescents are related to alcohol

consumption; Nearly 50% of all teen suicide victims had been drinking alcohol at the time of

their death; Almost one third of all traffic deaths involving a person under the age of 25 are

related to alcohol; Drinking alcohol is a leading factor in unplanned pregnancies and sexually
2
transmitted diseases, because making healthy choices is difficult if a person is under the

influence of alcohol. Adolescents have access to drugs because of its escalation in the society

and no punishment conferred on the offenders. They take drugs in order to improve their self-

esteem and self-confidence, to deal with loneliness, cope with life frustration and to comply

with peer pressure, to pass examinations among others. This has resulted into heath risk such

as heart attack, brain damage, respiratory failure, coma, HIV/AIDs on the abusers.

Drug abuse and misuse among students is worrisome. Drug abuse has led to lot of health

consequences among the students such as hyper activity, dependence on drugs, depression,

psychological problems etc. Students wrong notion about drug that it gives them a different

image, allows them to solve problems and make them respond to social pressures often lead

to abuse of drugs. The most frequently abused groups of drugs are stimulants, depressants

and other mood changing drugs which have immediate effect on the brain and spinal cord of

which, it consistence and long term use can cause psychological dependence, physical

dependence and tolerance.

Drug abuse among youngsters affects their academic performance as they do not have time to

study which consequently may lead to drop out in school. Robbery, prostitutions, absent in

school and other delinquent behaviours has been noted. Furthermore, Richard (2002)

observed that cases of robbery and indiscipline are on the high increase among students of

tertiary institutions. For instance, students under the influence of drugs indulge in deviant

activities such as rape, truancy, destruction of school properties, breaking the school rules and

regulations, beating up teachers. Coleman (2010) found out that certain pre-disposing factors

such as peer pressure, sex, age, family background; occupation of parent contributes

immensely to drug abuse by the students. Oriahi, Ajekweneh and Oriahi (2012) found that the

majority of students were influenced by peer group and influence of parents on the use of

drugs. Age, gender, parental addiction also contributed to drug abuse by the youngsters.

3
Measures to curb out drug abuse have been employed in schools and one them is guidance

and counselling and Guidance and counselling has been instrumental in the fight against drug

abuse , it was further noted that individual counselling, group counselling, peer counselling,

mentoring, and role modeling are used to help students overcome drug abuse by schools .

Through counselling and mentoring, students are taught the dangers of drug abuse and how to

overcome peer pressure to smoke or drink, but these strategies are preventive measures as

well as punishment for victims of drug abuse. These strategies have not been able to focus on

cognitive restructuring and modification of the behavior of drug abusers which are

counselling perspective that can help in drastic reduction of drug abuse in the society.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are;-

1 To identify school- based counselling strategies employed by Counsellors in reducing

drug abuse among secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State,

Nigeria.

2 To find out whether school-based counselling strategies differ between male and

female Counsellors in reducing drug abuse among senior secondary school students

in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State, Nigeria.

3 To find out whether school –based counselling strategies employed by Counsellors

differ between boarding and day schools in reducing drugs abuse among senior

secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State.

1.4 Research Question

This research question was raised based on the problem of the study;

1. What are the school-based counselling strategies employed by counsellors in reducing

drug abuse among senior secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara

State Nigeria?

4
1.5 Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were formulated based on the problem of the study and tested at

0.05 level of significant.

1. There is no significant difference in the school-based counselling strategies employed

by male and female schools counsellors in reducing drug-abuse among senior

secondary students in Ilorin metropolis Kwara State, Nigeria.

2. There is no significant difference in the school- based counselling strategies in

reducing drug abuse employed by counsellors in boarding and day senior secondary

students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State, Nigeria.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study of this nature would be of immense benefit to students, parents, counsellors,

community, researcher and educational policy makers. The findings of this study would in

this regard, be of immense benefit to counsellors and other drug regulatory agencies by

providing them with an understanding of what drug abuse is all about and suggest to them

effective strategies that can be used to reduce the menace instead of strict rules to relate well

with their patients in order to prevent them from drug abuse and to those who are already

victims in changing their maladaptive behaviour for better future.

The findings of the study would also be of great benefit to students in the sense that various

health implications of drug abuse would be highlighted in the study and this will be an insight

to the menace of drug abuse on the health of individuals that involve in it, it will also educate

the students on the basic knowledge that requires on drug abuse and the various strategies

that can be used in reducing the menace.

This study would be of advantage to counsellors who are involved with the responsibility of

helping a troubled person to feel and behave more personally satisfying manner through

interpersonal interaction and provision of information and reactions which stimulate the

5
clients to develop behaviour which enable him to deal more effectively with himself and his

environment. In this regard, the findings of this study would likely provide professional

counsellors with the necessary data on school-based counselling strategies that can

drastically reduce drug abuse among students.

Similarly, this study would serve as reference material for researchers and students interested

in the issue of substance abuse in Nigeria. It is the contention of this study that a healthy,

responsible and drug free generation is the recipe for cultural and socio-economic

development of any society. The findings of this study would help every tiers of government

plan and execute programmes that will discourage people from abusing drugs in the society.

All educational establishments would also benefit from the findings of this study. Through

the findings the government and other organizations can be able to pin point the strategies

that are effective for the control of drug abuse and through that organize seminars, workshops

and conferences to train professionals like social workers, counsellors, psychologists and a

host of others on the strategies that emanates from the findings of this work.

The findings of the study would also be of significant benefit to the community due to the

fact that the recommendations of the study will assist the community leaders in providing

solution to the problem of drug abuse among the youth in the society.

The study would be of importance to the education policy makers as it similar guard for new

policy initiative towards providing solutions to drug addiction menace in the school system

especially the secondary school students.

1.7 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The study is limited to the assessment of school-based counselling strategies employed by

Counsellors in reducing drug abuse among senior secondary school students in Ilorin

metropolis, Kwara State, Nigeria: The study will be restricted to senior secondary school

counsellors in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State and Measures employed by schools counsellors

6
on drug abuse. Schools in Ilorin are involved in the study, precisely senior secondary schools.

Male and female Counsellors will participate in the study. The study will involve school-

based counselling strategies in reducing drug abuse among senior secondary school students

in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State Nigeria.

The respondents for the study were senior secondary school counsellors in Ilorin, Kwara

State and the locale of the study is Ilorin metropolis. This indicates that the present study is

restricted to only Ilorin metropolis in Kwara State Nigeria.Therefore the study is delimited to

JSS, other LGAs, other behavioral problem and other strategies used in reducing drug abuse

behaviour were delimited from the study.

7
 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEWED OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents review of related literature on the variables of the study under the

following sub-headings: Conceptual Framework, Drug Abuse Behavior, Prevalence of Drug

Abuse Behavior, Strategies used in Reducing Drug Abuse Behavior, School based

counselling Strategies, Other strategies, Gender and Drug Abuse, Theoretical Framework,

Empirical Studies on Drug Abuse, Summary and Uniqueness of the Study

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 Drug Abuse

Drug abuse is defined as the arbitrary or over dependence or miss-use of one particular drug

with or without a prior medical diagnosis from qualified health practitioners (Lakhanpal, &

Agnihotri, 2007). Oluremi (2012) stressed that drug abuse is the harmful use of mind altering

drugs. It added that the term usually refers to problem with illegal drugs, which also include

harmful use of legal prescription drugs, Such as in self-medication. Some Nigerian

adolescents ignorantly depend on one form of drug or the other for their various daily

activities social, educational, political, moral etc. Such drugs include: tobacco, indian hemp,

cocaine, morphine, heroine, alcohol, ephedrine, madras, caffeine, glue, barbiturates, and

amphetamines (Oshikoya & Alli, 2006).

Drugs that affect the brain alter mood and behaviours are legally controlled substances and

the most commonly abused drugs. These psychoactive drugs can be categorized according to

the nature of their physiological effects which fall into one of the general categories:

stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, cannabis, narcotic and inhalants (Durani, 2012).

8
Drug and Substance Abuse among the youth is a major challenge facing the Nigeria

education sector. It creates social-economic hardships, breeding misery which increases

crime, violence and a drain in all affected strata of the society. A survey conducted by the

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNODC (2010), the war against drug abuse is

far from over and that drug barons are so powerful and ruthless that they are able to hold at

ransom any one standing in the way of their evil trade irrespective of his/her position of

authority. Countries like Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia have large plantations of cocaine, while

opium poppy a flower like plant from which heroin is produced grows illegally in Pakistan

and Afghanistan (Golden crescent) and around Cambodia, Thailand and Laos (Golden

triangle) (UNOD, 2010). Drug abuse is a global problem that threatens the political,

economic, and social stability and security of many countries; affecting management of

schools and disrupting education programs (United Nations, 1998; and National Agency for

Campaign against Drug Abuse Authority (NACADA), 2006).

The term drug is defined as any substance that when absorbed into a living organism may

modify one or more of its physiological functions. The term is generally used in reference to

a substance taken for both therapeutic purpose and abused substances (Kwamanga,

Odhiambo & Amukoye, 2003).

Globally and even regionally, drug and substance abuse is an ever expanding problem and is

recognized as a threat with serious effects on people‟s health, security, social-economic and

cultural welfare. In Nigeria, students have consistently shown that there is considerable

prevalence of drug and substance use; with varying preference rates found for both overall

and specific drug abuse (Abdulkarim, 2005). Some of these commonly abused substances

include tobacco, Miraa (khat), bhang, alcohol, cocaine, mandrax and heroine (NACADA,

2006).

9
Drugs pose a very big problem in the world today and it is ruining the lives of many millions

of people both in adolescent and general population. The use of illegal drugs has spread at a

high rate and has penetrated every part of the world. No nation has been spared from the

devastating problem caused by drugs and substance abuse. Kenya has not been spared either

and in most cases it has been as a transit point of hard drugs especially through Nairobi and

Mombasa. Trafficking of hard drugs into developing countries has not spared Kenya the drug

consumption and dependence among secondary and college students and has led to unrest

and consequently wide ranging destruction of life and property (Ngesu, Ndiku & Masese,

2008).

2.2.2 Factors Influencing Students to use Drug

Factors influencing students to drug use have been identified among them parental influence

whereby it has been noted that children from homes where parents take drugs tend to imitate

their parents‟ behaviors and by modeling they also start using drugs (Ngesu, 2008).

School factors can also influence students to drug use (Ngesu, 2008). How the school

administration manages students‟ affairs may lead to drug abuse, high handedness, lack of

freedom and failure to address them generally creates stress which can lead to abuse of drugs

as depressors (Kingala, 2000). Unfortunately, across all continents in the world and

throughout time, drug abuse among both the young and adult population has manifested itself

in various forms. It appears that drug abuse affects behavior and its effects on secondary

school students whose prevalence was assessed in this study, is a worldwide problem with no

exception of Nigerian secondary students. Use of drugs has led to many health problems in

the youth, especially among the secondary school students.

The youth experience many special problems and considerations. This is the period of

adolescence which is full of many challenges such as stress of physiological and physical

change, competition in school and life in general, generation gap, unjust and cruel world

10
among other problems. Psychologically, the adolescents have serious developmental tasks to

handle such as peer identification and individualization from their family. Sexual

identification; societal and vocational; role identification and negotiating issues of authority

power and independence are primary (Oketch, 2008).

A report by United Nation Drug Control Programme (UNDCP, 1998) shows that 60% of

student‟s abuse drugs. A survey by National Council against Drug Abuse (NACADA, 2006)

shows that substance abuse is widespread. It affects the youth mostly although it cuts across

all social groups. Many young people especially the unemployed have resulted to using drugs

like heroin and cocaine which are injectables. This has been a major contributor to the spread

of HIV/AIDS due to the fact that they share syringes. Other drugs like alcohol can lead to

risky sexual behaviour as they affect judgment and decision making. A drunkard is unable to

assert himself or herself especially when it comes to saying no to unprotected sex thus

resulting to exposures to sexually transmitted infections.

Stimulants are a group of drugs that excite or increase the activity of the central nervous

system (CNS). Stimulant effects can be mild or strong depending on the kind of drug and the

amount taken. Stimulants may cause an increase in alertness or give body a temperature,

feeling of energy and wellbeing. Thus, the user feels uplifted and less fatigued. Example of

stimulant drug include: caffeine, amphetamine and cocaine. These drugs have a high potential

for psychological dependence and tolerance relatively quickly, but they are unlikely to

provide significant physical dependence when judge by life threatening withdrawal

symptoms (Durani, 2012).

Amphetamines are stimulants that accelerate function of the brain and body. They come in

pills or tablets. Prescription diet pills also fall into category of drugs. It street names are

speed, uppers, dexies, bennies and are being used by swallowing, inhaled or injection.

Amphetamines users get fast high, making them feel powerful, alert and energized. Uppers

11
pump up heart rate, breathing, blood pressure and they can also cause sweating, shaking,

headaches, sleeplessness and blurred vision. Excessive and prolonged use may cause

hallucination and intense paranoid. Amphetamines are very addictive. Users who stop

reported that they experienced various mood problems such as aggression, anxiety and

intense craving for the drugs (Durani, 2012).

Crystal methamphetamine other wisely called ice or speed, is the most recent and dangerous

forms of methamphemine. When smoked the effects are felt in about seven seconds as a wave

of intense physical and psychological exhilaration. This effects last for several hours until the

user becomes physically exhausted. Muscles and joints ache and trembling occur. The effect

of single dose may end in a depression so deep and intense that another dose seems the only

cure (Casapalmera, 2012).

Cocaine is the primary psychoactive substance found in the leaves of the South American

Coca plant. Cocaine is a power and illegal stimulant which its abuse has become a major

health problem in our society. Cocaine create a feeling of exhilaration and a burst of energy,

followed by depression as the drug wears off (the effects of cocaine last only briefly from

five to thirty minutes). When users take more of the drug to relieve depression, they become

dependent on it. Cocaine is injected into the blood stream, smoke or sniffed the powder up

their noses in its most powerful forms. Cocaine users come from many age groups

(Casapalmera, 2012).

Drug use among adolescents in secondary school students is not an uncommon phenomenon.

According to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) world report (2011),

Nigeria topped the list of countries that used illicit drugs in Africa (Garwood, 2012). Also,

Dr. Olive Stolpe reported in an article published by the Nation Newspaper on 15th January,

2012 revealed that the annual prevalence rate in Africa for Cannabis use fluctuates roughly

between 4% and 14% and it is the highest in the world. Nigeria has the highest rate of

12
cannabis in the region, with an estimate of more than 14%. Stolpe, UNODC representatives

stated further that annual prevalence of Cocaine use in Africa in 2009 ranged between 0.2%

and 0.8%, Nigeria with a prevalence rate of 0.7% again is among the top consumers within

the region. Annual prevalence for Opiate use in Africa is estimated between 0.2 and 0.6

percent. In Nigeria, the Opiate prevalence rate was estimated to have increased from

approximately 0.6 to 0.7 percent in 2009. Anafi, 2011 stated that over 500,000 Nigerians are

heroine users.

In another development, Adebowale, Olatona, Abiola, Oridota, Goodman and Onajole (2013)

conducted a study on knowledge, attitude and practice of drug abuse among public secondary

school students in Lagos, Nigeria. The mean age was 13-19 years. In the findings of the

study, more than 50% knew the meaning of drug abuse, the dangers in using drugs wrongly

and the legal status of drug abuse. Also, many of the respondents had positive attitudes to

using illegal drugs (58.5%) and the drugs mostly used by the students were coffee and

analgesics while Indian hemp, alcohol and cigarettes were abused sparingly. It was concluded

that the level of knowledge of the students concerning drug abuse was fair, many of the

respondents had positive attitudes to using illegal drugs and the drugs mostly used were the

socially acceptable ones; but they are likely to lead to the use of stronger ones later in life.

