DegreeTutors Guide To Column Buckling - v1.1

A Guide to Column Buckling
www.DegreeTutors.com
Introduction
In this document we develop the theory associated with column buckling. In section 1, we
discuss the fundamental concept of buckling stability with reference to an idealised struc-
ture. We develop this further in section 2 to consider more realistic column structures with
distributed stiffness. Finally, in section 3 we consider the impact of realistic imperfections
on our strict mathematical predictions. In particular we focus on the influence of eccentric
loading and initial deformations. These notes are based on a collection of posts on Degree-
Tutors.com,
• Post 1 - Column Buckling and Stability.
• Post 2 - Column Buckling Equations.
• Post 3 - Column Buckling: Realistic Buckling Behaviour.
1
Contents v1.1
Contents
1 Column Buckling and Stability 4
1.1 The idealised structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Adding a small lateral displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Determining the critical load for the idealised structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Equilibrium and stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.1 When P < Pcr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.2 When P > Pcr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.3 When P = Pcr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Column Buckling Equations 9
2.1 Buckling equation for columns pinned at both ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.1 Establishing the differential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.2 Solving the differential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.3 Solving for the constants of integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Buckling modes and mode shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Maximum deflection under critical load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Higher order buckling modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Columns with other support conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.1 Support condition summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 The Axis of Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Critical Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 Column Effective Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 Realistic Buckling Behaviour 22
3.1 Columns with Eccentric Axial Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.1 Lateral deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.2 Maximum deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Dr Seán Carroll 2 www.DegreeTutors.com

Contents v1.1
3.2 Columns with initial deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2.1 Governing differential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.2 General solution and boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.3 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1 Column Buckling and Stability v1.1
1 Column Buckling and Stability

Long slender structural elements under the action of an axial load may fail due to buckling
rather than direct compression. Buckling failure occurs when axial load induces a lateral
deflection leading to a bending type failure. Buckling can also occur in plate and shell struc-
tures and is a relatively common cause of structural collapse. Depending on the geometry
of the structural element, buckling can occur long before the material yields.
Columns rarely fail in direct compression, buckling usually occurs first
1.1 The idealised structure
As a starting point to understanding buckling behaviour, let’s consider an idealised (sim-

plified) structure that we can use as the basis for mathematical modelling. Our structure
consists of 2 rigid bars connected by a rotational spring, Fig. 1.
Figure 1: Two-bar idealised column structure.
Note the following about the structure:
• The rotational spring has a stiffness of βR .

• Both bars are perfectly aligned and the external load P is applied directly through the
longitudinal axis.
• Under ideal conditions the system is in compression and the spring in not under any
load.
1.2 Adding a small lateral displacement
Think about what happens if we impose a small lateral displacement on the structure, Fig. 2.
Figure 2: Small lateral displacement imposed on the idealised structure.
The rotational spring applies a restoring moment MB , equal to the angle through which the
spring rotates multiplied by the spring’s rotational stiffness:
MB = 2θ × βR
The restoring moment acts to decrease the lateral displacement while the axial load, P , tries
to increase it. At this point, two things could happen. If the axial load is ’small’, MB wins and
the structure straightens up returning to its original position/state. In this case the structure
is said to be STABLE.
If the axial load is ’large’, P wins and the lateral displacement continues until the structure
collapses. In this case the structure is said to be UNSTABLE. At some point we must cross

a boundary between the stable and unstable states. This boundary is characterised by the
critical load Pcr .
The critical load, Pcr is the axial load at which a structure under compression
will move from a stable condition or state to an unstable one.
Much of the discussion that follows further below will focus on determining what the critical
load is for a variety of column end conditions.
1.3 Determining the critical load for the idealised structure
To determine the critical load for our idealised structure, we can ’cut’ the structure at the lo-
cation of the spring and consider equilibrium of the top half, the resulting free-body diagram
reveals the moment action of the spring at the cut end of the structure, Fig. 3
Figure 3: Free-body diagram of the sub-structure.
• Note that we have vertical force equilibrium as a result of the internal axial force re-
vealed by the cut at B.
• We also have moment equilibrium due to the couple creating by both P forces balanc-
ing MB .
• If we assume that the displacement of the system is small, we can approximate the
lateral deflection as:
L
δ≈ ×θ
2

