FM II Manual

Contents
1 Measuring the losses in the plumbing fittings ..................................................................... 6

1.1 Aim .............................................................................................................................. 6
1.2 General Description..................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Specifications .............................................................................................................. 7
1.4 Theory ......................................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Characteristic of Flow through various Pipe Fittings and Valve ................................ 7
1.6 Procedure................................................................................................................... 11
1.7 Observations and Calculations .................................................................................. 12
1.8 Observations and Comments..................................................................................... 13
2 Measure ment of loss coefficient for flow through gate valve .......................................... 14
2.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 14
2.2 General Description................................................................................................... 14
2.3 Specifications ............................................................................................................ 15
2.4 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 15
2.5 Characteristic of Flow through various Pipe Fittings and Valve .............................. 15
2.6 Procedure................................................................................................................... 18
2.7 Calculations ............................................................................................................... 19
3 Calculation of drag coefficient............................................................................................ 21
3.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 21
3.2 General description ................................................................................................... 21
3.3 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 22
3.4 Procedure................................................................................................................... 22
3.5 Calculations ............................................................................................................... 23
4 Determination of relationship between head loss and velocity for a flow through
smooth bore pipe. ........................................................................................................................ 25
4.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 25
4.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 25
4.3 Unit Description ........................................................................................................ 25
4.4 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 27
1
4.5 Experimental Procedure ............................................................................................ 28
4.5.2 General Shut-down Procedures ............................................................................. 28
4.6 Test Section: .............................................................................................................. 29
4.7 Maintenance and Safety Precautions......................................................................... 29
4.8 Calculation ................................................................................................................ 30
5 Determine the head loss associated with flow of wate r through standard fittings ........ 32
5.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 32
5.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 32
5.4 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 34
5.5 Calculations ............................................................................................................... 36
6 Determine the relationship between fluid friction coefficient and Reynolds number... 38
6.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 38
6.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 38
6.4 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 40
6.5 Procedure................................................................................................................... 41
6.6 Calculation ................................................................................................................ 42
7 Demonstrate the application of differential head devices in the measurement of flow
rate and velocity of water ........................................................................................................... 44
7.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 44
7.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 44
7.4 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 46
7.5 Procedure:.................................................................................................................. 48
7.6 Calculations ............................................................................................................... 50
8 Compare Pressure lost during laminar flow with that of turbulent flow....................... 52
8.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 52
8.2 8.2 Unit Description .................................................................................................. 52
8.3 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 53
2
8.4 Procedure................................................................................................................... 55
8.5 Calculations ............................................................................................................... 58
9 Determine the mechanical power produced by the Pelton turbine ................................. 60
9.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 60
9.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 60
9.4 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 62
9.5 Procedure................................................................................................................... 63
9.6 Calculations ............................................................................................................... 64
10 Determine the mechanical power produced by the Francis turbine ............................... 66