A prospective longitudinal study conducted in South African adolescents by Patrick, Collins,

Smith, Caldwell, Flisher and Wegner (2009) found that alcohol was the most common first

substance initiated among the participants. They noted that adolescents tended to use either

alcohol or cigarettes, followed by whichever they have not tried, in turn followed by use of

cannabis. There was no gender difference in this pattern. The study also showed that

adolescents who had tried inhalants had also tried alcohol, cigarettes, and cannabis, which

suggest that trying inhalants may be a specific indicator of risk for multi-drug

experimentation. The group that was most likely to try all substances was comprised of

13
individuals who began substance use by smoking cigarettes (Patrick, Collins, Smith,

Caldwell, Flisher & Wegner, 2009).

Many people most especially the youths use drugs as an escape from reality (such as

unhappiness, low performance in school, family/relationship problems). Another factor why

the youths use drugs as noted by Nicholsin (2013) is curiosity. Youngsters are eager to

experiment how drug works as a result of what they hear from their peers and other adults in

the society that drugs make one feels good, alert and function properly, therefore, they

become abusers.

Some youths inherit drug abuse/addiction from parents. Genetic factor just like some

congenital diseases that are inherited from the parents to children, the drug addict/habits may

also be inherited (Slideshare, 2012). Lack of knowledge about what drugs encompass makes

youngsters engage in drinking alcohol as most people do not count it as a drug.

Youths‟ involvement in drug abuse has been found by researchers to have a disastrous effect

on the abusers, the family and the society at large. Maladjusted cases such as riots,

indiscipline, moral laxity and poor academic performance of youths has been linked with the

abnormal use of drugs. The health effects of drug abuse starts from the brain of the abuser.

Drug causes a surge in levels of dopamine in brain, which trigger feelings of pleasure. The

brain remembers these feelings and wants them repeatedly. Changes in brain thus interfere

with one‟s ability to think clearly, exercise good judgment, control of behavior and feel

normal without drugs (Lawrence, Melinda, & Joanna, 2013). The individual may also

experience heart attack, liver cyrosis, respiratory failure, coma, which may lead to death.

Drug abuser places a burden on the family members as they expend on the financial and

emotional support. Abusers involve in crimes such as stealing, pilfering, assassination, armed

robbery, prostitution. Further stated was that youths who abuse drugs develop mental

disorders such as anxiety, neurosis, inability to concentrate and uncomfortable sensations

14
within the medulla obloganta which preserved the central part of the brain. This is not strange

as there are many lunatics in the major streets because of their dealings in India hemp,

cocaine, heroin and other dangerous narcotics.

2.2.3 Causes of Drug Abuse

Why a person use drug is also important so that root cause of the problem could be

understood and better solution can be provided. Below are the series of factors specialists

consider to be significantly influential.

(i)Family

Many of the youngsters that use drugs come from families which also take them. For

example, during the first year of a child, parents create a subconscious desire of imitation in

the child. In many homes, parents drink alcoholic beverages, smoke cigarettes and take

tranquilizers and even other socially accepted drug many people believed to be innocuous.

According to Melgosa (1995), this consequently generates a favourable attitude to their

consumption.

(ii)Friends

Different research studies emphasized that the influence of the group is the main factor in the

first stages of drug use (Melgosa, 1995). Adolescent seek solace among friends from school

and from the neighborhood. If the use of drug is approved and accepted by the group,

adolescent feels a strong desire to conform to these expectations. When they give into peer

pressure also, they get the approval and applauds from others. Adolescents will do whatever

it takes to get this recognition they seem so essential.

(iii) Genetic predisposition

Several studies about twins and families have shown that there are people who have a greater

genetic predisposition than other to be victim of alcoholic beverages (Melgosa, 1995). He

stressed further that there are no studies which reveal the influence of genetics on the

15
consumption of their drugs. However, because of the similarity of all addiction mechanism,

this factor may be present in other drugs.

Personal Decision

A youngster who could not make a positive decision for himself/herself as to whether to use

drugs or not is susceptible because personal determination plays a key role. Therefore, ability

to make a firm decision to not use harmful substance will strengthen one will power. The

desire to live a fulfilling life keeps young people occupied in productive task and prevents

drug use.

(iv) Parental indifference

When parents are indifference to the concern of youngsters, they may from there result into

using drugs in order to cope with the problem or to disgrace the parents for their non-

challenge attitude towards them.

(v)Advertisement

Advertisement has contributed immensely in motivating the young people towards the use of

drugs. The most commonly advertizing drugs are alcohol and cigarette which most

youngsters do not consider as drugs. Billions of naira are being spent by owner of this drug

establishments on movie stars, musicians, broadcaster, entertainers (celebrities) etc that are

making waves in the society to advertise for them. Having seen this, they believe the

consumption of drugs is acceptable and can make them sociable and catch fun without

considering their disastrous effects.

Beautiful people also, are depicted enjoying a social drug such as alcohol, coffee, tea or

tobacco, in opulent surroundings that most viewers can only dream of being in. Company

logos are shown on almost every item that appears on television, including the clothing and

equipment of the participants, outfield walls, score boards and race cars.

16
(vi)Self Care Movement

People‟s ability to engage in medical self-care makes an availability of Ordinary Technical

Consultant and prescription medications, the use of other drugs, both legal and illegal, to

make themselves feels better seems more reasonable than ever before. This attitude then

fosters drug misuse and abuse.

(vii)General Acceptance of Substance Use within a Society

This will inevitably lead to higher abuse rates. Marijuana use in the 1960 is a prime example

of this. It was widely used simply because it was socially acceptable. Another example of this

is it uses on college campuses. “Among college students, about 1 in 2 has smoked marijuana

at least once (Nevid, 2000). These campuses also encounter some of the highest rate of

alcohol abuse in such a confined community, simply due to the fact that it is socially accepted

by the peer group living in that environment.

(viii) Politics and Laws

Is another significant issue in predicting substance abuse. Certainly, a community or nation

that does not punish abuse, almost indirectly advocates it. Meanwhile, a society which has

stick punishment for abuser, certainly deter it to some extent if for no other reason than

simply due to the “fear factor”. People are much curtail, if they are fearful of the

consequences that will arise should they misuse any substance.

(x) Unemployment and Economic Hardships

Abuse of drugs is much higher in countries or areas that are poverty stricken. This also goes

hand in hand with depression, which also encourage abuse. When studying African American

in the US, it was found that the prevalence of cirrhosis of the liver is nearly twice as high in

African American (due to alcohol abuse) than in now Hispanic white American (Nevid,

2000).

17
(ix) Culture and Ethnicity

Certain ethnicities do not view substance such as alcohol, as “taboo” but instead as a healthy

part of everyday life. How a society perceives that specific group can determine their attitude

(whether favourable or not) towards the drug associated with that group. An example of this

is the American association of smoking opium with the Chinese immigrant who arrived after

the civil war. Although opium was originally looked upon favourably, its popularity declined

as it becomes more visibly used by an ethnic group the American did not think highly of.

“Cocaine would be similarly linked with Blacks and marijuana with Mexican in the first

period of 20th century (Wilson, 2000).

2.2.4 Effects of Drug abuse

Drug abuse affects the life of students such as psychiatric disorder, school failure, and

dissocial behaviour among others. Additionally, drug abuse increased individual risk of

falling in classes, conduct disorder and alienation from parents, school and positive peers

group (EMDDA, 2011).

Drug abuse has become a stumbling block to the students learning behavior which is an

essential element in education practice (Blandford, 2008). It has been noted generally that

school indiscipline is on the rise due to drug abuse and many incidences related to this make

the headlines in the daily press.

According to Munyoki (2008), drug abuse results to lack of morals and deteriorating learning

standards. This has led to strikes in secondary school characterized by violence, destruction

of school property and in some cases loss of lives. Different types of drugs are readily

available in school locations. Such drugs and substances include alcohol, bhang, and tobacco

among others. Drag abuse association with interpersonal conflicts, students unrest and

destruction of property, may be an indicator of a larger pattern of deviant behavior.

18
A student who is involved in drugs cannot perform well academically because there is

impairment of cognitive development which in turn reduces academic achievement and

disrupts academic progression. Students who abuse bhang regularly are twice as likely to

receive marks below average and drop out of school in the long run (UNDCP, 1992). School

academic calendars are also disrupted especially when there is unrest and students are sent

home for a while. This affects the performance of all students due to the fact that the breakup

of the school routine impedes their progress. Reflections of indulgence in drug use and abuse

is self-neglect, academic deterioration of children in school who have repeated performance

in families (Marcus, 2001).

Adolescents who persistently abuse substances often experience an array of problems,

including academic difficulties, health-related problems (including mental health), poor peer

relationships, and involvement with the juvenile justice system. Additionally, there are

consequences for family members, the community, and the entire society.

Declining grades, absenteeism from school/college and other activities, and increased

potential for dropping out of school/college are problems associated with youth substance

abuse. Hawkins, Catalano, and Miller (2002) cite research indicating that a low level of

commitment to education and higher truancy rates appear to be related to substance use

among youth. Cognitive and behavioral problems experienced by alcohol and drug using

youth may interfere with their academic performance and also present obstacles to learning

for their classmates.

Adolescents become drug dependents having suffered exposure to drugs from their abusing

society. Such children have a high propensity to become drug addicts long before their

teenage (Munyoki, 2008). The inquiry conducted by the National Assembly selected

committee into students unrest found that some of the strikes and riots experienced in schools

19
in where school property was destroyed, and students‟ lives lost were caused by Drug and

Substance Abuse among students (Ngigi, 2010).

According to a survey conducted by the National Campaign against Drug Abuse Authority

(NACADA) in (2006) students also access drugs during school outings as they are left to

interact freely with those from other schools and members of the public which at times make

school absenteeism very high.

A study by NACADA (2007) indicates that there is a shortage of drug abuse counsellors,

treatment and rehabilitation services and lack of knowledge among the people on such

services. Similarly, a study by NACADA (2008) shows an upward trend in consumption of

both licit and illicit drugs by students which contributed to some school problems such as

school attendance, bullying and other maladaptive behaviours in school.

Youths who abuse drugs are more vulnerable to addiction later in life and addiction deprives

user of their freedom of action. The drug abuse behaviour manifests certain features

physically, internally and health wise which will later in life have the negative consequences

and will be briefly discussed below.

i. Drugs affect specific organs

Alcohol for example attack the liver and the heart, the smoke and tar tobacco damage the

lung, opium derivatives-heroin, morphine, methadone affect the brain considerably.

ii. Risk factor

Using drug via needle parental or intravenous, increase their risk of blood borne disease like

HIV/AIDs and hepatitis B and C. In Spain, two thirds of the HIV (AIDs virus) are transmitted

by drug (Melgosa, 2005).

iii. Mental disorder

Drug wakes up latent mental disorders and may also provoke them. The DSM-IV manual for

psychiatric use list over 60 clinical disorder associated with drug taking (Melgosa, 2005).

20
 iv. Auto-accident

Drugs abusers are more likely to be involved in a car accident related injuries or death. One

study showed that 4 to 14% of drivers who are injured or die in traffic accident test positive

for THC (Casapalmera, 2012).

2.2.5 Prevalence of Drug Abuse Behaviour

According to a United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) report (2005), some

200 million people, or 5 percent of the total world‟s population aged 15 - 64 have used drugs

at least once in the last 12 months an implied 15 million people more than the 2004 estimate.

The report goes on to say that, no nation has been immune to the devastating effects of drug

abuse.

According to the World Drug Report (2005), the use of illicit drugs has increased throughout

the world in recent years. The report further states that a major world trend is the increasing

availability of many kinds of drugs to an ever widening socio-economic spectrum of

consumers. The report argues that the main problem drugs at global level continue to be

opiates (notably heroine) followed by cocaine. For example, for most of Europe and Asia,

opiates continued to be the main problem drugs, accounting for 62 percent of all treatment in

2003.

While smoking rates have been declining in the developed world, they have increased in the

developing countries by as much as 50 percent, especially in Asia and in the Pacific region,

over the last decade. Addiction to tobacco is therefore a major problem in the developing

countries. According to the African Union Ministerial Conference on Drug Control in Africa

report (2004:104), at least 16 countries in Africa have reported abuse of opiates, with

prevalence rates ranging from 0.01 to 0.8 percent for the population aged 15 and above.

Twelve countries reported cocaine abuse with prevalence ranging from 0.01 to 1.1 percent for

this age bracket.

21
One of the problems faced by industrialized nations today, specifically United States is the

growing number of individuals who are using or abusing substances including, illegal drugs,

alcohol, and tobacco. Although, it has been noted that the overall consumption of drugs in the

US has declined by 50% in the past 20 years, the past 10 years have revealed some increase

in drug abuse among adolescents (Johnston, 2000).

Recent survey revealed that 52% of eighth graders (and 80% of high-school seniors) have

used alcohol at some time (Michigan University Institute for Social Research; MUISR,

2000). The research also found that 25% of eighth graders (and 62% of high-school seniors)

have been drunk. Furthermore, while it is illegal for minors to be given access to alcoholic

drinks, it seems that such restriction has no, if only little, effect. The MUISR (2000), also

found that 71% of eighth graders and 95% of high-school seniors say that they have easy

access to alcohol.

Khat was introduced in East Africa by Somali immigrants. The young and tender leaves of

the plant and barks are commonly chewed as a stimulant to enhance relaxation. A study on

khat consumption in Dar-es-Salaam involving 300 regular abusers found the majority of them

to be aged between 15 to 30 years (Ndosi, 1999). Another survey of 905 respondents from

four regions in Tanzania, indicated that khat was among major drug people used regularly

with 3.7% of respondents admitted to having ever tried the drug (Kilonzo & Kilima, 1992).

The study at Muhimbili Medical Center showed that 0.05% had history of excessive khat use

and most of them presents with history of delusion, anorexia, constipation, stomatitis and

gastritis (Ndosi, 1999).

Other drugs used by Tanzanian population are benzodiazepines, narcotics, barbiturates,

volatiles, tobacco, analgesics and the likes. Clinical observation at Muhimbili National

Hospital indicates that a high proportional of acute mental problems from patients are often

22
inappropriately treated with benzodiazepines prior to hospital referral. Some of these young

patients presents with vegetative symptoms of benzodiazepines dependence (Ndosi, 1999).

The abuse of narcotics (includes heroin, morphine, pethidine and codeine) by adolescents

appears to be on the increase. In randomized secondary schools survey in Dar-es-Salaam

covering 1064 respondents, the commonest ever used drugs reported were cocaine or heroin

22% (Kaaya,Kilonzo, Semboja & Matowo 1997). Cocaine and heroin use featured

predominately in urban areas (Kilonzo & Kilima, 1990). In Dar-es-Salaam city considerable

proportion of heroin abusers mix the drug with rolls of tobacco and smoke, the method

popularly known as joint method, there are estimated 250,000 heroin users in Dar es Salaam

alone (McCurdy, et al, 2005). Moreover, the increasing availability of „white‟ heroin has

meant that injection is rapidly replacing smoking as the preferred route of administration

(Beckerleg, Telfer & Hundt, 2005).