So, taking the sum of the moments about B and assuming clockwise moments are positive
yields,
P × δ − MB = 0
P Lθ
− 2θβR = 0
2

PL
θ − 2βR =0
2
Now since we know θ isn’t equal to zero, the expression in brackets must equal zero. So
solving for P yields:
4βR
Pcr =
L
This is the value of P for which the external axial load is balanced by the restoring moment
of the rotational spring, as such, from what we said above, this is the critical load for our
idealised structure, i.e. the axial load at which it is on the boundary between being stable
and unstable.
1.4 Equilibrium and stability
It’s important to establish a clear understanding of what we mean when using the terms
equilibrium and stability, particularly in the context of a discussion on buckling.
1.4.1 When P < Pcr
The axial load is less than the critical load, the idealised structure is straight and in equilib-
rium.
The structure is in a state of equilibrium and that equilibrium is STABLE
If a small lateral deflection is imposed on the structure, it will return to the straight position.
A good analogy for this is a ball sitting on a concave surface, Fig. 4. The ball will always
return to the same stable state of equilibrium when the disturbance is removed.

Figure 4: Stable equilibrium analogous to a ball on a concave surface.
1.4.2 When P > Pcr
When the axial load is larger than the critical load, the idealised structure is straight and in
a state of unstable equilibrium.
The structure is in a state of equilibrium BUT that equilibrium is UNSTABLE
The structure is in a precarious (unstable) state of equilibrium. The smallest possible lateral
deflection or disturbance will cause the structure to buckle. From an engineering perspective
we must avoid this state.
The corresponding ball analogy is that of a ball precariously positioned at the top of a convex
surface, Fig. 5. The smallest disturbance will set the ball rolling.
Figure 5: Unstable equilibrium analogous to a ball on a convex surface.
1.4.3 When P = Pcr
In this case the disturbing influence of the axial load is matched by the restoring influence
of the moment MB .
When P = Pcr , for any ’small’ angle, the structure remains in a state of
NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM.
This case is analogous to a ball sitting on a perfectly flat surface. We can visualise the various
states of equilibrium in a graph of axial load versus angle of rotation, Fig. 6.
With reference to Fig. 6,
• All points identified in red, represent states of equilibrium.
• Notice that ’in theory’, for an undefined range of θ (angles of rotation), when P = Pcr ,
we have a state of neutral equilibrium and the structure could keep deflecting.

2 Column Buckling Equations v1.1
Figure 6: Axial force versus rotation with three states of equilibrium identified.
From a practical point of view, we always aim to maintain axial loads well below the critical
buckling load for a structure. The concept of neutral equilibrium can be thought of as a
theoretical state that is highly unlikely to be observed in practice.
Up to this point we’ve discussed a simplified idealised structure that has all of its resistance
to rotation concentrated at the midpoint in a rotational spring. This has allowed us to get a
feel for some important concepts.
Remember, the assumption that underpins everything we’ve said so far, is

that we’re dealing with small deflections. As the magnitude of the deflection
increases relative to the size of the structure, our assumption (and therefore
our model) breaks down.
2 Column Buckling Equations

So far we’ve introduced some core concepts using a simplified idealised structure. Now
we’re going to start to consider more realistic structures and determine the column buckling
equations. In particular we’ll determine an expression for a critical load for an axially loaded
column with pinned ends. Then we’ll explore some other support conditions.
When we refer to a pin support, this is a support that offers no resistance to rotation. Some-
times we come across pin supports in practice that very closely approximate this theoretical
definition. We can see some examples in Fig. 7.
For the purposes of our discussion here, we’ll assume we’re dealing with pin supports like
these, and that they don’t inhibit the rotation of the structure at the support.