10.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 66
10.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 66
10.4 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 67
10.5 Procedure................................................................................................................... 69
10.6 Calculations ............................................................................................................... 71
11 Determine the mechanical power produced by the Kaplan turbine ............................... 73
11.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 73
11.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 73
11.4 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 74
11.5 Procedure................................................................................................................... 76
11.6 Calculations ............................................................................................................... 77
12 Study the characteristics of single pump ope ration with variable flow rate. ................. 79
12.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 79
12.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 79
12.4 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 83
12.5 Experimental Procedure: ........................................................................................... 85
3
12.6 Equipment Set Up ..................................................................................................... 86
12.7 Procedure................................................................................................................... 86
12.8 Calculations ............................................................................................................... 87
13 Study the characteristics of pump-in-series operation with variable flow rate ............. 89
13.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 89
13.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 89
13.4 Theory: ...................................................................................................................... 93
13.5 Equipment Set Up ..................................................................................................... 93
13.6 Procedure................................................................................................................... 93
13.7 Calculations ............................................................................................................... 94
14 Study the characteristics of pump-in-parallel operation with variable flow rate ......... 96
14.1 Aim ............................................................................................................................ 96
14.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 96
14.4 Theory ..................................................................................................................... 100
14.5 Equipment Set Up ................................................................................................... 101
14.6 Procedure................................................................................................................. 101
14.7 Safety Precautions ................................................................................................... 102
14.8 Calculations ............................................................................................................. 103
14.9 Observations and Comments............................................................................. 14-104
4
List of Experiments FM-II
1. To measure the losses in the fittings related to flow rate and calculate
loss coefficients related to velocity head
2. To measure the losses through gate valve related to flow rate and
calculate loss coefficients related to velocity head
3. Determine the sink speed and drag co-efficient for different types of
cylinders.
4. To determine the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction
and velocity for flow of water through smooth bore pipes.
5. To determine the head loss associated with flow of water through
standard fittings used in plumbing installations
6. To determine the relationship between fluid friction coefficient and
Reynolds number for flow of water through a pipe having a roughened
bore
7. To demonstrate the application of differential head devices in the
measurement of flow rate and velocity of water in a pipe
8. To compare Pressure loss during laminar flow with that of turbulent
flow.
9. To determine the mechanical power produced by the Pelton turbine
10. To determine the mechanical power produced by the Francis turbine
11. To determine the mechanical power produced by the Kaplan turbine
12. To study the characteristics of single pump operation with variable
flow rate.
13. To study the characteristics of pump-in-series operation with
variable flow rate.
14. To study the characteristics of pump-in-parallel operation with
variable flow rate.
5
1 Measuring the losses in the plumbing fittings
1.1 Aim
To measure the losses in the fittings related to flow rate and calculate loss coefficients related
to velocity head.
1.2 General Description
Figure 1-1: Energy losses in Bends and Fittings
6
1.3 Specifications
Pipe and fittings sizes are as follows:
Outer Dia of Pipe 20 mm
Inner Dia of Pipe 17 mm
Outer Dia of Enlarged Section 50 mm
Outer Dia of Enlarged Section 32mm
Inner Dia of Fittings 17 mm
1.4 Theory
When fluid flows through typical pipe fittings such as an elbow or a bend, an enlargement or
contraction in cross-section, or through a valve, energy losses occur. These energy losses,
which are termed as minor losses, are primarily due to the change in the direction of flow and
the change in the cross-section of the flow path typically occurs in valves and fittings.
Experimental techniques are used to determine minor losses. Tests have shown that the head
loss in valves and fittings is proportional to the square of the average velocity of the fluid in
the pipe in which the valve or fitting is mounted. Thus the head loss is also proportional to
the velocity head of the fluid. Experimental values for energy losses are usually reported in
terms of a loss coefficient, K, as follows:
2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐾𝑣 ⁄2𝑔 … (1)
K = Loss coefficient
v = Average velocity of flow in the smaller pipe (m/s)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 )
1.5 Characteristic of Flow through various Pipe Fittings and Valve