Solvents are mainly sniffed by groups of boys between the ages of 8 to 19 years along the

street of Dar-es-Salaam. A recent cross-sectional survey with involved 3,564 schools

adolescent in Dar es Salaam who used and abused inhalants; found males inhalants to be

7.0% while females were 4.7% (Kaaya, et al, 1997). Alcohol drinking habit among

adolescents, their friends and families were risk factors associated with the adolescents‟ use

of inhalants (Massele& Mwaluko, 1991). Analgesics are frequently inappropriately

prescribed in many Tanzanian health centres for various trivial complaints like fever and

pains affecting children and young group. A survey on drug use in Dar-es-Salaam indicated

that more than 20% of all prescriptions in all health care centres contained acetylsalicylic acid

with sometimes causes dependence and physical ailments like stomach ulcer (Ndosi, 1999).

Analgesics also found to be misused predominately by young females suicide-attempters in

Dar-es-Salaam (Ndosi & Waziri, 1997).

23
A study by Jinez, de Souza and Pillon (2006) on drug use and risk factors among secondary

students in Spain revealed that the sample was composed of 695 (42.9%) students, 52.8%

women. Drug use was present in 20.3%, predominantly alcohol and tobacco. Risk factors are

related to the male gender, older than 13 years, second and third grades, living with relatives,

poor relationships, curiosity, family conflicts, peer pressure and solidarity.

Molebe (2012) study revealed that the respondents admitted that they have used the following

prohibited drugs; alcohol (57.2%), ephedrine (11.8%), codeine (8.2%), steroid (5.6%),

cocaine (5.6%), insulin (5.0%), marijuana (4.0%), heroin (1.1%), amphetamine (0.7%),

cannabis (0.4%) and hygroton (0.4%). Findings also revealed that some of the sports persons

also abuse OTC (e.g. acetaminophen and NSAIDs) analgesic medicines (1.1%) and

nonorthodox- herbal concoctions (1.8%) for performance enhancement.

The 2005 Australian Secondary Students‟ Alcohol and Drug Survey (ASSAD) (White &

Hayman, 2006) revealed that cannabis was the most commonly used illicit substance among

secondary school students in 2005: 18% of all secondary school students aged between 12

and 17 years reported having used cannabis at some time in their lives. Lifetime cannabis use

among these young people increased with age, from 5% of 12-year-olds to 32% of 17-year-

olds. In the month prior to the survey, 7% of all students had used cannabis; 4% had used it

within the week before the survey. Weekly use increased with age, from 1% of 12-year-olds

to 6% of 17-year-olds, and was more common among males than females. Between 1996 and

2005 the proportion of students reporting having used cannabis decreased by half (from 36%

to 18%).

A drug is a substance used for medical purposes that change the state or function of the body

(Coleman, 2010). Drugs are substances which alter the organic functions and the behavior of

those who take them (Melgosa, 2005). Drugs are chemical or substance that change the ways

one‟s body works. When one puts them into his/her body (often by swallowing, inhaling or

24
injecting them), drugs find their way into blood stream and are transported to parts of the

body, such as brain. In the brain, drugs may intensify or dull one‟s sense, alter sense of

alertness and sometimes decrease physical pain (Durani, 2012).

Drug abuse is the deliberate use of chemical substances for reasons other than intended

medical purposes and which results in physical, mental, emotional, or social impairment of

the user. The abuse of legal drugs can happen when people use the drugs in manner other

than directed by the manufacturers or purpose that are not legitimate (Coleman, 2010).

Basically, drugs are of two groups i.e legally approved drug and illegal or legally disapproved

drugs. Legally approved drugs are drugs which have through the ages become a part of the

society and had remained (Ballas, 2006). These are drugs that are open to public consumption

such as tobacco and alcohol. In some cultures, these drugs are not only tolerated, but their

consumption is explicitly encouraged (Melgosa, 2005). However, due to large qualities of

these drugs being taking in and out of the country, the government imposed imports duties on

them. Illegal drugs are drugs like heroin, cocaine, morphine etc. they are hard drugs

dangerous to physical, mental and social wellbeing of the users. Abasement of any of the two

groups of drug affect the brain and its functions, leave harmful chemical remain in the body

and they create a habit (Melgosa, 2005).

Moronkola (2003) pointed out that some substances alter the mind, changed the users feeling,

perception and behavior when they are used because they exert action on the brain. Global

studies on drug use and abuse revealed that initiation of drug use is one of the best predictor

of future drug abuse and dependence (Coleman, 2011). That is, youths who started using drug

before the age of 14 are more susceptible to drug problems later in life than those whose drug

use started at the age of 21 and above.

In the global report of WHO on substance use disorder, Dr. Shekhar Saxena, director of

WHO‟s Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse stated that “Alcohol and illicit

25
drugs are harming millions of people in many ways from becoming dependants on such

substance to causing a range of other health problems such as injuries, cardiovascular disease,

HIV and hepatitis C or cancers” (Garwood, 2010). Further still, reported the following key

findings.

 Alcohol and illicit drug use account for 5.4% of the world‟s annual disease burden,

with tobacco responsible for 3.7%.

 Two thirds of the world countries have a government unit or official responsible for

treating substance use disorders, and under 50% have a specific budget for treating

such disorders.

 In Africa, out-of-pocket payments are the main funding method for treating alcohol

and drug use disorders.

 African is also only WHO region with the fewest countries with substance abuse

policies (Garwood, 2010).

According to Hughes and Carolyn (2011), significantly less than half of the world population

is involved in serious drug related crime. From the above findings, it is crystal clear that drug

abuse is a global problem that has permeated the sphere of our economic, political and social

life.

Particularly in Nigeria, the prevalence of drug use and abuse among youths result from

political instability and lack of policy measures which give room for criminal organization

for illicit drugs trafficking. In the early 70‟s, drug trafficking were rare. The story began to

change in the 1980 when Indian heroin began to be funneled through Nigeria on its ways to

Europe. The criminal groups handling the wares soon forged alliance with South American

illicit drug manufacturers and added cocaine to the drug they were distributing (Narcon on

Drug Information Department, 2013). In the 1990‟s the criminal groups became more

sophisticated. Cannabis began to be produced within Nigeria and psychotropic drugs were
26
added to the list of trafficked products. Trafficking channels became more complex and

methods of moving drugs more diverse. In 1999, 16,000kg of cannabis herb and 15.6kg of

cocaine were seized, in 2000 this increase to 272,000kg of cannabis and 54kg of cocaine. In

2007, the rate of marijuana, seizure landed Nigeria in the number four spot after USA,

Mexico and Bolivia. A review of drug seizures in the first half of 2009 shows that Nigerian

are still frequently arrested for drug trafficking incidence around the world (Narcon on Drug

Information Department, 2013).

In addition, Nigeria Drug law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) in 2010 and 2011 seized

67,979.80kg and 55,472.967kg of cannabis and discovered 36.7 and 147 hectares of Indian

hemp farm respectively in Ondo State (Anafi, 2011). Also in 2012, NDLEA intercepted

227.055kg of drug at Muritala International Airport, Lagos in the first half of the year. These

drugs were seized from 63 suspects trafficker which worth N2.5 billion. The breakdown of

the seized drugs was cannabis 73.350kg, methamphetamine 46.25kg, cocaine 43.505kg,

heroin 33.15kg and ephedine 31.8kg (Bakare, 2012).

As already noted therefore, it is no exaggeration or fallacy to infer that the prevalence of

drugs use and abuse among Nigeria youths resulted majorly from their escalation in the

environment. According to World Drug Report (2014), the prevalence rate of problem of

substance abuse users varies between 2.7% in Greece and 9.0% in UK as rate per 1,000 of

populations aged 15-64 years in Europe. The United Kingdom, Italy and Spain are on the

higher end of the range, whereas Greece, Germany and Hungary are countries with low rates

problems of substance abuse. In the United States, 7 million people (2.8% of the population)

aged 12 and older were considered substance dependent, abusing illicit substances. Cannabis

was the illicit substance with the highest rate of dependence, followed by pain relievers

(opioids) and cocaine. In Canada, 2.7% of the population aged 15 and older were reported to

27
have experienced at least one type of physical, social, employment or legal problem due to

illicit drug use (United Nations office on Drugs and Crime, 2014).

According to substance abuse and mental health service administrations (SAMHSA) report in

2012, an estimated 23.9 million Americans aged 12 or older are illicit drug users. This

estimate represents 9.2 percent of the population aged 12 or older. Illicit drugs include

marijuana/hashish, cocaine (including crack), heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, or

prescription-type psychotherapeutics (pain relievers, tranquilizers, stimulants, and sedatives)

used non-medically and the rate of current illicit drug use among persons aged 12 or older

increased from 8.1 percent in 2008 to 9.2 percent in 2012. Between 2007 and 2012, the rate

of substance use increased from 5.8 to 7.3 percent and the number of users increased from

14.5 million to 18.9 million (SAMHSA, 2013).

The youth occupy a prominent place in any society. They are one of the greatest assets any

nation can have. Apart from being the leaders of tomorrow, they out-number the middle-

aged and the aged. The youth are a particular segment of the national population that is

sensitive, energetic, active and the most productive phase of life as citizens. The youth are

also most volatile and yet the most vulnerable segment of the population in terms of social-

economic, emotion and other aspects (Ajufo, 2013)

The amount of harm associated with the use of these substances, is increasing in Nigeria and

other middle and low income countries in Sub-Saharan Africa; as well as high income

countries like the US (Aliyu, 2014). Although majority of the youth have a good

understanding of the consequences of substance abuse, there is still a high prevalence of this

phenomena occurring in Africa (Ekpenyong, 2012). The reasons for substance use among

youth varied, the most common reasons are; to boost self-confidence, to cope with stress,

anxiety, to get high (euphoria) (Dankani, 2012), to socialize, to keep awake, to try to get

sleep (Ahmed, 2012; Oshodi, Aina, & Onajole, 2010), to reduce physical and emotional pain,

28
to experiment and to alleviate feelings of hunger. There are many reasons why youth abuse

substances. In many situations, substances are being used as artificial problem-solvers such as

frustrations, stress or tiredness (Nsimba, 2010).

Others choose to use substances to enjoy the feelings or for recreational purposes (Sokro,

2010). But most of the times, youth use substances for experiment to find out more about the

sensations they produce (Dankani, 2012; Jibril, Olayinka, Omeiza, & Babantunde, 2008).

Studies have found that, most of the youth have the perception that; peer group

unemployment, availability and affordability of drugs (Ahmed, 2012; Cheung & Yeung,

2007), family upbringing or background and gender (Ahmadi, Tabatabaee, & Gozin, 2006;

Ahmed, 2012), are the most common influencing factors or causes of substance abuse among

them.

2.2.6 Drugs Commonly Abuse by Students

Some of the drug commonly abuse by students are cannabis (marijuana) is a wild plant

(cannabis sativa) whose fibers were once used in the manufacture of hemp rope. It grows

wild in nearly every part of the world. The leaves and flowering tops of the hemp plant are

dried to obtain marijuana. Narcotics are used to relieve pain and induce sleep and are among

the most dependence producing drugs. Narcotics can be sub-grouped into the natural, quasi

synthetic and synthetic narcotic on the basis of origin (Durani, 2012).

Inhalants are a class of drug that includes a variety of volatile (quick evaporating)

compounds that generally unpredictably produce drunk-like effects in users. They are

substances that are sniffed or “huffed” to give the user an immediate rush or high. They

include household product like glues paint thinners, dry cleaning fluid, gasoline, felt tip

marker fluid, correction fluid, hair spray, aerosol deodorants and spray paints. Inhalants are

breathed in directly from the original container (sniffed or snorting), from a plastic bag

(bagging) or by holding an inhalant soaked rag in the mouth (huffing)(Durani, 2012).

29
Alcohol is a drug that is produced by a chemical reaction in fruit, vegetables and grass. That

is, alcohol is created from the fermented grain, fruits or vegetable. Fermentation is the

process that uses yeast or bacteria to change the sugar in the food into alcohol. Fermentation

is used to produce many necessary items everything from cheese to medications. Alcohol has

different forms and can be used as a cleaner, an antiseptic, or a sedative (Durani, 2012).

According to World Health Organization (WHO), drug abuse refers to the harmful or

hazardous use of psychoactive substances, including alcohol and illicit drugs. Psychoactive

substance use can lead to dependence syndrome which is a continuous, repeated and

persistent use of the substance despite its harmful consequences; leading to a high priority

being given to the use of the substance to the deterrent of other activities and obligations

(WHO, 2014).

Drugs that affect the brain alter mood and behaviours are legally controlled substances and

the most commonly abused drugs. These psychoactive drugs can be categorized according to

the nature of their physiological effects which fall into one of the general categories:

stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, cannabis, narcotic and inhalants.

(1)Stimulants

Stimulants are a group of drugs that excite or increase the activity of the central nervous

system (CNS). Stimulant effects can be mild or strong depending on the kind of drug and the

amount taken. Stimulants may cause an increase in alertness or give body a temperature,

feeling of energy and wellbeing. Thus, the user feels uplifted and less fatigued. Example of

stimulant drug include: caffeine, amphetamine and cocaine. These drugs have a high potential

for psychological dependence and tolerance relatively quickly, but they are unlikely to

provide significant physical dependence when judge by life threatening withdrawal

symptoms. The important exception is cocaine which seems to be capable of producing

30
psychological dependence and withdrawal so powerful that continued use of the drug is

inevitable in some user (Pollock, Candace & Charles, 2009).

(A)Caffeine

The methylxanthines are family of chemicals that includes three compounds, caffeine,

theophylline and Theo bromine. Of these, caffeine is the most heavily consumed. Caffeine is

a tasteless drug found in coffee tea, cocoa, many soft drinks and several group of over-the-

counter drugs. It is a relatively harmless Central Nervous System (CNS) stimulant when

consumed in moderate amounts. Many coffee drinkers believe that they cannot start the day

successfully without the benefit of a cup or two of coffee (Pollock, Candace & Charles,

2009).

According to Pollock, Candace and Charles (2009), the chronic effects of long term caffeine

use are less clear. Chronic users show evidence of tolerance and withdrawal, indicating that

they are physically dependent. Researchers have attempted to link caffeine to coronary heart

disease; pancreatic, cancer and fibrocystic breast disease. Experts thus advised that pregnant

women should consume caffeine sparingly because babies born to women who drank more

than three cups of coffee a day had a slightly increased risk of low birth weight and smaller

head size. Moderate caffeine consumption for an average adult is unlikely to pose any serious

health threat. Nevertheless, excessive consumption could lead to anxiety, diarrhea,

restlessness and delayed onset of sleep or frequent awakening headache and heart palpitations

(Merki, 2006).

(B)Amphetamines

These are stimulants that accelerate function of the brain and body. They come in pills or

tablets. Prescription diet pills also fall into category of drugs. It street names are speed,

uppers, dexies, bennies and are being used by swallowing, inhaled or injection.

Amphetamines users get fast high, making them feel powerful, alert and energized. Uppers

31
pump up heart rate, breathing, blood pressure and they can also cause sweating, shaking,

headaches, sleeplessness and blurred vision. Excessive and prolonged use may cause

hallucination and intense paranoid. Amphetamines are very addictive. Users who stop

reported that they experienced various mood problems such as aggression, anxiety and

intense craving for the drugs (Durani, 2012).

(C)Crystal Methamphetamine

Crystal methamphetamine other wisely called ice or speed, is the most recent and dangerous

forms of methamphemine. When smoked the effects are felt in about seven seconds as a wave

of intense physical and psychological exhilaration. This effects last for several hours until the

user becomes physically exhausted.