Figure 7: Pin supports that closely approximate true pin behaviour.
2.1 Buckling equation for columns pinned at both ends
In order to analyse this structure, we’re going to use the differential equation of the defection
curve in which M is the internal bending moment at a given cross-section, v represents the
lateral deflection of the column and x the distance along the length of the column. EI is
referred to as the flexural rigidity and is the product of Young’s modulus (E) and the second
moment of area of the cross-section (I).
d2 v
EI =M
dx2
This equation simply models the deflected shape of the column for a given flexural rigidity.
You’re likely to have come across this equation elsewhere in your engineering studies. Our
laterally deflected column behaves in much the same way as a beam. Remember buckling is
a bending failure rather than a failure due to direct compression (crushing). Our task now, is
to use this equation to derive an expression for the critical axial load in a pinned-end column.

Just as for the idealised structure discussed above, our derivation here will also assume all
deflections are small by comparison to the size of the structure.
2.1.1 Establishing the differential equation
First consider the structure, its deflected shape and the free-body diagram that results from
cutting the structure at a distance x from the bottom support, Fig. 8. Taking moments about
Figure 8: Pinned-pinned column (a) the structure, (b) the deflected shape, (c) the sub-
structure free-body diagram.
point A yields:
M = −P v
Substituting M back into the differential equation of the deflection curve and rearranging
slightly yields:
d2 v P
2
+ v=0
dx EI
This is a linear, homogeneous, 2nd order differential equation with constant coefficients. It
also happens to be an equation that models the deflected shape of our structure and contains
P , the axial load. Following the same approach as for the idealised structure discussed
previously, if we solve this equation we can determine Pcr , the value of applied load at
which it is balanced by the column’s flexural bending resistance.

So we’re faced with trying to solve a differential equation. At this point, it’s helpful to be able
to point to the general solution of this form of differential equation:
r ! r !
P P
v(x) = C1 sin x + C2 cos x
EI EI
2.1.2 Solving the differential equation
If you want to take a detour at this point to see how the differential equation is solved, watch
me do it in this video. Otherwise, we’ll continue working out the unknown constant in the
next section.
2.1.3 Solving for the constants of integration
Now that we have the general solution for this format of equation, we need to solve for the
constants of integration using the boundary conditions (pinned-pinned) for our column.
Boundary condition 1:
At x = 0 (base of the column at pin support), v = 0 (the lateral deflection must equal zero.
Imposing these conditions on our general solution yields:
0 = C1 sin(0) + C2 cos(0)
Therefore,
C2 = 0
As a result our solution reduces to:

r !
P
v(x) = C1 sin x
EI
Boundary condition 2:
At x = L (top of the column at pin support), v = 0 (lateral deflection also zero). Again,
imposing these boundary conditions yields,
r !
P
0 = C1 sin L
EI
So, either C1 equals zero or sin(...) equals zero. If C1 equals zero, the equation is satisfied
for any value of P . This doesn’t really move us forward. We can think of this solution as the
trivial solution. Of more interest is the case where:
r !
P
sin L =0
EI

Knowing what we know about sin functions, this equation can only be true, when,
r
P
L = 0, π, 2π, ...nπ
EI
We can dismiss the case where,

r
P
L=0
EI
In this scenario, P would need to equal zero (as all other terms have non-zero values by
definition) and we know this is not the case. So for a pinned-pinned column, our solution is:
r
P
L = nπ
EI
where n = 1, 2, 3... Finally, we can rearrange this equation to make P the subject of the
equation:
n2 π 2 EI
P =
L2
For n = 1, 2, 3,.
This equation represents an infinite series of buckling loads. The lowest one
(n = 1) is the critical buckling load, also known as the Euler Buckling Load
PE .
π 2 EI
PE =
L2
2.2 Buckling modes and mode shapes
So far, we have established that there is an infinite series of buckling loads and the lowest
one is the critical one and called the Euler Buckling load. This raises the question of what do
the larger buckling loads correspond to?
These are loads that correspond to higher modes of buckling. Each mode of buckling has a
corresponding buckled shape. To explore this further, refer back to our general solution after
we established that C2 = 0:
r !
P
v(x) = C1 sin x
EI
Application of our second boundary condition resulted in us establishing the relationship:

r
P
L = nπ
EI

Combining these two equations yields:

nπx
v(x) = C1 sin
L
for n = 1, 2, 3,. This equation describes the deflected shape of the column for each value
of the buckling load (n = 1, 2, 3, ...) defined above. Only when the axial load has one of the
values given by the equation (previously defined),
n2 π 2 EI
P =
L2
can the column have a bent shape and be in equilibrium. For any other load, the column
would be straight and in a state of STABLE equilibrium (P < Pcr ) or UNSTABLE equilibrium
(P > Pcr ). We recall this concept from our previous discussion of idealised column struc-
tures, Fig. 6.
2.2.1 Maximum deflection under critical load
Our equation for the deflected or buckled shape of a column contains the parameter C1 ,
left over from our general solution to the differential equation. We now recognise that C1
represents the magnitude of the sine wave or in this context, the maximum lateral deflection
for the deflected/buckled deflection (defined above):
nπx
v(x) = C1 sin
L
If we now recall the states of equilibrium, when the column is in its buckled shape (P = Pcr )
and in a state of neutral equilibrium, the maximum lateral deflection can have any value that
still satisfies our small deflection assumption. We can represent the value of C1 graphically,
Fig. 9
Figure 9: Undefined deflection when in a state of neutral equilibrium.
The value of C1 is therefore mathematically undefined, it can have any ’small’ value. For-
tunately this doesn’t cause us any practical difficulty, as mentioned previously, the state of

neutral equilibrium is not something we observe in civil engineering practice. For all intents
and purposed, to a civil or structural engineer, a column experiencing Pcr is considered to
have failed. This theoretical state of neutral equilibrium is also known as a bifurcation point.
2.2.2 Higher order buckling modes
Imagine an axially loaded pinned end column that is restrained laterally at its mid-height
point (by a floor slab say). The column would be prevented from buckling under the first
critical (Euler buckling) load due to the lateral restraint. The floor slab restraint literally
holds the column and stops it from buckling.
As a result of this restraint, the column can carry more load, until it reaches the second
buckling load (n = 2). As the column is not restrained against buckling in the second mode,
it would now buckle (or theoretically enter into a state of neutral equilibrium).
Adequate lateral restraint increases a column’s resistance to buckling by

’closing off’ the possibility of buckling in lower modes and ’unlocking’ higher
buckling loads.
We can easily visualise the first three modes of buckling simply by evaluating the load and
deflected shape equations for n = 1, 2, 3.
Figure 10: Buckling mode shapes

Mode 1, n=1
π 2 EI
Critical load, Pcr =
L2
πx
Buckled shape, v(x) = C1 sin
L
Mode 2, n=2
4π 2 EI
L2

2πx
L
Mode 3, n=3
9π 2 EI
L2

3πx
L
For any given mode, Pcr represents the practical upper limit on axial load.
Natural imperfections, for example column ’out of plumb’ or poor load align-
ment will almost certainly induce buckling when the critical load is ex-
ceeded.
2.3 Columns with other support conditions
So far we’ve looked at the behaviour of a column pinned at both end. This is the typical start-
ing point. But the same process can be followed to determine the corresponding equations
for columns with different types of support conditions. In the videos below, I’ll carry out the
derivations to demonstrate the process for:
• Columns with a base fixed against rotation and free at the top (fixed-free)
• Columns fixed against rotation at both ends (fixed-fixed)
• Columns fixed against rotation at the base and pinned at the top (fixed-pinned)
2.3.1 Support condition summary
Figure 11 summarises the critical loads for the range of support conditions covered above.