1.5.1 Elbows: 45 o elbow and 90 o elbow
Figures below show flow round a 45 o elbow and a 90o elbow, which has a constant circular
cross section respectively.
Figure 1-2: Elbows 7

The value of loss coefficient K is dependent on the ratio of the bend radius, R to the pipe
inner diameter D. As this ratio increase, the value of K will fall and vice versa.
1.5.2 Short bend

Losses of head in bends are caused by the combined effects of separation, wall friction and
the twin-eddy secondary flow. For large radius bends, the head loss is predominant by the last
two effects, whereas for short bends, it is more dominated by separation and secondary flow.
Value of K is dependent on the shape of passage (determined by and R/D) and Reynolds
number.
Figure 1-3: Bend fittings

Sudden enlargement and sudden contraction
1.5.2.1 Sudden enlargement
Figure 1-4: Fluid Flows through S udden Enlargement
As a fluid flows from a smaller pipe into a larger pipe through a sudden enlargement, its
velocity abruptly decreases, causing turbulence that generates an energy loss. Assuming that
the piezometric pressure on the face of the enlargement to be equal to that in the emerging
jet, and that momentum flux is conserved, the total head loss is given by:
(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2
∆𝐻 = ⁄2𝑔 … (2)
In this case, the loss coefficient, K is related to the upstream velocity v 1, so that
(𝑣 − 𝑣 )2
[ 1 2𝑔 2 ]
𝑣1 2 𝑣1 2 𝐴1 2
𝐾= = (1 – ) = (1 − ) … (3)
2𝑔 𝑣2 𝐴2
This shows that K increases from zero when A1/A2 = 1 (which is the cased for a constant
diameter pipe with no enlargement) to 1 when A1/A2 = 0.
1.5.3 Sudden contraction
Figure 1-5: Fluid Flows through S udden Contraction
9
As the streamlines approach the contraction, they assume a curved path and the total stream
continues to neck down for some distance beyond the contraction. The section where the
minimum flow area occurs is called the vena contracta. Beyond the vena contracta, the flow
stream must decelerate and expand again to fill the pipe. The turbulence caused by the
contraction and the subsequent expansion generates energy loss, which is given by
(𝑣𝑐 − 𝑣2 )2⁄
𝐻= 2𝑔 … (4)
In this case, K is related with v 2 so that
2 2
𝑣𝑐 𝐴
𝐾=( − 1) = ( 𝑐 − 1) … (5)
𝑣2 𝐴2
If A2/A1 = 1 then there is no contraction, A2/Ac will also be equal to 1, thus K = 0. However,
if contraction is very severe where A2/A1=0, it is reasonable to expect the flow at the entry to
the downstream pipe to resemble that from a large reservoir through an orifice of area A 2.
For such an orifice, the contraction coefficient is approximately to be 0.6, thus
1.5.4 Gate valve

Gate valve is one of several types of valves that is used to control the amount of flow. The
value of loss coefficient K of a gate valve is dependent on the position of the valve. Fluids
flow through fully open gate valves in straight line paths, thus there is little resistance to flow
and the resulting pressure loss is small. For fluid flow through partially opened gate valve,
resistance to flow will be greater and thus produces a larger value of K. Below are the
theoretical values of loss coefficient for gate valve at several positions.
Valve position Loss coefficient, K
Fully open 0.19
¾ open 0.90
½ open 4.50
¼ open 24.00
Table 1-1: Loss coefficient across gate valve
10
1.6 Procedure
1. Place apparatus on bench, connect inlet pipe to bench supply and outlet pipe into
volumetric tank.
2. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up the
pump supply from hydraulic bench.
3. Slowly open the bench valve until it is fully opened.
4. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there are no trapped bubbles, start to close the
bench valve to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
5. By using the air bleed screw, adjust water level in the manometer board. Retain
maximum readings on manometers with the maximum measurable flow rate.
6. Note readings on the manometers and measure the flow rate with the volumetric tank.
7. Repeat the experiment with different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted by
utilizing the bench flow control valve.
8. Plot graph differential piezometer head, h against velocity head for each device and
determine the loss coefficients.
11
1.7 Observations and Calculations
Volume Time Flowrate Manom eter readings (mmH 2 O)
V T Q
(liter) (sec) (m3/s)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Velocity Velocity
Flowrate in small Head
Q bore pipe, (m H2O) Differential Piezometer head, h (mm H2O)
(m3 /s) 2
𝑣 = 4𝑄⁄𝜋𝑑 2 = 𝑣 ⁄2𝑔
90o Sudden Sudden 45o Long