(D)Ritalin

Ritalin is a drug prescribed to elementary-age children who are hyper-active or cannot

concentrate to help focus attention. Although Ritalin has not historically been considered a

significant drug of abuse, the recent surge in the prescribing of Ritalin for children and teens

has become a subject of debate (Pollock, Candace & Charles, 1979).

(e)Cocaine

Cocaine is the primary psychoactive substance found in the leaves of the South American

Coca plant. Cocaine is a power and illegal stimulant which its abuse has become a major

health problem in our society. Cocaine create a feeling of exhilaration and a burst of energy,

followed by depression as the drug wears off (the effects of cocaine last only briefly from

five to thirty minutes). When users take more of the drug to relieve depression, they become

dependent on it. Cocaine also makes the user crave for more of it (Merki, 1996). Cocaine is

injected into the blood stream, smoke or sniffed the powder up their noses in its most

powerful forms. Cocaine users come from many age groups.

32
It is pertinent to mention here the combination of cocaine hydrochloride with common baking

soda otherwise called crack cocaine. When this paste-like mixture is allowed to dry, a small

rock line crystalline materials remains. This crack is heated in the bowl of a small pipe, and

the vapours are inhaled into the lungs (Pollock, Candace & Charles, 1979). The effect of

crack is almost instantaneous. Within ten seconds after inhalation, cocaine reaches CNS and

influences the actions of several neuro-transmitters at specific sites in the brains. Convulsion,

seizure, respiratory distress and cardiac failure as with the use of other forms of cocaine have

reported with this sudden, extensive stimulation of the nervous system (Durani, 2012).

(2)Depressants

Depressants (or sedatives) calm nerves and relax muscle i.e it slows down the CNS function.

Drugs include in the category are alcohol bartiturates and tranquilizers. Depressants produce

tolerance in abuser, as well as strong psychological and physical dependence. The concept of

alcohol shall specially be addressed as being the commonly and popularly abused drugs

across different ages in our society. Thus, here we shall focus on other category of

depressants.

(a)Barbiturates

Barbiturates sometimes called sleeping pills are used to cause sleep. Barbiturates showed

reactive, reduced mental functioning and memory, slurred speech, loss of inhibition, causes

drowsiness and sleep. High doses of barbiturates can lead to coma and death (Merki, 1996).

The danger of death from barbiturate abuse multiplies when taken with alcohol because both

have similar effects. According to Pollock, Candace and Charles (1979), the combined effect

of these drugs is greater than simply adding the effects of the two drugs together. It is as if

one and one added up to three or more instead of two. Unless medical care is given in time,

the person will die from lack of oxygen.

33
Seizures, delusion, hallucinations, convulsion, collapse of cardiovascular system and death

are some of the withdrawal syndrome from barbiturate use. Wayne and Dale (1979)

suggested that withdrawal must occur gradually by reducing the amount of the barbiturate.

Withdrawal from barbiturate dependence should be done only under medical supervision.

(b)Tranquilizers

Tranquilizers are depressant for managing stress and reduce anxiety and relax muscle. They

are specifically not designed to produce sleep but rather to help people cope during their

waiting hours. Such tranquilizers are termed minor tranquilizer of which diazepam (Vallium)

and chlordiazepoxide (Librium) may be the most commonly prescribed example (Pollock,

Candace & Charles, 1979). Some tranquilizers are designed to control hospitalized psychotic

patient who may be suicidal or who are potential threat to others. These major ones permit

them to regain consciousness and subdue people physically. Their use is generally limited to

institutional setting and can produce physical and psychological dependence and tolerance.

Hallucination and convulsion can result from sudden withdrawal from tranquilizers.

(c)Rohypnol

Rohypnol is a prescription drug manufactured in South America, Mexico, Europe and Asia

and illegally transported into the United States. It is a low cost increasingly popular drug

because it often comes in pre-sealed bubble packs; many teens think that the drug is safe. Its

street names are roofies, roach, forge-time pill, date rape drug. This drug is swallowed,

sometimes with alcohol or other drugs. Rohypnol is a prescription anti-anxiety medication

that is ten times more powerful than valium (Durani, 2012). It can cause the blood pressure to

drop, as well as cause memory loss, drowsiness, dizziness and an upset stomach. Rohypnol

has received a lot of attention because of its association with date rape. The drug also causes

“intergraded amnesia”. This means it is hard to remember what happened while on the drug,

34
like a blackout. Because of this, it can be hard to give important details if a young woman

wants to report rape (Durani, 2012)

(3)Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens also called psychedelic drugs or phantasticants are drugs that cause great

changes in the way a person feels and interprets things. As the name suggests, hallucinogenic

drugs cause hallucinations perceived distortion of reality. i.e it becomes difficult for the mind

to distinguish fact from fantasy. Hallucinogenic drug include laboratory produced Lysergic

Acid Diethylamide (LSD), mescaline (from the peyote cactus plant) and psilocybin (from a

particular genus of mushroom) (Pollock, Candace and Charles, 1979). Hallucinogen

consumption do not produce physical dependence but mild level of psychological

dependence, no withdrawal symptoms, however, tolerance could be developed. All

hallucinogens produce similar reactions but the intensity of the reaction varies according to

the kind and amount used.

Hallucinogens users experience synesthesia, a sensation in which users report hearing a color,

smelling music or touching a taste. Moods may swing from completely joy to absolute terror.

A dreamlike period may become horrifying night mare. This is called “bad trip”. Recurrence

of hallucinations without having taken new dose of the hallucinogen may results to “flash

back”- the unpredictable return to a psychedelic trips that occurred months or even year

earlier.

(a)LSD

The best known and most powerful of all hallucinogen is Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD).

It is a lab-brewed hallucinogen and mood changing chemicals. LSD is odourless, colourless

and tasteless. It is otherwise called acid, blotter, doses microdots. LSD is licked or sucked off

small squares of blotting paper. Capsule and liquid forms are swallowed. Paper squares

containing acid may be decorated with cute cartoon characters or colourful designs.

35
Hallucination occurs within 30 to 90 minutes of dropping acid. The effects are unpredictable

depending on how much LSD is taken and the use.

(b)Designer Drugs

Designer drugs are drugs produced by chemist in their home laboratories. These are illegal

drugs similar to the controlled drugs but are sufficiently different so that they escape

governmental control. Designer drugs are said to produce effects similar to their controller

counterparts. It is a great risk using this type of drug because its manufacturing is

unregulated. The neuro-physiological effects of these home-made drugs can be quite

dangerous. Experts are particularly concerned that designer drugs can produce strong

psychological dependence and can deplete serotonin, an important excitatory neuro-

transmitter associated with a state of alertness (Pollock, Candace & Charles, 1979).

Permanent brain damage is possible.

(c)Phencyclidine: Phencyclidine (PCP, “angel dust”) is unique because it produces multiple

effects. It acts not only as hallucinogenic but also as analgesic, a depressant, a stimulant and

an anesthetic. This makes the typical PCP experience impossible to predict or describe. After

consumption, the physical effects of PCP begin a few minutes and continue for four to six

hours (Merki, 1996). PCP was studies for years during 1950s and 1960s and was founds to be

a suitable animal and human anesthetic (Pollock, Candace & Charles, 1979).

PCP come in tablet or powder form and can be injected, inhaled, taken orally or smoked.

Some of it effects are euphoria, bizarre perception, paranoids feeling and aggressive

behaviour. It is over dose can cause convulsion, cardiovascular collapse and damage to the

brain respiratory centre (Durani, 2012). Authorities have difficulty in limiting it availability

because PCP is easily and cheaply manufactured in home laboratories.

36
(4) Cannabis

Cannabis (marijuana) is a wild plant (cannabis sativa) whose fibers were once used in the

manufacture of hemp rope. It grows wild in nearly every part of the world. The leaves and

flowering tops of the hemp plant are dried to obtain marijuana. Hash (commonly smoked in

pipe) is obtained by collecting the sticky substance that comes from the flowers of the hemp

plant. Marijuana produces hallucinogenic effect caused by the determination of the

percentage of active ingredient tetrahydrocainabinol (THC), present in the product (Merki,

1996).

The immediate effects of smoking marijuana include increased heart rate, reddened eyes and

increase feeling of wellbeing. The hallucinogenic properties of marijuana may include

enhancement of sensitivity to colour, sound patterns, texture and taste. The personal reaction

time is showed and the ability to interpret what is seen takes a longer time than normal.

Pollock, Candace and Charles (1979) listed the following behavioural effects of marijuana.

 Marijuana impair short term memory;

 Users overestimate the passage of time; and

 Users lose the ability to maintain attention to a task.

Damage of lungs, damage of immune system, a motivational syndrome, lung cancer are some

of the long-term effects of marijuana use.

(5) Narcotics

Medically, narcotics are used to relieve pain and induce sleep and are among the most

dependence producing drugs. Narcotics can be sub-grouped into the natural, quasi synthetic

and synthetic narcotic on the basis of origin.

(a)Natural Narcotics: Naturally occurring substances derived from the oriental poppy plants

includes opium (the primary psychoactive substance extracted from the Oriental poppy),

morphine the primary active ingredient in opium and the bane (a compound not used a drug).
37
Morphine and related compounds have medical use as analgesic in the treatment of mild to

severe pain.

(b) Quasi synthetic Narcotics: Quasi synthetic narcotics are compound created by chemical

altering morphine. These laboratory produced drug are intended to be used as analgesic, but

their benefits are largely out weighted by a high dependence rate and a great risk of toxicity

(Durani, 2012). The best known of the quasi synthetic narcotic is heroin. Heroin comes from

the dried milk of the opium poppy, also range from white to dark brown powder to a sticky,

tar like substance. It is popularly known as house, smack, big H, junck and its being injected,

smoked or inhaled ( if it is pure) (Merki, 1996).

Heroin given someone a burst of euphoric (high) feelings especially if its injected. This high

is often followed by drowsiness, nausea, stomach cramps and vomiting. Users feel the need

to take more heroine as soon as possible just to feel good again. Heroin ravages the body

with long-term use. It is associated with chronic constipation, dry skin, scarred veins, and

breathing problems. Users who inject heroin often have collapsed veins and put themselves at

risk of getting deadly infections such as HIV/AIDS hepatitis B or C and bacteria inhalants.

(c)Synthetic Narcotics: Meperidin (Demerol) and propoxyphene (Darvon), common

postsurgical pain killers and methadone, the drug prescribed during the rehabilitation of

heroin addicts, are synthetic narcotic. These opiate-like drugs are manufactured in medical

laboratories. They are not natural narcotics or quasi synthetic narcotic because they do not

originate from the oriental poppy plant (Pollock Candace & Charles, 1979). However, like

true narcotics, these drugs can rapidly induce physical dependence.

(6) Inhalants

Inhalants are a class of drug that includes a variety of volatile (quick evaporating) compounds

that generally unpredictably produce drunk-like effects in users. They are substances that are

sniffed or “huffed” to give the user an immediate rush or high. They include household

38
product like glues paint thinners, dry cleaning fluid, gasoline, felt tip marker fluid, correction

fluid, hair spray, aerosol deodorants and spray paints. Inhalants are breathed in directly from

the original container (sniffed or snorting), from a plastic bag (bagging) or by holding an

inhalant soaked rag in the mouth (huffing). Inhalants make the user feel giddy and confused,

as if he was drunk. Longtime users get headaches, nosebleed and may suffer loss of hearing

and sense of smell. Inhalants are the most likely of abused substance to cause severe toxic

reaction and death. Even it use can kill at one time (Durani, 2012).

Alcohol

Alcohol is a drug that is produced by a chemical reaction in fruit, vegetables and grass. That

is, alcohol is created from the fermented grain, fruits or vegetable. Fermentation is the

process that uses yeast or bacteria to change the sugar in the food into alcohol. Fermentation

is used to produce many necessary items everything from cheese to medications. Alcohol has

different forms and can be used as a cleaner, an antiseptic, or a sedative (Durani, 2012).

Alcohol is a depressant drug that slows down the working of the brain and other parts of the

nervous system. Chronic, excessive use of alcohol can seriously damage nearly every organ

and function of the body (Merki, 1996). Because expert now know that the human brain is

still developing during out teens, scientist are researching the effects of drinking alcohol can

have on the teen brain (Durani, 2012). According to Merki (1996) effect of alcohol may be

short time or long time effects. Short time effects are:

Alcohol (Chemical) affects mucosal lining, tongue and throat; too much alcohol in the

stomach may cause vomiting; causes heart to beat faster and the blood vessels to widen;

reaches the brain within minutes and the brain becomes less able to control the body;

movement, speech, and vision may be affected, and the person becomes intoxicated.

39
Alcohol has a long-term effect, when one drinks alcohol for many years, eventually destroy

millions of brain cells; suffer liver damage; he or she may develop cirrhosis, which is scaring

and destruction of liver tissue and cirrhosis can cause death. Heavy drinking contributes to

high blood pressure and may damage the heart muscle. It can even cause heart failure by

petting extra strain on already damaged heart muscle.

Despite the debilitating effect of alcohol, some people cannot do without drinking alcohol.

They have form the habit of drinking and have become addicted to it. Being addicted means

they have depend on alcohol drinking in which they will experience withdrawal symptoms

when they stop. Sign of alcohol withdrawal include sweating, inability to sleep, shakingness

and irritability. The person may also experience unreasonable fears seizures and other

disturbance of the nervous system. This physical and mental need for alcohol turns into a

progressive and chronic disease called alcoholism. People with this disease are called

alcoholic. Merki (1996) pointed out that experts say that alcoholism develops in three (3)

stages. The stages occur over a period of time.

Stage 1: A person starts using alcohol to relieve stress or to relax. Soon, the person needs

alcohol to cope with the daily pressure of life. The drinker begin to make excuse about

his/her drinking habits

Stage 2: As the person continues to drink, the body develops a need for more and more

alcohol. The drinker is often absent from school or work but continue to deny that there is a

problem.

Stage 3: In the final state of alcoholism, the problem is clear to other people. The drinker‟s

body is strongly addicted and the drinking is now out of control.

However, it is observed that alcohol is the oldest and most widely used drug in the world

(Durani, 2012). Some of the reasons for this are: no law forbids it sales, people drink to get

relax, some use it to feel less shy and youths particularly drink as a result of peer influence.

40
The influence of advert on alcohol use cannot be undermined. Every day on television, in

magazines and on bill boards, youths see good looking, healthy people drinking alcohol.

Entertainers promote the idea that it is normal, smart and sophisticated to drink. Beer

advertisement associate drinking with sport events, fast cars, popularity and fun. Therefore,

teens are to believe what they see.

Promotion gimmicks are also popular at any sport and entertaining events. People can buy T-

shirt, caps, rubber band etc that feature the name of the beer company sponsoring the event.

When they put on these materials, they are invariably providing free advertisement for the

product of the company.

Types of Alcohol Beverages

Moronkola and Otinwa (1999) listed the following types of alcohol beverages available in

Nigeria: Wine, beer and distilled beverage.

Wine: Wine is made from the fermented juice grapes or other fruits. It has a typical alcohol

content of 10% to 14% by volume. There are five basic types of wines, red, white, rose and

sparkling or champagne, containing carbon dioxide (all referred to as table wine) and desert

for cocktail (with an alcohol content ranging from 15% to 24%.