Figure 11: Summary of critical loads and effective lengths for various support conditions.

2.4 The Axis of Buckling
We recall from the equation for the buckling load that it is a function of I , the second moment
of area of the cross-section,
n2 π 2 EI
P =
L2
So for a given cross-section, a column will always buckle about the axis with the lower sec-
ond moment of area, the ’weaker’ axis. This assumes that both axes have equal restraint.
Consider the case of a universal column (UC) section under compression, Fig. 12,
Figure 12: Universal column (UC) under compression.
Since the X-X axis, is the major principle axis (with the largest value of second moment of
area - you might remember this from your study of Mohr’s circle), it is the stronger axis and
so the column will buckle about the minor principle or Y-Y axis first.
When considering the buckling load for a column structure, the cross-section shape plays a
key role, you should evaluate the major and minor principal axes to determine the critical
axis for buckling.

2.5 Critical Stress
The critical stress is the average axial stress in a cross-section under the
critical load.
Pcr π 2 EI
σcr = =
A AL2
We now define the Radius of Gyration, as:

r
I
r=
A
We can therefore write the critical stress as:
π2E
σcr =
L 2

r
Finally we define the Slenderness Ratio as:
L
λ=
r
The slenderness ratio is a very useful measure of a column’s geometry and susceptibility to
buckling. A high slenderness ratio indicates greater susceptibility to buckling. The slender-
ness ratio should be determined separately for each principle axis. We can get an intuition
for the slenderness ratio by visualising both extremes, Fig. 13.
Figure 13: Columns with high (left) and low (right) slenderness ratios.

The equation for critical stress can therefore be written as a function of the slenderness ratio
as follows,
π2E
σcr =
λ2
Plotting the critical stress versus slenderness ratio for a given value of Young’s modulus
yields an Euler Curve showing the safe range of average axial stress for a given slenderness
ratio (or the safe range of slenderness ratio values for a given axial stress), Fig. 14.
Figure 14: Plot of critical stress versus slenderness ratio.
An Euler curve is only valid for critical stresses below the material yield
stress
2.6 Column Effective Length
The next concept we’ll look at is column effective length. The effective length of a column,
Le , is the length between points of inflection on the deflected curve/shape (even if the shape
must be extended until a point of inflection is reached - discussed below). For a column
pinned at both ends, the effective length is simply the full length of the column between pin
restraints, Fig. 15.
Consider a column with a fixed support at its base and no lateral restraint at the top (fixed-
free). At the base, no rotation can occur. In order to obtain two inflection points on the
deflected shape, it must be extended, Fig. 16.

Figure 15: Effective length for a pinned-pinned column.
Figure 16: Effective length for a fixed-free column.
The ’imaginary’ red portion of the deflected shape in Fig. 16 is the extension required to
provide inflection point number 2. Thus the effective length for a fixed-free column is 2L.

3 Realistic Buckling Behaviour v1.1
Another way to thing about effective length is that it’s the length of an equiv-
alent pinned end column.
Before concluding our discussion of effective length, we can define a general expression for
the critical load as:
π 2 EI
Pcr =
Le 2
If we now introduce the Effective Length Factor, K , such that Le = Kl, we can state the
critical load as a function of the effective length factor:
π 2 EI
Pcr =
(KL)2
3 Realistic Buckling Behaviour

Now we’ll consider more realistic buckling behaviour you’re likely to observe in reality. In
particular we’ll explore the behaviour of columns subject to eccentric axial load and columns
with an initial deformation, i.e. columns that don’t start out perfectly straight.
3.1 Columns with Eccentric Axial Load
So far we have assumed that all compression forces on a column are axial forces that have
their line of action along the column’s longitudinal axis. As a result of this assumption the
column will potentially experience the three states of equilibrium previously discussed:
1. Stable equilibrium
2. Neutral equilibrium
3. Unstable equilibrium
However, in reality a column may not experience such ideal conditions. Compression forces
are often not axial forces but forces applied at some eccentricity from the column’s longitu-
dinal axis. This results in quite different failure behaviour that we will investigate here.
3.1.1 Lateral deflection
We’ll set the analysis up by considering a column, pinned at both ends, but with an ’outstand’
or cantilever protruding from each end. The cantilever is somewhat unrealistic but it simply
serves here as a way of applying an eccentric compression force. The compression forces
are applied at the ends of these cantilevers as shown below at an eccentricity, e, Fig. 17