elbow enlargem ent contraction Elbow Bend
12
1.8 Observations and Comments
13
2 Measurement of loss coefficient for flow through gate valve
2.1 Aim
To measure the losses through gate valve related to flow rate and calculate loss coefficients
related to velocity head.
2.2 General Description 1
1
7
2
8
1
9
3
4 10
9
1
9
5 11
9
Figure 2-1: Energy losses in Bends and Fittings
9
1. 45 ° elbow 7. Pressure gauge
2. Sudden contraction 8. Manometer tube
3. Sudden enlargement 9. Gate valve
4. 90° elbow 10. 90° elbow
5. Inlet 11. Outlet
6. Long bend
14
2.3 Specifications
Pipe and fittings sizes are as follows:
Outer Dia of Pipe 20 mm
Inner Dia of Pipe 17 mm
Outer Dia of Enlarged Section 50 mm
Outer Dia of Enlarged Section 32mm
Inner Dia of Fittings 17 mm
2.4 Theory
When fluid flows through typical pipe fittings such as an elbow or a bend, an enlargement or
contraction in cross-section, or through a valve, energy losses occur. These energy losses, which
are termed as minor losses, are primarily due to the change in the direction of flow and the
change in the cross-section of the flow path typically occurs in valves and fittings. Experimental
techniques are used to determine minor losses. Tests have shown that the head loss in valves and
fittings is proportional to the square of the average velocity of the fluid in the pipe in which the
valve or fitting is mounted. Thus the head loss is also proportional to the velocity head of the
fluid. Experimental values for energy losses are usually reported in terms of a loss coefficient, K,
as follows:
2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐾𝑣 ⁄2𝑔 … (1)
K = Loss coefficient
v = Average velocity of flow in the smaller pipe (m/s)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 )
2.5 Characteristic of Flow through various Pipe Fittings and Valve

2.5.1 Elbows: 45 o elbow and 90 o elbow
Figures below show flow round a 45 o elbow and a 90o elbow, which has a constant circular cross
section respectively.
Figure 2-2: Elbows

15
The value of loss coefficient K is dependent on the ratio of the bend radius, R to the pipe inner
diameter D. As this ratio increase, the value of K will fall and vice versa.
2.5.2 Short bend

Losses of head in bends are caused by the combined effects of separation, wall friction and the
twin-eddy secondary flow. For large radius bends, the head loss is predominant by the last two
effects, whereas for short bends, it is more dominated by separation and secondary flow. Value
of K is dependent on the shape of passage (determined by and R/D) and Reynolds number.
Figure 2-3: Bend fittings
16
2.5.3 Sudden enlargement and sudden contraction
2.5.3.1 Sudden enlargement
Figure 2-4: Fluid Flows through S udden Enlargement
As a fluid flows from a smaller pipe into a larger pipe through a sudden enlargement, its velocity
abruptly decreases, causing turbulence that generates an energy loss. Assuming that the
piezometric pressure on the face of the enlargement to be equal to that in the emerging jet, and
that momentum flux is conserved, the total head loss is given by:
(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2⁄
∆𝐻 = 2𝑔 … (2)
In this case, the loss coefficient, K is related to the upstream velocity v 1, so that
(𝑣 − 𝑣 ) 2
[ 1 2𝑔 2 ]
𝑣1 2 𝑣1 2 𝐴1 2
𝐾= = (1 – ) = (1 − ) … (3)
2𝑔 𝑣2 𝐴2
This shows that K increases from zero when A1/A2 = 1 (which is the cased for a constant
diameter pipe with no enlargement) to 1 when A1/A2 = 0.
2.5.4 Sudden contraction
Figure 2-5: Fluid Flows through S udden Contraction
17
As the streamlines approach the contraction, they assume a curved path and the total stream
continues to neck down for some distance beyond the contraction. The section where the
minimum flow area occurs is called the vena contracta. Beyond the vena contracta, the flow
stream must decelerate and expand again to fill the pipe. The turbulence caused by the
contraction and the subsequent expansion generates energy loss, which is given by
(𝑣𝑐 − 𝑣2 )2⁄
𝐻= 2𝑔 … (4)
In this case, K is related with v 2 so that
2 2
𝑣𝑐 𝐴
𝐾=( − 1) = ( 𝑐 − 1) … (5)
𝑣2 𝐴2
If A2/A1 = 1 then there is no contraction, A2/Ac will also be equal to 1, thus K = 0. However, if
contraction is very severe where A2/A1=0, it is reasonable to expect the flow at the entry to the
downstream pipe to resemble that from a large reservoir through an orifice of area A2. For such
an orifice, the contraction coefficient is approximately to be 0.6, thus
2.5.5 Gate valve