Beer: They are derived from cereal grains-barly rye, corn and wheat. The process of beer

making is referred to as brewing and include the conversion of cereal and starch to a

fermentable sugar, and it is then stored. The typical alcohol content of popular beers is about

4 %, light beer are about 32% to 33% alcohol. Beer also contains minute substance called

congeners such as dextrin, maltose, vitamins, organic acids, acacia or gum Arabic salts and

carbondioxide. Some of these substances are added to preserve, stabilize, enhance flavour

and produce or promote foaming.

Distilled Beverages: These are wines and beers subjected to other processes to increase their

alcohol content by heating them to the boiling point and evaporate and then collected into a

41
reservoir when it turn black into liquid form, the end product is distilled spirit (Moronkola,

1996). Whiskey, gin and brandy are distilled spirits. The alcohol content of distilled

beverages ranges between 40% and 50% volume. Local Alcohol beverages in Nigeria are:

 Local Gin- Ogogoro, kiakia, Akparin ( get from distilled palm wine);

 Oguro (got from raffia palm);

 Burukutu (from guinea corn);

 Palm wine (got from the oil palm tree).

Alcohol is used for different purposes which include a social, medical, dietary, mood

modification, entertainment, laboratory work and peace-making. Youths who take alcohol are

more prone to the following maladaptive behavior than abstainers. Drug abuse at any age can

cause serious health effects, but teens who abuse drugs are at particular risk for negative

consequences. Each drug has its own list of disadvantages but all share a series of common

dangers.

2.2.7 Strategies used in Reducing Drug Abuse

Drug intervention strategy is a structured, solution-oriented process undertaken to persuade

youth who is abusing drugs to seek help in overcoming the addiction. A successful

intervention strategy is not a confrontation but an opportunity for an addicted student to

accept help in taking the first step toward recovery. In curbing drug, intervention strategy

should involve school, peer education, counselling, family, non-governmental organization

(NGO), health and social marketing.

Nigeria‟s increasing notoriety in the international illegal drug economy in this century did not

help matters at all. If nothing else, it impelled the Nigerian authorities to intensify her war

policy on the traffickers and users alike. Though regulations continued to oscillate between

stiff and mild outlooks, perhaps in response to the prevailing circumstances (Obot, 2004;

Oloruntoba, 2006), the bulk of these regulations have continued to lay emphasis on
42
prohibition and punishment. This is aptly demonstrated by the extent of a total war being

waged against all non-medical use, manufacture and sale of drugs, with less attention being

paid to the alternatives of demand and harm reduction. This approach is a continuation from

the colonial period, with prevailing overtones of drugs as being morally reprehensible, and

therefore, not tolerated in the society. In an analysis of Nigeria‟s drug policies.

Obot (2004) explained that the war on drugs in Nigeria during the military era was based on

the perceived need to achieve the US certification benchmarks which consequently led to

failure to evolve a-home-grown solution to the problems of drug. In fact, as his argument

implied, the war on drugs resulted in significant economic, social and psychological

consequences for Nigeria and Nigerians (Obot, 2004). So even when it is became obvious

that the war was failing to achieve its aim of getting these drugs out of the Nigerian society,

the Nigerian authority, like her counterparts, showed a disinterest in looking at the other side

of handling the drug problems. Also, government and other relevant authorities should lunch

out campaigns against drug abuse as well as dependence. Establishment of Drug Awareness

Units: Drug awareness units to be set up in all states and moderated by the federal state and

local governments. It should not be a panel established to try people who use drugs as

criminals, but to help solve their socio-psychological problem. Parents and adults should

refrain from using drugs in discriminately in the presence of youngsters and they should

discourage their wards/children from associating with unknown gangs or suspicious

neighborhood peer groups.

Enforcement of laws, rules and regulation for the control in drugs supply will help to control

drugs and substance abuse among the youth. It was found that educating and enlighten the

youth on the issues of substances abuse can help reduce the menace of substance abuse. Other

measures that were reviewed include; provision of employment, parental monitoring, law

enforcement and religious measures. Education has a significant influence on substance

43
abuse people who are aware or educated on the dangers or effect of substance abuse are more

likely not to indulge in substance abuse than those who are not aware of the dangers involved

(Ahmad 2012; Aliyu, 2014). Moreover, parental education has influence on substance abuse

among the youth. Youth whose parents have no formal education has a higher rate of

substance abuse than those whose parents had formal. Educating community about the

problems of drug and other substance abuse will help in reducing the menace of substance

abuse among the youth in the society.

2.2.8 School based Counselling Strategies

Schools can play a crucial role during intervention programme through drug free club, drama,

role play, involving home and community partnership. Botvin, (2009) noted that educational

programs either by focusing on promotion of knowledge of the students about addictive drugs

and their adverse effects, or on improvement skills such as decision-making and resisting

peer pressure. These educational programs would play an important role in decreasing the

prevalence of drug abuse among adolescents.

(1)Peer Education Intervention Strategy: Peer education is a carefully planned and

implemented strategy to train representative adolescents, providing them with information on

issues relating to adolescents and hopefully, this will allow them to share information with

their immediate peer group and others (Ekenedo & Obiechina, 2010). Peer educator can

discourage advertising of cigarettes, alcohol, and proprietary drugs that are responsible for

adolescent exposure to drug use. The educator should give comprehensive health education

on drug addiction and proffer solution to rehabilitation. It encourages the adolescent to focus

more directly and effectively on learning behaviour to promote their health needs.

Various literatures were reviewed to find out possible measures that can be taken to control

substance abuse among the youth. It was found that educating and enlighten the youth on the

issues of substances abuse can help reduce the menace of substance abuse. Other measures

44
that were reviewed include; provision of employment, parental monitoring, law enforcement

and religious measures.

(2) Enlightenment and Education

Education has a significant influence on substance abuse (Ahmed, 2012; Ndetei, Khasakhala,

Mutiso, Ongecha-owuor, & Kokonyo, 2010; Jibril, et al, 2008). Student who are aware or

educated on the dangers or effect of substance abuse are more likely not to indulge in

substance abuse than students who are not aware of the dangers involved (Ahmad 2012;

Aliyu, 2014). The weaker students are using substance abuse as a means of compensation to

their academic weakness and as a diversional therapy. Moreover, parental education has

influence on substance abuse among the youth (Jibril et al., 2008). Youth

Whose parents have no formal education has a higher rate of substance abuse than those

whose parents had formal education (Jibril et al., 2008). This may be likely because those

youth whose parents has formal education are more likely to be aware of the dangers of

substance abuse than those whose parent has no formal education (Shehu & Idris, 2008).

Educating community about the problems of drug and other substance abuse will help in

reducing the menace of substance abuse among the youth in the society. Educating youth can

be inform of organizing program so as to enlighten youth on the effects of indulging into

substance abuse and the benefit of avoiding these substances. A study was conducted to

determine the impact of a universal school-base substance abuse prevention program “Take

charge of your life (TCYL)” with the aim to prevent or reduce the use of tobacco, alcohol or

marijuana. The findings show that student who use those substance show a significant

positive treatment effect for marijuana use. The main aim of the program is to acquire

knowledge on decision marking and resistance skill, and to modify intension to use tobacco,

alcohol and marijuana. The program targeted on the mediator to this behavior, (Sloboda et al.,

2009). Although, the program only have significant effects on nomadic beliefs and the

45
influence of some confounds such as assessing the quality of the implementation of the

program and measuring the exposure to other prevention program which constitute

intervention were not considered. Educational programme interventions on drug prevention

programmes known as life skills training have been found to be successful with young

adolescents (Faggiano et al., 2010). Life skills training are based on findings that most

adolescent first use drugs in social situations and that their decisions are influenced not just

by one factor but a variety. Effective programs focus on enhancing problem solving skills and

aiding students to evaluate the influence of the media. Effective programs help improve self-

esteem, and reduce stress and anxiety (Hamisu & Badamasi, 2014).

These skills are taught using a combination of methods including demonstration, practice,

feedback and praise. Another proven approach is training designed to teach skills to confront

a problem-specific focus, emphasizing the application of skills directly to the problem of

substance abuse (Ekpenyong, 2012). Mass media involve the use of newspapers, radio,

television, magazine and the internet. Media campaigns have been widely used for the

prevention of substance abuse and illicit drug use among young people (Dray et al., 2012;

Werb et al., 2011).

Most of these media often address specific substances with the aim of reducing use and

raising awareness about its associated problems. These types of campaign typically target

young people because evidence shows that drug use often starts during adolescence, a time in

life when young people may experiment with cigarettes, alcohol and illicit drugs. Mass media

have been a major agent of socialization and tools for social changes especially now that

people depend on message from mass media (Werb et al., 2011).

Substance abuse is on the increase among youths as many of them battle with drug effects.

This results in increased numbers of adolescents entering treatment for substance abuse with

greater social and emotional developmental deficit (Fisher & Harrison, 2000). With the

46
increase in their involvement in drug abuse, most youngsters are still not ready for change

which makes them avoid assistance render by the experts or the adults around them. Church

(1994) stated that “because of their desire for autonomy, adolescents may be very sensitive to

situations where they believe others are asserting their power of authority.” In this regard,

counsellor must understand a clear conceptual adolescence and developmental theory in order

to establish and maintain a therapeutic relationship.

It is possible that a counsellor will encounter a client with drug abuse related problem.

However, little or no training is received on drug abuse during the graduate programme.

Lenhard (1994) noted that in the field of counsellor education, few programmes offer course

work in the specific area of substance abuse. But there is need for a counsellor to possess

knowledge on drug abuse prevention and to be able to help those who are already victims.

The following tasks therefore suggested according to the system approach:

 Identify the possible warning signs of student substance abuse.

 Work with the young person to establish a therapeutic relationship.

 Support the family system to promote change.

 Be a resource and liaison between the student, the family, the school, and community

agencies and treatment programmes.

 Follow-up services.

(3)Identify the Possible Warning Signs of Student Substance Abuse: This is the

counsellor‟s ability to recognize drug abuse symptoms in client. Nunes & Parson (1995)

presented symptoms to be identified with clients with drug abuse. Risk attributes, if

unopposed by protective factors, that predict or precipitate substance abuse included, a poor

parent-child relationship; psychiatric disorders, especially depression; a tendency to seek

novel experience or take risks; family members and peers who use substances; low academic

motivation; absence of religion/religiousity; early cigarette use; low self-esteem; being raised
47
in a single parent or blended family; and engaging in health compromising behaviours.

Martin, Kaczynski, Maisto, Buskstein, & Moss, (1995) also concluded that alcohol related

black-outs, craving, and risky sexual behaviour are common adolescents alcohol abuse issues.

Counsellor should be well alerted about the mentioned symptoms of drug abuse in clients for

early intervention with the client and his family before it becomes more severe.

(4)Work with the Young Person to Established a Therapeutic Relationship: Having

identified the symptoms, it is required that a counsellor be versed in counselling skills to be

able to help the client with abuse or prevent them from being victim. A therapeutic

relationship is established when a counsellor is honest, accommodating and respect the worth

and dignity of the client. Shertzer & Stone (1980) noted that integrity of the person must be

present in the helping relationship. In this relationship, both parties must be very honest to

each other. They must trust each other and be authentic, reliable in their interaction with each

other. That is the only way which their relationship can be of help they concluded. This

implies that a counsellor must possess personality characteristics that attract response from

people and propel them towards change.

(5)Support the Family System to Promote Change: The system approach suggests that no

man lives in isolation but rather exist within a particular family and his interaction within and

outside the family is a potent tool to noticing drug abuse problems. Doerries & Foster (1996)

opined that systems thinking are a way of conceptualizing problem that uses circular

reasoning to evaluate interaction patterns within a system and between systems. This implies

that individuals play their part in the way family function and in surfacing problem. It is

therefore important for a school counsellor to consider the whole family systems in order to

gain a comprehensive understanding of the dysfunction. Haley, (1980) suggested that the

substance abusing family has become “stuck” at one stage of development in the teen drug

abuse but rather in the failure of the system to successfully negotiate the stage requiring

48
mutual disengagement of parent and young person. System theory postulates that a change in

the function of an individual is followed by compensatory change in other family members

(Goldenberg & Goldenberg, 2000).

(6) Be a Resource and Liaison between the Student, the Family, the School and

Community agencies and Treatment Programme: Counsellor is in the position of providing

crisis intervention and referrals, organizing a parent education classes at the school he

engaged, offering parent-child-teacher-school counsellor conferences during hours that match

parent‟s work schedule. The school counsellor should be visible and available at after-school

activities and coordination of other activities designed to increase parental involvement.

Consulting parents on children‟s behavioural problem provide valuable information for a

counsellor as regards the fight and symptoms of drug abuse and intervention procedure. Mc

Laughlin and Vacha (1993) stated that school counsellors are in a unique position to bridge

the gap between families, community institutions and programmes, the school, and students

by functioning both as a resource and liaison. Although, parents may be blind to their

children maladaptive behavior, the counsellor should thus approach them in un-

confrontational manner without blaming them. One method of managing this difficult

interaction is to emphasize the positive. Reframing or rebelling the adolescent‟s behaviour in

a positive fashion may make the uncomfortable topic of substance abuse less threatening for

the parents to hear (Haley, 1976). The focus needs to be on facilitating future change, rather

than on past behaviours or experiences.

(7)The Follow-up Services: A therapeutic relationship is essential in providing ongoing

support. It takes a great commitment from a school counsellor to maintain foundation of

support and a linkage between the adolescents and the systems in which he/she functions

despite his/her schedule. If a therapeutic relationship is not established, the counsellor‟s

likelihood of encountering future resistance in interactions and/or interventions is increased

49
(Miller & Rollnick, 1991; Miller, Zweban, Diclemente, & Rychtarik (1995); Sommer-F. &

Sommers-F., 1997).

Follow-up also involves liaison services when a student returns to school after substance

abuse treatment. The school counsellor can be integral in providing continuing liaison

services between the treatment programme after care services, the family, the school, and

other professionals and systems that may be involved ( e.g., the courts and legal system).

Bowen (1974) noted that “family systems therapy” offers no magic solution for the total

problem but the theory does provide a different way to conceptualize the problem.

Another way a counsellor can help in drug abuse prevention and treatment as being used in

Broward Country public school in USA is through peer counselling. Peer counselling is a

student support programme/services through structured in-school and outreach activities

which address a multitude of social, individual, school and family concerns and has a focus

on violence and substance abuse prevention issues. The responsibility of a counsellor is to

train and coordinate a cross section of students who act as helpers and active listeners for

their fellow students. They act as conflict mediators and peer tutors, provide classroom

presentations on teen issues, welcome new students and promote drug abuse and violence

prevention, which includes anti-bullying programmes.

The purpose of peer counselling is to develop and enhance the health, safety, and wellbeing

of youths by focusing on peer education through a comprehensive programme and curriculum

that encompasses social and emotional skills and awareness, peer mediation, academic

opportunity, student service and referral. The focus of the curriculum is preventative. A

variety of intervention strategies are employed, however, to educate and motivate students or

to invade trained professionals, when needed. The result can be a more positive and safer

school climate, healthier students and staff with lower stress levels, and a better utilization of

school and community resources (Broward Country, 2013).

50
2.2.9 Parental Roles in Drug Abuse Prevention

According to Hughes and Carolyn (2011), significantly less than half of the world population

is involved in serious drug related crime. On the other hand, many of us use legal drugs such

as alcohol, caffeine and nicotine in ways that endanger our lives and the life of others.