Figure 17: Pinned-pinned column subject to eccentric compression forces.
The first thing we note is that the load P applied an an eccentricity e, is the same as simul-
taneously applying an axial load P and a moment, Mo ,
Mo = P × e
We can start by following the same procedure as before. We need to determine the differen-
tial equation of the deflection curve. We do this by evaluating the internal bending moment,
Mx at some distance x along the height of the deflected column as shown in the right hand
diagram in Fig. 17.
Mx = Mo + P (−v)
Mx = Mo − P v
Now substituting this expression for Mx into the differential equation of the deflection curve
yields,
d2 v
EI = Mo − P v = P e − P v
dx2

If we make the following substitutions,
P d2 v
k2 = and = v̈
EI dx2
We can express our differential equation as,
v̈ + k 2 v = k 2 e
The solution of this equation follows very closely that of the fixed-free column discussed
above. The general solution is given by,
v = C1 sin(kx) + C2 cos(kx) + e
We can apply the following boundary conditions:
v(x = 0) = 0 and v(x = L) = 0
Using these boundary conditions we find that,
C2 = −e
and,
−e(1 − cos(kL))
C1 =
sin(kL)
Which simplifies to,

kL
C1 = −e tan
2
The solution to the differential equation of the deflection curve is therefore,

kL
v = −e tan sin(kx) + cos(kx) − 1
2
We note that for a given value of e and P , the deflection is always defined. In the previous
axially loaded column analyses we considered, we could only determine a buckling mode
shape, but the maximum deflection, when P = Pcr , was undefined. This corresponded to a
state of neutral equilibrium.
From this we conclude that a column with eccentric compression forces has
no neutral equilibrium state and therefore does not exhibit sudden column
buckling behaviour.

3.1.2 Maximum deflection
For the pinned-pinned column considered in this case, the maximum lateral deflection, δ ,
occurs at the mid-height point, x = L/2,

L
δ = −v
2
So, evaluating our expression for v at x = L/2, gives,

kL kL kL
δ = e tan sin + cos −1
2 2 2
After simplifying the expression we get,

kL
δ = e sec −1
2
Now, remembering that,

r
P
k=
EI
and that for a pinned-pinned column we know that,
π 2 EI
Pcr =
L2
we can rewrite k ,
r
π P
k=
L Pcr
Therefore,
r
P
kL = π
Pcr
We can now substitute this expression back into our equation for the maximum deflection at
the mid-height to yield,
" r ! #
π P
δ = e sec −1
2 Pcr
We can plot this equation to obtain a load versus deflection curve for various values of load
eccentricity, e. This relationship is represented qualitatively below in Fig. 18

Figure 18: Load versus deflection for an eccentrically loaded, pinned-pinned column.
We can observe from this graph that the relationship between lateral deflec-
tion at mid-height and applied load is non-linear. This means we cannot use
the principle of superposition to determine the influence of multiple simul-
taneously applied loads.
The vertical line in the graph above, represents the case when e = 0. In this case we observe
the equilibrium states discussed previously. For values of e > 0, as P approaches the critical
load, the deflection increases and the horizontal line representing the value of critical load
becomes an asymptote for the load-deflection curves.
Remember that the preceding derivation is based on the assumptions of small deflections.
So in reality as the deflections increase, the observed behaviour of the column will deviate
form the strict mathematically predicted behaviour visualised in the graph above.
A key takeaway from this discussion on eccentric loading is that the be-
haviour of a real world column under realistic loading conditions is not likely
to accord with the strict mathematical models we evaluated previously for
perfectly axially loaded columns.
3.2 Columns with initial deformation
Now we’re going to consider the behaviour of a column that already has an initial lateral
deformation. We will follow the same procedure as before to determine an equation that