Gate valve is one of several types of valves that is used to control the amount of flow. The value
of loss coefficient K of a gate valve is dependent on the position of the valve. Fluids flow
through fully open gate valves in straight line paths, thus there is little resistance to flow and the
resulting pressure loss is small. For fluid flow through partially opened gate valve, resistance to
flow will be greater and thus produces a larger value of K. Below are the theoretical values of
loss coefficient for gate valve at several positions.
Valve position Loss coefficient, K
Fully open 0.19
¾ open 0.90
½ open 4.50
¼ open 24.00
Table 2-1: Loss coefficient across gate valve
2.6 Procedure
1. Place apparatus on bench, connect inlet pipe to bench supply and outlet pipe into
volumetric tank.
2. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up the pump
supply from hydraulic bench.
3. Slowly open the bench valve until it is fully opened.
4. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the
bench valve to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
18
5. Slowly close the gate valve to 4 ½ turns position and measure and record the differential
pressure reading across the valve. Then, measure the flow rate with the volumetric tank.
6. Repeat the differential pressure measurement with different decreasing flow rates. The
flow rates can be adjusted by utilizing the bench flow control valve.
7. Plot graph differential piezometer head, h against velocity head for the gate valve and
determine the loss coefficient.
8. The experiment can be repeated with different gate valve opening.
2.7 Calculations
Volume, Differential Pressure

Time, T (sec) Flowrate, Q (m3 /s) Valve position
V (liter) across valve (psi)
Velocity
Velocity
in small Differential
Head
Flowrate, Q (m3/s) bore pipe, Pressure across Valve position
(m H2 O)
𝑣 = 4𝑄⁄𝜋𝑑 2 2
= 𝑣 ⁄2𝑔 valve (mH2 O)
(m/sec)
19
20
3 Calculation of drag coefficient
3.1 Aim
Determine the sink speed and drag Co-efficient for Different types of cylinders.
3.2 General description
Scale
Plexiglass Tube
Opening Lever
Figure 3-1: Drag Coefficient Apparatus
The apparatus above is used to investigate the sink speeds of objects in liquids. Cylinders made of
different materials are used. The cylinder is guided down a transparent tube filled with liquid. The
cylinder sinks to the floor under the action of gravity. The sink time is measured for a specific
measured section. From this it is possible to derive the mean sink speed. The two measuring tubes
can be filled with liquids of different viscosity. In this way it is possible to directly compare the sink
speeds. At the bottom of the tube there is a chamber. In this way the cylinder can be removed from
the measuring tube without large loss of liquid.
21
3.3 Theory
The force on an object that resists its motion through a fluid is called drag. When the fluid is a gas
like air, it is called aerodynamic drag (or air resistance). When the fluid is a liquid like water it is
called hydrodynamic drag. The types of the drag are:
1. Pressure drag
2. Friction drag
3.3.1 Pressure drag

The portion of the drag force that is due to the inertia of the fluid, the resistance that it has to being
pushed aside is called the pressure drag (or form drag or profile drag). Form drag or pressure drag
arises because of the form or shape of the object. The general size and shape of the body is the most
important factor in form drag; bodies with a larger presented cross-section will have a higher drag
than thinner bodies. Sleek designs, which may be streamlined and change in cross-sectional area only
gradually, are also critical for achieving low form drag. Form drag follows the drag equation,
meaning that it increases with the square of velocity, and thus becomes more important for high-
speed aircraft. Form drag depends on the longitudinal section of the body.
3.3.2 Friction drag