However, if drugs abuse contributes to the nation‟s street crime, solving the problem

contribute to reducing the crime rate, therefore, it is ideal for parents with school age children

not to wait until they see evidence of addiction but to prepare youths to face decisions which

they will almost inevitably have to make regarding drug use. Parents should thus, according

to Melgosa, (2005):

 Talk to their children about the problem of drugs from early childhood. Before

someone offers them some substances, children must be informed. Sometimes school

educates them on this but conversation with parents is even more effective. Talk to

them about what the drug produces in the brain and in other organs. Explain to them

the addictive power of all drugs. Warns them that there are drugs (such as tobacco,

alcohol or tranquilizers) which are legal but are still dangerous. Nevertheless, do not

exaggerate with horrendous or incredible stones. The great danger of drug is precisely

that they appear to be harmless. Therefore, if their possible effects are exaggerated, it

will take credibility away from the rest of the statement, however true they may be.

 Devote Time and Attention to Their Children: This is perhaps the best and cheapest

method to prevent drug taking and many other problems. Talk regularly to their sons

and daughters. Perhaps they do not want to chart now, they will later. Parents should

encourage the family ties, so that when they are tempted to use drugs, the family wins.

 Preach by Example: If a parent smokes, drink or take other drugs, he/she is taking

credibility away from any warning giving to the children. And this should not be

limited to giving example with regards to substance, harmony in the home is

51
 fundamental. Situation of family crisis have influenced many adolescents in drug use

(Merki, 1996).

 Change their Discipline Techniques: When children start adolescence period, it is

natural for child to live childhood behind and be an adult thus, parents should not be

surprised that their children are not the same as they were. The parents should

therefore, be less authoritarian and listen more. From this friendly relationship, it is

much easier and more productive to make suggestion.

 Reaffirm Children Self-esteem: Some adolescents take drugs because they want to be

grown up or they want to be like others, or they want adult‟s attention. Many do it

because they have a very poor self-concept. These teenagers need the

acknowledgement of their positive traits. Unfortunately, many only receive

reprimands and criticism from their parents and the misbehaviour continues. Parent

should think about their virtues and their desirable qualities that deserve praise and

look for the right moment to acknowledge their positive points. Talking about their

love for them can prevent them from using drugs as a source of support.

 Avoid Overprotection: Many over protected adolescents feel caged in during their

childhood. This parental attitude creates dissatisfaction which can lead the youth to an

escape route through drugs.

 Propose of ideas or creativity: Healthy activities like nature, sports, music, reading,

solitary collaboration could be of help to the youths instead of prohibitions.

 Make friends with the children friends could also be a way of preventing them from

drug use. Parents should invite them to their house and get to know them. During

adolescence, the group has a stronger influence than at any other time in life. It must

be remembered that the young people themselves are the initiators for other young

people to get into drugs.

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2.2.10 Gender and Drug Abuse

One might wonder what it is about gender that can account for such differences in drug use.

In order to answer this question we must consider what is meant by the term gender. What

distinguishes males from females? Gender refers not only to the physical and biological

differences that differentiate males from females. Gender also represents the many

psychological, cognitive and behavioral differences that distinguish males from females.

These differences are due, in most part, to the effects of gender role socialization, to society‟s

role in dictating how the ideal male and the ideal female should behave, feel and think. In

addition, gender role socialization accounts for the fact that certain personality characteristics

tend to be characterized as either masculine or feminine. For instance, assertiveness would

most likely be characterized as a masculine trait, whereas passivity would most likely be

characterized as a feminine trait. The association between gender and adolescent drug use

may be due to the effect of gender role socialization. For instance, boys, compared to girls,

are often encouraged, and even rewarded, for risk- taking behavior.

However, males and females differ in relation to prevalence, impact of biological,

psychological and social factors and course of illness and these differences have to be

carefully taken into account when planning patient-tailored interventions (Rickwood, Deane

& Wilson, 2007).

Gender-centred approaches emphasize the importance of social cultural and biological

differences on health, thus ensuring the best outcomes for men and women with mental

health problems. In addition, they can improve detection and treatment of mental health

problems in underreported groups; provide additional evidence in epidemiology and course

of mental disorders; improve relevance of health services and increase patients‟ participation

in health. Understanding gender differences in mental health services utilization appears thus

crucial in the development of tailored policies, in the implementation of existing services and

53
in the provision of more effective treatments for young people with psychiatric disorders.

Among adolescents substance abuse is common, with 22% of young people drinking alcohol

weekly and up to 33% having tried at least one illicit drug. Female patients show lower rates

of substance abuse problems than males but they tend to develop dependence faster. Despite

lower levels of substance abuse, females with addictive behaviours present poorer general

physical health, higher rates of victimization and partner conflict, more stress-related

substance abuse and more psychiatric problems than males (Florsheim & Moore, 2008).

On the other hand, males with substance abuse show higher rates of criminal activities than

females. With regard to the type of drug used, female patients are more likely to use heroine

and more likely to share injecting equipment than males, whereas male patients are more

likely to use cannabis and alcohol than females. Emergency Departments are often the

primary site for evaluation of adolescents with substance abuse problems, particularly for

male abusers but the nature of the contact (acute intoxication, difficulties in bonding, and

issues of confidentiality) makes it difficult for clinicians to refer patients to adequate

treatment programs (Rickwood, Deane & Wilson, 2007).

Once the addiction is recognized, adolescents can be addressed to outpatient services, which

can offer Mixed-Gender (MG) or Women Only (WO) programs. WO programs utilize a more

supportive and less confrontational approach to treatment than MG programs, which is more

suitable for females, who are more expressive verbally and behaviorally in single- sex group

sessions. The treatment of choice should rely on patient‟s preference, taking into

consideration that WO programs may provide a more adequate environment for female

adolescents with substance abuse problems. As previously stated, substance abuse in young

people is often complicated by mental health problems among which depression is the one of

the most common (Rickwood, Deane & Wilson, 2007).

54
2.3 Theoretical Framework

Theories of drug abuse indicate that some people truly depend on certain drugs for their

survival due to a number of factors. The major emphasis of the theories is that people have

their individual reasons for depending on one type of the drug or the other. Such reasons,

according to Eze and Omeje (1999) are explained by the following theories personality

theory of drug abuse, learning theory of drug abuse, biological theory of drug abuse and

socio-cultural theories.

(a) Personality Theories of Drug Abuse: The main emphases of the theories are that there

are certain traits or characteristics in the individuals that abuse drugs. Such personality

characteristics, according to Eze and Omeje (1999) are inability to delay gratification, low

tolerance for frustration, poor impulse control, high emotional dependence on other people,

poor coping ability and low self-esteem. Individuals with these personality characteristics

find it difficult to abstain from drug abuse.

(b) Learning Theory of Drug Abuse: It maintains that dependence or abuse of drugs occurs

as a result of learning. The learning could be by means of conditioning, instrumental learning

or social learning.

(c) Biological Theory of Drug Abuse: The theory maintains that drug abuse is determined

by the individuals‟ biological or genetic factors which make them vulnerable to drug

addiction.

(d) Socio-cultural Theories of Drug Dependence/Abuse: The theories maintain that abuse

is determined by socio-cultural values of the people. For instance, while certain cultures

permit the consumption of alcohol and marijuana, other cultures do not. Among the Urhobo,

Ijaw, Ibibio, Edo, Igbo, Yoruba and Itesekiri, alcohol i.e. Ogogoro is used in cultural

activities. In Northern Nigeria, alcohol is forbidden due to Sharia law. However, the sharing

law does not forbid cigarette consumption and thus nicotine dependence. It should be noted,

55
however that no theory fully explains the etiology of drug abuse. This is due to individual

differences. It then becomes obvious that the disorder (drug abuse) is an acquired one. The

acquisition then is dependent on a host of personal inclinations and environmental factors, a

situation explained suggestively by Bandura (1986) social cognitive theory, i.e the triadic

reciprocity involving behaviour, environment and the person.

(e) Social Resistance skills theory: the theory as proposed by Gilbert Botvin in (1970) and

the drug and alcohol theories of aggression by Geen (1990) and Berkowitz (1993). The social

resistance skills theory argues that social and psychological factors are central in promoting

the onset of cigarette smoking and later, drug and alcohol abuse. The social resistance theory

holds that drug abuse result from pro-drug social influences from peers, persuasive

advertising appeals, and media portrayals encouraging drug use, along with exposure to drug-

using role models.

2.4 Review of Empirical Studies

Studies on drug use and abuse among old and young ones are not very uncommon in

academic research endeavour. Several researches, at different time and in different places

have been conducted. However, the level of drug use incidence among the youths in this

contemporary time is alarming which bothered many researchers, thereby, carrying out more

studies on drug use among adolescents. In another development, Bundebunde (2015)

conducted a study to determine knowledge, attitudes and practices of the youth towards drug

abuse in Lusaka urban. The sample units were selected from four (4) Lusaka urban secondary

schools. A systematic random sampling technique was used to select the study units. A total

sample of 70 was selected from senior secondary school grades ie grades Ten, Eleven and

Twelve. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data However, their knowledge of the

effects of these drugs was limited. It was also found that majority do not condone the use of

illicit drugs though many of them do not participate in anti-drug campaign on regular basis.

56
Many of the pupils accepted to the past use of drugs and only a minority accepted to the

current use of drugs. This was attributed to the illicit nature of drugs of abuse. Pupils found it

easier accepting past use of drugs than current use.

For instance, Similarly,El-Hammadi and Hunien (2013) explore knowledge, attitudes and

abuse concerning doping in sport among Syrian Pharmacy students. Questionnaire was

developed and employed to collect data from bachelor of pharmacy (BPharm) students at the

International University for Science and Technology (IUST). Two-hundred and eighty

students participated in this self-administrated, paper-based survey. Around 90% of the

students did not appear to know that narcotics, β-blockers and diuretics were used in sport as

doping agents. Additionally, proportions between 60% and 80% considered vitamins, energy

drinks and amino acids as substances that possess performance-enhancing effects. The main

reason for doping, based on students‟ response, was to improve muscular body appearance.

The vast majority of students agreed that pharmacists should play a major role in promoting

awareness about risks of doping. While students showed negative attitudes toward doping,

approximately 15% of them, primarily males, had already tried a doping drug or might do so

in the future. More than 60% of the students believed that sports-mates and friends are the

most influential in encouraging them to take a doping agent.

Nader, Ali, Abbas, Yaser and Camellia (2013) examined the male High school students‟

knowledge and attitude to addiction in Urmia, Iran. It was a cross-sectional study in which,

306 male students from high schools in Urmia city were selected based on simple sampling

by using a demographic and researcher-designed questionnaire. The validity of the

questionnaire both in terms of content and appearance was verified by the board members of

the Urmia University of Medical Sciences, and the reliability with the internal compatibility

index. Most of the samples stated that they told their parents about their new friends, as an

indication of the families' control on them and believed that curiosity is an important factor in

57
addiction, and declared that media's depiction of the harms of addiction has biased them

against drug use. Also, it was obvious that the samples' demographic characteristics,

including age, neighborhood, previous grade average, number of siblings and parents'

education, did not have a significant correlation with their knowledge of and attitude to

addiction (P > 0.05) (Hamisu & Badamasi, 2014). These skills are taught using a combination

of methods including demonstration, practice, feedback and praise. Another proven approach

is training designed to teach skills to confront a problem-specific focus, emphasizing the

application of skills directly to the problem of substance abuse (Ekpenyong, 2012).

Ali, Hani and Ali (2010) studied the knowledge, attitude and practice of tobacco smoking by

medical students in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. A cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study of

students from two medical colleges in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia was carried out. The

questionnaire used was anonymous, self-administered and developed mainly from Global

Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS). The findings showed that forty students (19%) indicated that

they smoke tobacco at the time of the study. All of them were males, which raise the

prevalence among male students to 24%. Tobacco smoking was practiced by males more than

females (P value <0.0001) and by senior more than junior students (<0.0001). About 94% of

the study sample indicated that smoking could cause serious illnesses. About 90% of the

students indicated that they would advise their patients to quit smoking in the future and 88%

thought that smoking should be banned in public areas. Forty-four students (20%) thought

that smoking has some beneficial effects, mainly as a coping strategy for stress alleviation. It

was concluded that despite good knowledge about the hazards of tobacco consumption, about

25% of the medical students in this study continue to smoke.

Another study was carried out by Haddad, Shotar, Umlauf and Al-Zvoud (2010) on the

knowledge of substance abuse among high school students in Jordan using a multistage

random sampling in selecting schools from the educational directorate located in a large

58
urban city located in the north of Jordan. This city district contains 23 public secondary

schools and serves 56.8% of the adolescents in the entire province. The results revealed that

students of both sexes were knowledgeable about aspects of substance abuse, including its

harmful effects on the body and society and reported that even occasional or frequent use of

cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs was extremely harmful. A majority of the students

perceived substance abuse as a problem, although the older students were more acutely aware

than the younger group. However, the results revealed that the students lack in-depth

knowledge of substance abuse. In addition, the adolescents consistently refer to Islamic

principles forbidding use of intoxicants but mistakenly presume that mosques are sources for

assistance regarding substance abuse.

Tsering, Pal and Dasgupta (2010) study was on substance use among adolescent high school

students in India: A survey of knowledge, attitude and opinion. The results of the study

showed that out of 416 students, 52 (12.5%) used or abused any one of the substances

irrespective of time and frequency in lifetime; 26 (15.1 %) were among the urban students

and 26 (10.7 %) were among their rural counterparts. More than two-thirds (73.07%) of the

respondents expressed a desire to quit substance use and 57.69% had tried to stop. „Easy

availability‟ and „relief from tension‟ were the most frequent reasons for continuation of

substance use. Level of knowledge on harmfulness of substance use among students was very

high (urban - 84.6% and rural - 61.5%) and they stated media as the most frequent source of

information. Users were successful in influencing their peers into taking up this habit (urban -

15.4% and rural - 26.9%). It was concluded that in spite of being aware of the harmful effects

of substance use, adolescents take up this habit. The findings of the study revealed that

majority of the participants defined correctly various terminologies on psychoactive

substances 99.3 %,(n= 399) and 85.1%, (n=342) mentioned different types of psychoactive

substances found in their areas. Only 6.5% of the surveyed students‟ had history of

59
psychoactive substance use. Furthermore over 90% of the students believed that psychoactive

substances can negatively affect students academically. Additionally, 8.5% of the surveyed

students have reported to have used psychoactive substances. This study found that secondary

school students have adequate knowledge on the different types of psychoactive substances

and their effects on their psychosocial lives. However, most of the participants did not agree

on the use of psychoactive substances.

The study of Chebukaka (2014) focused on drug abuse among students in public secondary

schools in Kenya: The case of Vihiga County. The study employed descriptive survey design

and ex-post facto Approach. The target population was 15,222 students enrolled in 45 public

secondary schools in Vihiga County. The accessible population was 3,769 Form Three

students. Out of this population, a sample of 181 students was selected from nine Public

secondary schools through simple random sampling. Data from students was collected using

a students‟ questionnaire and a Students‟ Drug Involvement Scale (SDIS). Reliability of the

research instruments was ensured through piloting the research instruments using a student

sample size of thirty selected from three public secondary schools in Kakamega County

which is a neighbouring County to Vihiga. The collected data was quantitative. Data analysis

utilised descriptive statistics with the help of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences

(SPSS). The study found that the extent of involvement in drugs by students in public

secondary schools in Vihiga County was 55.9%. The study also found that the commonly

abused drugs by students in public schools in Vihiga County are alcohol, cigarettes, miraa,

and marijuana and that cocaine and heroin were beginning to infiltrate into public secondary

schools.