describes the shape of the column under axial load.
3.2.1 Governing differential equation
Consider the pinned-pinned column below that has an initial lateral deflection, v0 , Fig. 19.
Figure 19: Pinned-pinned column with an initial lateral deflection, v0 .
Note that the complete lateral deflection consists of the initial deflection and the buckled
deflection,
v(x) = v̄(x) + vo (x)
By considering the equilibrium of a sub-section of the structure we can determine an equa-

tion for the internal moment of resistance at some position along the column length, Fig. 20.
Note that for clarity, hereafter we’ll dispense with the (x) as it’s clear that the lateral deflec-
tion is always a function of x. Taking moments about point A yields,
M = −P v
M = −P (v̄ + v0 )

Figure 20: Free-body diagram of the substructure of a pinned-pinned column with an initial
lateral deflection, v0 .
Substituting this expression for M into the differential equation of the deflection curve yields,
d2 v̄
EI = −P v̄ − P v0
dx2
Making the usual simplifying substitutions and letting,
d2 v̄
= v̄¨
dx2
and
P
k2 =
EI
we have,
v̄¨ + k 2 v̄ = −k 2 v0
To proceed with the derivation we need to assume some function of x to describe the ini-
tial deformation of the column. For the purposes of this derivation we can assume that a
simple sine function describes the initial deformation v0 . In this case we have the following
differential equation of the deflection curve,
πx
v̄¨ + k 2 v̄ = −k 2 V0 sin
L

We’ve already seen that the complementary solution (i.e. the solution when the RHS equals
zero) is given by,
V̄c = C1 sin(kx) + C2 cos(kx)
This just leaves the particular solution to be calculated. Because the right hand side of the
differential equation contains a sinusoid, we can assume a general sinusoid for the particular
solution, this gives us...
πx πx
v̄p = C3 sin + C4 cos
L L
Remember that the reason we assume a solution is so that we can differentiate it and sub it
back into our governing differential equation, so differentiating yields,
π πx π πx
v̄˙ p = C3 cos − C4 sin
L L L L
π2 πx π2 πx
v̄¨p = −C3 2
sin − C4 2 cos
L L L L
Now substituting these expressions back into our governing differential equation yields,
−π 2 h πx πx i
2
h πx πx i
2
πx
C 3 sin + C 4 cos + k C 3 sin + C 4 cos = −k V 0 sin
L2 L L L L L
Now, if we equate cosine terms on the left hand side with cosine terms on the right hand
side, we get,
−π 2
πx πx
2
C4 cos + k cos =0
L2 L L
Now since we know the term in brackets doesn’t equal zero, we can deduce that C4 = 0.
Now equating sine terms on both sides gives us,
−π 2
πx πx πx
2 2
C3 sin + k sin = −k V 0 sin
L2 L L L
Rearranging this yields,

−k 2 V0
C3 =
−π 2
L2
+ k2
We can now state the particular solution to the equation as,

−k 2 πx
v̄p = V0 sin
−π 2
+ k2 L
L2
Combining the particular and complimentary solutions gives us the general solution,
k2 πx
v̄ = C1 sin(kx) + C2 cos(kx) + V0 sin
π2
− k2 L
L2