Friction drag arises from the friction of the fluid against the "skin" of the object that is moving
through it. Friction drag arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body, and is
directly related to the wetted surface, the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the
fluid. As with other components of parasitic drag, skin friction follows the drag equation and
increses with the square of the velocity. The skin friction coefficient, 𝐶𝑓 is defined by
𝐶𝑓 = 1328⁄
√ 𝑅𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑣𝐷⁄𝜈
v = sink speed m/s
𝜈 = kinematic viscosity of the fluid
For water at 20 o C
2
𝜈 = 1.004 × 10−6 𝑚 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
For glycerin at 20 o C
2
𝜈 = 6.48 × 10−6 𝑚 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer around the object. The boundary layer
at the front of the object is usually laminar and relatively thin, but becomes turbulent and thicker
towards the rear. The position of the transition point depends on the shape of the object.
3.4 Procedure
1. Place the experimental setup on a level surface
22
2. Fill the two Plexiglas tubes one with water and the other one with glycerin.
3. Ensure that the drain cocks are closed while filling the Plexiglas tubes.
4. Place cylinders in hands and drop them in to the Plexiglas tubes
5. Note the time that will be taken by each material to reach the bottom of the Plexiglas tubes
(both in the case of glycerin as well as water).
6. Rotate the lever to make the cylinder drop out of the slot. Afterwards turn lever to achieve
slots upright position again.
7. Repeat the experiments for all the materials.
3.5 Calculations
For Water
Reynolds
Sink Friction
Diameter Number
Time (s) Speed coefficient
of 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑣𝐷⁄𝜈
Materials
Cylinder 𝐶𝑓 = 1328⁄
𝑣 = ℎ/𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔 √ 𝑅𝑒
(mm)
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔
Brass 7.6
Aluminum 7.6
Plastic 7.6
For Glycerin
Reynolds
Sink Friction
Diameter Number
Time (s) Speed coefficient
of 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑣𝐷⁄𝜈
Materials
Cylinder 𝐶𝑓 = 1328⁄
𝑣 = ℎ/𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔 √ 𝑅𝑒
(mm)
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔
Brass 7.6
Aluminum 7.6
Plastic 7.6
23
24
4 Determination of relationship between head loss and velocity for
a flow through smooth bore pipe.
4.1 Aim
To determine the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and velocity for flow of
water through smooth bore pipes.
4.2 Introduction
This apparatus is designed to allow the detailed study of the fluid friction head losses which
occur when an incompressible fluid flows through pipes, bends, valves and pipe flow metering
devices. Friction head losses in straight pipes of different sizes can be investigated over a range
of Reynolds numbers from 103 to nearly 105, thereby covering the laminar, transitional and
turbulent flow regimes in smooth pipes. In addition, an artificially roughened pipe is supplied
which, at the higher Reynolds numbers, shows a clear departure from the typical smooth bore
pipe characteristics. Pipe friction is one of the classic laboratory experiments and has always
found a place in the practical teaching of fluid mechanics. The results and underlying principles
are of the greatest importance to engineers in the aeronautical, civil, mechanical, marine,
agricultural and hydraulic fields.
Osborne Reynolds distinguished between laminar and turbulent flow in pipes in his publication
in 1883. Ludwig Prandtl, Thomas Stanton and Paul Blasius later analyzed pipe flow data in the
early part of this century and produced the plot known as the Stanton diagram. John Nikuradse
extended the work to cover the case of rough pipes and one such pipe supplied with this
equipment has been roughened for flow comparison purposes. In addition to the equipment for
the study of losses in straight pipes, a wide range of accessories are available including pipe
fittings and control valves, a venturi tube and an orifice plate assembly.
4.3 Unit Description