Moreover, Simatwa, Odhong, Juma and Choka (2014) investigated substance abuse among

public secondary school students, prevalence, strategies and challenges for public secondary

school managers in Kenya: A case study of Kisumu East Sub County. The study found that

60
factors influencing substance abuse among students of Public Secondary Schools were; peer

pressure, media influence, frustrations, excess pocket money, copying of idols, parental

influence, pursuit of pleasure, readily availability of substances of abuse dysfunction families

due to unstable family, (family crisis, divorce, single parent family) low income, long

working hours of family members whose consequences are limited to quality family time,

poor mentoring among others. Prevalence of substances commonly abused among students of

Public Secondary Schools in Kisumu East Sub county are 37.4% for alcohol, 12.1% for

cigarettes, 9.2% for Khat/ miraa, 6.1% for Marijuana, 4.7% for glue, 2.9% for kuber. The

strategies used by public secondary school managers to address substance abuse related

issues among public secondary school students in Kisumu East Sub county are the use of

professional counsellors, teachings on substance abuse, training of peer educators, use of

guest speakers, use of reprimands, preaching, use of posters, formation of clubs for substance

abusers, use of “No Smoking Zones”, and corporal punishment. The findings of the study

also showed that the challenges faced by public secondary school managers in addressing

substance abuse related issues among public secondary school students in Kisumu East Sub

county are rehabilitation of substance abusers, reducing the prevalence of substance abuse,

improving the performance of substance abusers, identification of substance abusers, threats

from substance abusers, improving the discipline of substance abusers, identification of the

sources of abused substances, and the identification of the substances of abuse and the fact

substance abusers do not consider themselves as having problems or in need of help. The

questionnaires were administered in form of interviews. The study results revealed that

school going youths are knowledgeable on description of drug abuse and common drugs of

abuse.

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2.5 Summary and Uniqueness of the Study

Drugs are substances that alter physical or physiological and psychological state of an

individual. Drug are being used and abuse by everyone in one form or the other and its

prevalence is as old as man i.e no society is insulated from the negative consequences of

illicit drugs. Drugs in essence can be classified into six which are stimulants, depressants,

hallucinogens, cannabis, narcotics and inhalants. Alcohol as one of the depressants was

specifically discussed because of its cultural acceptance, availability and people consideration

as not drug. Some of the motivating factors of drug use and abuse are culture and ethnicity,

unemployment and economic hardship, general acceptance, politics and laws, peer group

among others. Abuse of drugs may consequently lead to brain damage, psychological

dependence, tolerance, physical dependence, school dropout, armed robbery, prostitution, etc.

Drug preventive measures, through governmental and non-governmental agencies were to

reduce drug supply, reduce drugs demands and helping the ex-drug users. However, in

preventing drug abuse among youths, also, the role of counsellors and parents cannot be

undermined, therefore, counsellors can help in drug prevention by identifying the possible

warning signs of the student substance abuse, working with the youth to establish a

therapeutic relationship, supporting the family system to promote change and being a

resource and liaison between the student, family, school, and community agencies and

treatment programmes; while parents should talk to their youngsters about the problem of

drugs from early childhood and reaffirmed their self-esteem etc.

The practices of drug use among secondary school students were also discussed in the study.

For instance, The 2005 Australian Secondary Students‟ Alcohol and Drug Survey (ASSAD)

(White & Hayman, 2006) revealed that cannabis was the most commonly used illicit

substance among secondary school students in 2005: 18% of all secondary school students

aged between 12 and 17 years reported having used cannabis at some time in their lives. The

62
study of Kilonzo and Kilima (1992) reported that khat was among major drug people used

regularly with 3.7% of respondents admitted to having ever tried the drug in Tanzania. Other

drugs used by youths‟ population according to Ndosi (1999) are benzodiazepines, narcotics,

barbiturates, volatiles, tobacco, analgesics and the likes. In conclusion, empirical review of

relevant previous studies on knowledge, attitudes and practices of drug use were carried out.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the research design adopted, the population of the study, sample size,

and sampling technique, data collection instrument, validity and reliability of the instrument,

method of administration, experimental procedure as well as technique of data analysis.

3.2 Research Design

For the purpose of this study, Survey research design was adopted. Descriptive survey

enables the researcher to obtain opinion of a representative sample of the target population so

as to be able to infer the perception of the entire population (Daramola, 2006). Survey

approach is considered appropriate for this study, since the researcher is interested in

collecting information from a representative of a sample.

3.3 Population and Sample

3.3.1 Population of the Study

The target population of the study consists of all counsellors in 89 public secondary schools

in Ilorin metropolis (Kwara Central), Kwara State, Nigeria. The counsellors are considered

most appropriate for the study for information regarding the school-based strategies

employed by counsellors in senior secondary schools. Counsellors are always involved in

dealing with issue of drug abuse among students and they are aware of the strategies being

employed in order to address the behaviour.

Data from Kwara State Teaching Service Commission (2019) show that there are 268

counsellors in public secondary schools in Ilorin metropolis (Kwara Central), that cut across

4 local government areas comprising of Asa, Ilorin East, Ilorin West and Ilorin south. The

distribution of teacher is presented in the table 1 below:

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Table 1: Distribution of Population Size
S/N Name of Local Government Number of
Counsellors
1 Asa 38
2 Ilorin East 79
3 Ilorin West 88
4 Ilorin South 63
Total 268

However, under the study an instrument was administered to selected counsellors across the

schools in the local government areas.

3.3.2 Sample Size

A sample size of one hundred and six nine (169) counsellors were selected for the study

which were drawn from the total population in the study location based on the research

advisor sample size table 2006. The need for sampling arose due to the fact that it will not be

possible to cover the entire population described in the given study. The detail of the sample

3.3.3 Sampling Technique

Multistage sampling technique was adopted in selecting sample for the study with a view of

making the research findings economical and accurate.

In the first stage, Kwara central was selected consisting of 4 local government areas (Asa,

Ilorin east, west and south). Each of the local government area forms the cluster in which the

respondents were being selected. In the second stage, senior secondary schools were selected,

in each of the school counsellors were selected and participated in the study.

At the last stage, the selection of sampled school and counsellors was done proportionately as

presented in the table 2 below:

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Table 2: Distribution of Population Size based on Local Government Areas
SN LGA No of schools No of Sampled Sampled
Counsellors schools
1 Asa 16 38 5 25
2 Ilorin East 29 79 9 40
3 Ilorin West 28 88 8 63
4 Ilorin South 21 63 6 42
Total 89 268 28 169

3.4 Data Collection Instrument

The instrument used for this study was self-designed questionnaire titled “School-Based

Counselling Strategies on Drug Abuse Inventory (SCDAI)‟, the items of the instrument were

developed base on various type of drug abuse.

The School-Based counselling Strategies for Drug Abuse Inventory (SCDAI) is a researcher

developed inventory with 20 items across two sections A and B. The inventory has four-point

Likert scale i.e. Not Available (NA), Rarely Available (RA), Available (A), Always

Available (AA). The first section comprises of the demographic data of the respondents such

as gender and school details, section B consisted of the 20 items for School-Based Strategies

on Drug Abuse Behaviour.

Scoring means the scaling or rating adopted for the instrument. Frequency and percentage

were used in section “A” to determine the demographic data of the respondents. Respondents

were expected to respond to items in section B on a Four Point Likert type scale. The section

B contained 20 items each which will be graded, viz:

Not Available (NA) = 1 point

Rarely Available (RA) = 2 points

Available (A) = 3 points

Always Available (AA) = 4 points

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The highest possible score any respondent could obtain is 80 (4x20) while the lowest score is

20 (1x20). Therefore, the range is 60 (80 – 20). Thus, the midpoint of the range is 30 (i.e

60/2). The cut-off point is therefore 80–30 or 20+30 which is either case is 50, therefore, the

mid-point is 25.

3.5 Validation of the Instrument

3.5.1Validity if the instrument

The research instrument was submitted to the researcher‟s supervisor and other experts for

vetting in order to ascertain the content validity of the instrument. Corrections done were

effected and the instrument was then adjudged valid for use in the study. Content validity is

one of the most powerful techniques available to the researcher through which data gathering

instrument like questionnaires can be validated (Daramola, 2006).

3.5.2 Reliability of the instrument

According to Olayiwola (2007) reliability is the degree of accuracy with which an instrument

measures whatever it purports to measure and at different time interval, produces the same

result. Reliability has to do with consistency and stability of the instrument or test. Therefore,

to measure the reliability of the instrument, the researcher administered the instrument to 20

respondents in Ilorin twice with an interval of two weeks the test re-test method was adopted.

The two set of administration were correlated using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation

(PPMC) and a coefficient of 0.83 was obtained which make the instrument reliable for the

study.

3.6 Data Collection Procedures

Firstly, the researcher obtained an introductory letter from the Head of Department of

Education, Bayero University Kano. This letter was taken to Kwara State Teaching Service

Commission and the Principals of the sampled secondary schools in LGA. This is to seek

permission from the selected organization. After the permission is guaranteed, the researcher

67
will go to the respect school across the four local governments, then the questionnaire was

administered by the researcher, along with the help of other two trained research assistants.

The researcher and the trained research assistants explained the purpose of the study to the

respondents and what they are expected to do. This facilitated quick and accurate response

from the respondents and the instruments were retrieved from the respondents on the spot

scored and analysed by the researcher for future used.

3.7 Data Analysis Procedures,

Simple frequency and percentage were used to analyse the demographic data of the

respondents while research question was answered using frequency, percentage, mean and

standard deviation. Inferential statistics of t-test for independent sample was used to test the

two hypotheses at 0.05 level of significant.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the result of the study. The data collected were analyzed using both

descriptive and inferential statistics. For the demographic data; percentages were employed,

the major research questions were measured using mean and rank order analysis, while t-test

statistical tool was adopted to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.

4.2 Summary of Data

A total number of one hundred and sixty nine (169) respondents in Ilorin Metropolis of

Kwara State were sampled based on researcher advised (2006) out of this number (61) were

male respondents while the remaining 100 were female respondents based on school type

(113) respondents were selected from day schools while the remaining (56) respondents were

selected from boarding schools.

Table 3: Distributions of Respondents by Gender and School Type

School Details Frequency Percentage (%)
Day 113 67%
Boarding 56 33%
GENDER
Male 69 41%
Female 100 59%

Table 3 above presents the distribution of respondents based on gender and school type. The

table shows the distribution of respondents by gender, the table shows that 69 (40.8%) of the

respondents were male while 100 (59.2%) of the respondents were female. This indicates that

female respondents participated more than male in the study. The table also shows the

distribution of respondents by school details, the table shows that 113 (66.9%) of the

respondents were in day school while 56 (33.1%) of the respondents were in boarding school.

This indicates that day school respondents participated more in the study.
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 4.3 Data Analyses

This section presents a statistical analysis of the data which formed the basis of the results

and findings of the study, to present a clear and logical data analysis, the research questions

were answered using descriptive statistics, in form of mean and standard deviation as well as

simple frequency and percentage. T-test for independent samples was used to all the

hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.

4.3.1 Answers to Research Question

One research question raised to guide the study and answered, using mean and standard

deviation as well as simple frequency and percentage.

Research Question: What are the school-based counselling strategies employed by

counsellors in reducing drug abuse among senior secondary school students in Ilorin

metropolis, Kwara State Nigeria?

Table 4: Mean, Standard Deviation and Rank Order on the Respondents‟ Perception on
school-based counselling strategies in reducing drug abuse among senior secondary school
students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State Nigeria
Item Statements Mean AA A RA NA SD Rank
No.
Educational programs e.g. school 3.05 53 75 37 53 0.79 1st
Orientation Programme to 31.4% 44.4% 21.9% 31.4%
4
prevent/reduce drug abuse
behavior
Providing relevant knowledge and 2.98 37 95 34 3 0.70 2nd
20 information on drug abuse to 21.9% 56.2% 20.1% 1.8%
students
Encourage the adolescent to focus 2.87 36 83 42 8 0.80 3rd
more directly and effectively on 21.3% 49.1% 24.9% 4.7%
8
learning behaviour to promote
their health needs
Lecture delivery during school 2.85 21 108 34 6 0.67 4th
19
orientation programmes 12.4 63.9% 20.1% 3.6%
Carefully planned and 2.83 34 81 46 8 0.80 5th
implemented strategy to train 20.1% 47.9% 27.2% 4.7%
7
student about prevention of drug
abuse
Youth campaign against drug 2.79 35 73 52 9 0.83 6th
12
abuse 20.7% 43.2% 30.8% 5.3%
18 Organizing quiz competition on 2.79 0.68 6th
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 drug abuse in schools
Public enlightenment program in 2.78 28 84 49 8 0.78 8th
11 schools about the danger of drug 16.6% 49.7% 29.0% 4.7%
abuse
Provision of useful information 2.73 19 94 48 8 0.72 9th
17 about incidents of drug abuse to 11.2% 55.6% 28.4% 4.7%
schools
10th
Peer education to discourage drug 2.69 24 81 52 12 0.80
5
abuse 14.2% 47.9% 30.8% 7.1%
Drama play to reveal dangers of 2.68 26 80 46 17 0.86 11th
3
drug abuse 15.4% 47.3% 27.2% 10.1%
Comprehensive health education 2.66 15 98 39 17 0.78 12th
6
on drug addiction 8.9% 58.0% 23.1% 10.1%
Provide alternative remedial 2.65 24 75 56 14 0.83 13th
13
information strategy 14.2% 44.4% 33.1% 8.3%
Usage of drug use chart in schools 2.64 21 79 56 13 0.80 14th
16
to reduce the drug abuse 12.4% 46.7% 33.1% 7.7%
Work with the students to 2.62 20 80 54 15 0.81 15th
9
establish a therapeutic relationship 11.8% 47.3% 32.0% 8.9%
Support the family system to 2.59 15 83 57 14 0.77 16th
10 promote change in students‟ drug 8.9% 49.1% 33.7% 8.3%
abuse behavior
Role play in school to reduce 2.57 27 64 57 21 0.90 17th
2
drugs abuse 16.0% 37.9% 33.7% 12.4%
Provision of books on drug abuse 2.54 15 80 55 19 0.81 18th
15
to schools 8.9% 47.3% 32.5% 11.2%
Material support to drug free club 2.50 15 80 55 21 0.87 19th
14
8.9% 47.3% 32.5% 12.4%
Establishment of functional drug 2.15 19 45 48 57 1.02 20th
1 free club in school to discourage 11.2% 26.6% 28.4% 33.7%
drug abuse behavior

Table 4 presents the mean and rank order of respondents‟ expression on school-based

counselling strategies in reducing drug abuse among students in secondary schools in Ilorin

metropolis, Ilorin, Kwara state Nigeria. The result in the table revealed that items 4

(Educational programs e.g. school Orientation Programme to prevent/reduce drug abuse

behaviour) was ranked 1st with mean score of 3.05, item 20 (Providing relevant knowledge

and information on drug abuse to students) was ranked 2nd with mean score of 2.98 and item

8 (Encourage the adolescent to focus more directly and effectively on learning behaviour to

promote their health needs) was ranked 3rd with mean score of 2.87 On the other end, item 15

(Provision of books on drug abuse to schools) was ranked 18th with mean score of 2.54, item

71
14 (Material support to drug free club) was ranked 19th with mean score of 2.50 and item 1

(Establishment of functional drug free club in school to discourage drug abuse behaviour)

was ranked 20th with mean score of 2.15. The table indicates that 19 out of the 20 items have

the mean scores that are above the mid-cut off point of 2.50; this indicates that the

respondents attested to many counselling strategies in reducing drug abuse among students in

secondary schools in Ilorin metropolis, Ilorin, Kwara state Nigeria as highlighted above.