3.2.2 General solution and boundary conditions
At this point we can apply boundary conditions to determine the remaining unknown con-
stants of integration. At x = 0 (base of the column at pin support), v = 0 (the lateral
deflection must equal zero). Imposing this condition on our general solution we find that
C2 = 0. And so our general solution simplifies to,
k2 πx
v̄ = C1 sin(kx) + V0 sin
π2
− k2 L
L2
The second boundary condition is that at x = L (top of the column at pin support), v = 0
(lateral deflection also zero). Again, imposing this condition yields,
r !
P
C1 sin L =0
EI
From this we can deduce that C1 must equal zero as the sine term cannot equal zero for a
non-trivial solution. Therefore the complete buckling deflection is given by,
P πx
EI
v̄ = V0 sin
π2
− P L
L2 EI
Now to make this a little easier to manage, remember that,
π 2 EI
PE =
L2
If we now define the ratio,
P
ρ=
PE
we can restate the buckling deflection as,

ρ πx
v̄ = V0 sin
1−ρ L
Therefore the total deflection (remember this is the initial deflection plus the buckling de-
flection) is given by,
πx ρ πx
v = V0 sin + V0 sin
L 1−ρ L
We can simplify this to,
V0 πx
v= sin
1−ρ L

or,
πx
v = αV0 sin
L
where,
1
α=
1−ρ
3.2.3 Observations
We can see from the equation derived above that the factor α represents a magnification
factor on the initial displacement. As the axial load, P increases, the magnitude of lateral
deflection increases but the deflected shape remains the same. Note that when P = PE , the
equation breaks down as the magnification factor α goes to infinity.
This is not likely to be a problem because P is not likely to reach PE while the structure
satisfies our small deflection assumption. We can plot the relationship between ρ and α to
visualise the behaviour of the column, Fig. 21.
Figure 21: Plot of force ratio ρ against the magnification factor, α.
It’s important to recognise that for a column with an initial deformation, we do not observe
the strict mathematical column buckling behaviour predicted for perfectly loaded perfectly
straight columns. Even so, the Euler load is still an important quantity that has a role in
predicted the lateral deflection of the column via the ratio ρ.

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A Guide to Column Buckling

• Post 1 - Column Buckling and Stability.

• Post 2 - Column Buckling Equations.

• Post 3 - Column Buckling: Realistic Buckling Behaviour.

1 Column Buckling and Stability 4

1.1 The idealised structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2 Adding a small lateral displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3 Determining the critical load for the idealised structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.4 Equilibrium and stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.4.1 When P < Pcr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.4.2 When P > Pcr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.4.3 When P = Pcr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Column Buckling Equations 9

2.1 Buckling equation for columns pinned at both ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.1.1 Establishing the differential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.1.2 Solving the differential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.1.3 Solving for the constants of integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.2 Buckling modes and mode shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.2.1 Maximum deflection under critical load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2.2 Higher order buckling modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.3 Columns with other support conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.3.1 Support condition summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.4 The Axis of Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.5 Critical Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.6 Column Effective Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Realistic Buckling Behaviour 22

3.1 Columns with Eccentric Axial Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.1.1 Lateral deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.1.2 Maximum deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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3.2 Columns with initial deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.2.1 Governing differential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.2.2 General solution and boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

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1 Column Buckling and Stability

Columns rarely fail in direct compression, buckling usually occurs first

1.1 The idealised structure

As a starting point to understanding buckling behaviour, let’s consider an idealised (sim-

Figure 1: Two-bar idealised column structure.

Note the following about the structure:

• The rotational spring has a stiffness of βR .

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1.2 Adding a small lateral displacement

Figure 2: Small lateral displacement imposed on the idealised structure.

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1.3 Determining the critical load for the idealised structure

Figure 3: Free-body diagram of the sub-structure.

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1.4 Equilibrium and stability

1.4.1 When P < Pcr

The structure is in a state of equilibrium and that equilibrium is STABLE

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Figure 4: Stable equilibrium analogous to a ball on a concave surface.

1.4.2 When P > Pcr

The structure is in a state of equilibrium BUT that equilibrium is UNSTABLE

Figure 5: Unstable equilibrium analogous to a ball on a convex surface.

1.4.3 When P = Pcr

With reference to Fig. 6,

• All points identified in red, represent states of equilibrium.

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Remember, the assumption that underpins everything we’ve said so far, is

2 Column Buckling Equations