4.3.2 Hypotheses Testing

Two null hypotheses were postulated and tested for this study. The hypotheses were tested

using t-test statistical method at 0.05 level of significance.

Hypothesis One: There is no significant difference in the school-based counselling strategies

employed by male and female schools counsellors in reducing drug-abuse among senior

secondary students in Ilorin metropolis Kwara state, Nigeria.

Table 5: Mean, Standard Deviation and t-value on the Respondents‟ Expression on school
based counselling strategies in reducing drug abuse among senior secondary school students
in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State Nigeria based on gender
Gender N Mean SD df Cal. t- Crit. t- p-value
value value
Male 63 58.06 7.91
167 1.35 1.96 0.179
Female 100 56.25 8.96
NS at. 0.179≥ 0.05
Table 6 indicates that the calculated t-value of 1.35 is less than the critical t-value of 1.96

with corresponding p-value of .117 which is higher than 0.05 level of significance. Since the

calculated t-value is less than the critical t-value, the hypothesis which states that there is no

significant difference in the school-based counselling strategies employed by male and

female schools counsellors in reducing drug-abuse among senior secondary students in Ilorin

metropolis Kwara state, Nigeria is not rejected.

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Table 7: Mean, Standard Deviation and t-value on the Respondents‟ Expression on school-
based counselling strategies in reducing drug abuse among senior secondary school students
in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State Nigeria based on school details
School Details N Mean SD df Cal. t- Crit. t- p-value
value value
Day 113 55.12 7.76
167 4.23 1.96 0.000
Boarding 56 60.77 8.96
* Sig. at p < 0.05
Table 7 indicates that the calculated t-value of 4.23 is greater than the critical t-value of 1.96

with corresponding p-value of 0.000 which is less than 0.05 level of significance. Since the

calculated t-value is greater than the critical t-value, the hypothesis which states that there is

no significant difference in the school- based counselling strategies in reducing drug abuse

employed by counsellors in boarding and day senior secondary students in Ilorin metropolis,

Kwara State, Nigeria is rejected.

4.4 Summary of Findings

Based on the result of the study, it was revealed that;

1. Educational programs like school Orientation Programme to prevent/reduce drug

abuse behaviour, providing relevant knowledge and information on drug abuse to

students, encourage the adolescent to focus more directly and effectively on learning

behaviour to promote their health needs among others are the school-based

counselling strategies employed by counsellors in reducing drug abuse among senior

secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State Nigeria.

2. There is no significant difference in the school-based counselling strategies employed

by male and female schools counsellors in reducing drug-abuse among senior

secondary students in Ilorin metropolis Kwara state, Nigeria.

3. There is significant difference in the school- based counselling strategies in reducing

drug abuse employed by counsellors in boarding and day senior secondary students in

Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State, Nigeria.

73
4.5 Discussion of Findings

The study revealed that educational programs like school Orientation Programme to

prevent/reduce drug abuse behaviour, providing relevant knowledge and information on drug

abuse to students, encourage the adolescent to focus more directly and effectively on learning

behaviour to promote their health needs among others are the school-based counselling

strategies employed by counsellors in reducing drug abuse among senior secondary school

students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State Nigeria. The findings was supported by Botvin,

(2009) who noted that educational programs either by focusing on promotion of knowledge

of the students about addictive drugs and their adverse effects, or on improvement skills such

as decision-making and resisting peer pressure. These educational programs play an

important role in decreasing the prevalence of drug abuse among adolescents.

Also, Sloboda (2009) stressed that educating youth can be inform of organizing program so

as to enlighten youth on the effects of indulging into substance abuse and the benefit of

avoiding these substances. The aim of the program is to assist people acquire knowledge on

decision marking and resistance skill, and to modify intension to use tobacco, alcohol and

marijuana as well as other illicit drugs. The program targeted on the mediator to this

behaviour.

The result of hypothesis one revealed that there was no significant difference in the school-

based counselling strategies employed by male and female school counsellors in reducing

drug-abuse among senior secondary students in Ilorin metropolis Kwara state, Nigeria. This

shows that the expression of male and female school counsellor would not influence school-

based counselling strategies in reducing drug-abuse among senior secondary students in

Ilorin metropolis Kwara state, Nigeria. The findings negated Coleman (2010) who posited

that drug use and abuse among students are subject to some pre-disposing factors such as

peer pressure, sex, age, family background, occupation of parent which contributed

74
immensely to drug abuse by the students. Also, Oriahi, Ajekweneh and Oriahi (2012) found

that the majority of students were influenced by peer group and influence of parents on the

use of drugs based on age, gender, parental addiction also contributed to drug abuse by the

youngsters.

The findings of hypothesis two revealed that there was significant difference in the school-

based counselling strategies in reducing drug abuse employed by counsellors in boarding and

day senior secondary students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State, Nigeria. This shows that the

expression of day or boarding school counsellor would influence school-based counselling

strategies in reducing drug-abuse among senior secondary students in Ilorin metropolis

Kwara state, Nigeria. The findings was in line with Ahmad (2012) and Aliyu (2014) who

posited that education has a significant influence on substance abuse people who are aware or

educated on the dangers or effect of substance abuse are more likely not to indulge in

substance abuse than those who are not aware of the dangers involved. Moreover, the type of

school education has influence on substance abuse among the youth. Youth whose parents

have no formal education has a higher rate of substance abuse than those whose parents had

formal. Educating community about the problems of drug and other substance abuse will help

in reducing the menace of substance abuse among the youth in the society (Ndetei,

Khasakhala, Mutiso, Ongecha-owuor, & Kokonyo, 2010).

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 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Introduction

The study found out school-based counselling strategies employed by counsellors in reducing

drug abuse among senior secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State

Nigeria. The study considered the respondents demographic data, the variables used in the

demographic data of the respondents include: gender and school details. Thus, this chapter

contains the discussion of findings, conclusion, recommendations and suggestions for further

studies.

5.2 Summary

This study was designed to assess the school-based counselling strategies employed by

counsellors in reducing drug abuse among senior secondary school students in Ilorin

metropolis, Kwara State Nigeria.

The introductory aspect contextualize the background, Statement of the problems and

objectives of the study as to find out the school-based counselling strategies employed by

counsellor in reducing drug abuse among senior secondary school students in Ilorin

metropolis, Kwara State Nigeria. One research question were answer as well as two

hypotheses which were tested at 0.05 level of significance, follow by significance of the

study hen scope and delimitation of the study.

The review of related literature on various areas that are related to the variables of the study.

The chapter contained a framework, theoretical framework, review of empirical studies as

well as summary and uniqueness of the study.

The design adopted in this study was descriptive survey design. The population of the study

comprised of all counsellors of secondary school in Kwara metropolis. Multistage sampling

technique was used to draw the sample size of 169 as suggested by Researcher Advisor tble
76
of determination of Sample size. One group received social skills training and another control

group, did not undergo treatment of any kind. The instrument used in this study was a

researcher developed instrument “title” School based Counselling Strategies on Drug Abuse

Inventory (SCDAI).

The statistical analysis of data collected for the study was extensible discussed. Tables were

used to display the results of the data which is revealed that out of the two hypotheses, one

hypothesis was rejected sand the remaining one were retained summary of the basic findings

of the study were presented followed by discussion of major findings using relevant literature

to back up the findings, the agreement and disagreement between the finding were display in

a form of discussion.

5.3 Conclusions

The study examined school-based counselling strategies employed by counsellors in reducing

drug abuse among senior secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State

Nigeria. The findings revealed that educational programs like school Orientation Programme

to prevent/reduce drug abuse behaviour, providing relevant knowledge and information on

drug abuse to students, encourage the adolescent to focus more directly and effectively on

learning behaviour to promote their health needs among others are the school-based

counselling strategies employed by counsellors in reducing drug abuse among senior

secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State Nigeria.

There was no significant difference in the school-based counselling strategies employed by

male and female schools counsellors in reducing drug-abuse among senior secondary

students in Ilorin metropolis Kwara state, Nigeria. There was significant difference in the

school- based counselling strategies in reducing drug abuse employed by counsellors in

boarding and day senior secondary students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State, Nigeria.

77
5.4 Recommendations

Two set of recommendations were made; Recommendation from study and commendation

for further studies

5.4.1 Recommendations from the study

Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that;

1. Since Educational Programs were employed by Counsellors in reducing drug abuse it

was recommended that counsellors should continue counsel the students on dangers

as well as health consequences of drug abuse.

2. Since the problem of drug abuse continue exist among students it was recommemded

that school authority and government should organized the Seminars, conferences and

workshops to educate students on the dangers involved in drug abuse.

3. Despite the efforts made by teachers, counsellors and school authorities the problem

of drug abuse is continue be an issue among students it was recommended that

Parents should also adopt a good parenting style for the training of students as well as

proper monitoring of their wards to prevent them from drug abuse.

4. Since there is no significant difference in the school-based counselling strategies

employed by male and female schools counsellors in reducing drug-abuse among

senior secondary students in Ilorin metropolis Kwara state, Nigeria. It was

recommended that counsellors should continue educating the students irrespective of

their gender and ensure that proper care is accorded to students in their care.

4. Since there is significant difference in the school- based counselling strategies in

reducing drug abuse employed by counsellors in boarding and day senior secondary

students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State, Nigeria it was recommended that

counselors should continue employ the strategies among the respondents by

considering the type of school.

78
5.4.2 Recommendations for further studies

The study examined school-based counselling strategies employed by counsellors in reducing

drug abuse among senior secondary school students in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State

Nigeria. Further studies can explore the following options;

1. Since the scope covered only school based approach employ by counsellors in Ilorin

metropolis of Kwara State, it was recommended that similar study could be carried

out to cover other parts of the country.

2. Since the scope of this study was carried out only in-school it was recommended that

similar study could be carry out among out of school in Ilorin metropolis of Kwara

State.

3. Since the scope of this study covered only public school It was recommended that

Future researchers could replicate to cover private schools in Ilorin metropolis of

Kwara State.

79
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 APPENDIX I
INTRODUCTORY LETTER FROM DEPT OF EDUCATION, B.U.K

88
 APPENDIX II
INTRODUCTORY LETTER FROM KWARA STATE TEACHING SERVICE

89
 APPENDIX III
SCHOOL-BASED COUNSELLING STRATEGIES ON DRUGS ABUSE
INVENTORY
Dear Respondent
This inventory is designed to collect data on school-based counselling strategies employed
by counsellors in reducing drug abuse among students in secondary schools in Ilorin
metropolis, Ilorin, Kwara state Nigeria. The information provided will be used for research
purposes only and all responses will be treated with strict confidentiality. Please note that
there is no right or wrong option, kindly put a tick (√) in the box as most applicable to you.
Thank you.
SECTION A: Demographic Data
Please the appropriate option that applies to you
Gender: Male ( ) Female ( )
School Details: Day ( ) Boarding ( )
SECTION B: SCHOOL-BASED COUNSELLING STRATEGIES ON DRUG ABUSE
Direction: Kindly respond to the following items, using the scale below.1 = Not Available 2
= RA Rarely Available 3 = Available 4 =Always Available;
STATEMENTS 1 2 3 4

Establishment of functional drug free club in school

1
to discourage drug abuse behaviour
2 Role play in school to reduce drugs abuse
3 Drama play to reveal dangers of drug abuse
Educational programs e.g. school Orientation
4
Programme to prevent/reduce drug abuse behaviour
5 Peer education to discourage drug abuse
6 Comprehensive health education on drug addiction
Carefully planned and implemented strategy to train
7
student about prevention of drug abuse
Encourage the adolescent to focus more directly and
8 effectively on learning behaviour to promote their
health needs
Work with the students to establish a therapeutic
9
relationship
Support the family system to promote change in
10
students‟ drug abuse behavior
Public enlightenment program in schools about the
11
danger of drug abuse
12 Youth campaign against drug abuse

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13 Provide alternative remedial information strategy
14 Material support to drug free club
15 Provision of books on drug abuse to schools
Usage of drug use chart in schools to reduce the drug
16
abuse
Provision of useful information about incidents of
17
drug abuse to schools
Organising quiz competition on drug abuse in
18
schools
Lecture delivery during school orientation
19
programmes
Providing relevant knowledge and information on
20
drug abuse to students
Thanks

91
 APPENDIX IV
SPSS OUTPUT
Frequency Table
Statistics

GEND SCHO
ER OL

N Valid 169 169

Miss 0 0
ing

GENDER

Freque Perce Valid Cumulative

ncy nt Percent Percent

V MAL 69 40.8 40.8 40.8

alid E

FEM 100 59.2 59.2 100.0

ALE

Total 169 100.0 100.0

SCHOOL

Freque Perc Valid Cumulative

ncy ent Percent Percent

DAY 113 66.9 66.9 66.9

V BOARDING 56 33.1 33.1 100.0

alid
100.
Total 169 100.0
0

92
 T-Test
[DataSet1] C:\Users\Harmony 1\Desktop\KADINSON DATA.sav

Group Statistics

GEND N Mean Std. Std. Error

ER Deviation Mean

58.05
MALE 69 7.91292 .95260
80
S
UM
FEMA 56.25
100 8.96387 .89639
LE 00

Independent Samples Test

Levene's Test for Equality of t-test for Equality

Variances of Means

F Sig. t df

Equal variances 1.3 16

2.482 .117
assumed 51 7
S
UM
Equal variances not 1.3 15
assumed 82 7.122

Independent Samples Test

t-test for Equality of Means

Sig. Mean Std. 95%

(2-tailed) Difference Error Difference Confidence
Interval of the
Difference

Lower

Equal variances 1.8079 1.3383 -

.179
assumed 7 3 .83425
S
UM
Equal variances not 1.8079 1.3080 -
.169
assumed 7 4 .77564

93
 Independent Samples Test

t-test for Equality of

Means

95% Confidence Interval

of the Difference

Upper

Equal variances assumed 4.45020

SUM
Equal variances not assumed 4.39158

T-TEST GROUPS=SCHOOL(1 2)

/MISSING=ANALYSIS

/VARIABLES=SUM

/CRITERIA=CI(.95).

Group Statistics

SCHOOL N Mean Std. Std. Error

Deviation Mean

55.11
DAY 113 7.75605 .72963
50
S
UM
BOARDI 60.76
56 8.95644 1.19685
NG 79

94
 Independent Samples Test

Levene's Test for Equality of t-test for Equality

Variances of Means

F Sig. t df

Equal variances - 16
.674 .413
assumed 4.233 7
S
UM
Equal variances not - 96
assumed 4.033 .904

Independent Samples Test

t-test for Equality of Means

Sig. Mean Std. 95%

(2-tailed) Difference Error Difference Confidence
Interval of the
Difference

Lower

Equal variances - 1.3353 -

.000
assumed 5.65281 0 8.28906
S
UM
Equal variances not - 1.4017 -
.000
assumed 5.65281 2 8.43487

Independent Samples Test

t-test for Equality of

Means

95% Confidence Interval

of the Difference

Upper

Equal variances assumed -3.01657

SUM
Equal variances not assumed -2.87075

95