4.3.1 Unit Assembly
The test circuits are mounted on Formica laminated backboard strengthened by a deep frame and
carried on tubular stands. There are six pipes arranged to provide facilities for testing the
following:
1. Smooth bore pipes of various diameters (7.5mm, 12mm and 19mm). An artificially
roughened pipe
2. A 90o bend A 90o elbow A 45o elbow
25
3. A 45o “Y”
4. A 90o “T”
5. A sudden enlargement
6. A sudden contraction
7. A gate valve
8. A globe valve
9. An in-line strainer
10. A venturi made of Perspex
11. An orifice meter made of Perspex
12. Pitot Static Tube
Short samples of each size test pipe are provided loose so that the students can measure the exact
diameter and determine the nature of the internal finish. The ratio of the diameter of the pipe to
the distance of the pressure tapping from the ends of each pipe has been selected to minimize end
and entry effects. A system of isolating valves is provided whereby the pipe to be tested can be
selected without disconnecting or draining the system. The arrangement allows tests to be
conducted on parallel pipe configurations.
Ported manometer connecting valves ensure rapid bleeding of all interconnecting pipe work.
Each pressure tapping is fitted with an automatic shut off plug. Quit coupling socket attachments
with an adequate quantity of translucent polythene tubing are provided, so that any pair of
pressure tapings can be rapidly connected to one of the two manometers supplied. These are a
mercury manometer and a pressurized water manometer.
4.3.2 Unit Description
Figure 4-1: Fluid friction measurements apparatus
26
1. Sudden Enlargement 9. Scale
2. Smooth Bore Pipes 10. Globe Valve
3. Sudden Contraction 11. Inline Strainer
4. Artificial Roughen Pipe 12. Long Elbow
5. Gate Valve 13. Venturi Meter
6. Water Inlet 14. Orifice Meter
7. Outlet Flow Control Valve 15. Pitot Static Tube
8. Manometer
4.4 Theory
4.4.1 Fluid Friction in a Smooth Bore Pipe
Professor Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that two types of flow may exist in a pipe.
Laminar flow at low velocities where head loss, h vs. velocity, u.
Turbulent flow at higher velocities where h vs. un
These two types of flow are separated by a transition phase
where no definite relationship between h and u exists. Graphs of h versus u and log h versus log
u show these zones (Figure 2 and Figure 3).ead Loss, h.
27
4.5 Experimental Procedure
4.5.1 General Start-Up Procedures
The Fluid Friction Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM 100) is supplied ready for use and only
requires connection to the Hydraulic Bench (Model: FM 110) as follows
1. Ensure that the equipment is set up properly and the Hydraulic Bench is placed close to
the apparatus.
2. Fill water into the sump tank of the Hydraulic Bench until it is approximately 90% full.
3. Connect the water supply from Hydraulics Bench to Fluid Friction Measurement
Apparatus using flexible hose.
4. Connect a flexible hose to the outlet and make sure that it is directed into the volumetric
tank.
5. Fully open the outlet flow control valve at the apparatus and direct the water flow
through the test section by switching the valves.
6. Fully close the bench flow control valve, V1.
7. Connect the main power supply and then switch ON the pump.
8. Gradually open the Flow Control Valve for inlet flow and allow the piping to fill with
water until all air has been expelled from the system.
Note:
1. Flow rates through the apparatus may be adjusted by operation of outlet flow control
valve.
2. Simultaneous operation of inlet flow control valve will permit reduction in static pressure
when operating at low flow rates.
3. Fine outlet control valve will permit accurate control at very low flow rates.
4. Suitable selection and operation of these control valves will enable tests to be performed
at different, independent combinations of flow rate and system static pressure.
4.5.2 General Shut-down Procedures

1. Switch OFF the water supply pump.
2. Fully open all valves to drain off water from the piping.
3. Then fully close the inlet water supply valve on the hydraulics bench.
4. Switch off the main power supply.
5. Retain the water in sump tank for the next study session
4.5.3 Procedure
1. Start-up the apparatus according to general procedures.
2. Turn or switch the valves (Outlet or Inlet valve) to obtain flow of water flow to the test
section only.
3. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank in conjunction with flow control valve.
28
4. For small flow rates use the measuring cylinder in conjunction with flow control.
5. Measure head loss between the tapping using the mercury manometer or pressurized
water manometer as appropriate.
6. Repeat the testing with different flow rate and obtain readings on test section.
7. Measure the internal diameter of each test pipe sample using a Vernier Caliper (not
supplied).
4.6 Test Section:

i. 7.5mm Smooth Bore Pipe
ii. 12 mm Smooth Bore Pipe
iii. 19mm Smooth Bore Pipe
4.7 Maintenance and Safety Precautions

1. It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not in use. The apparatus
should be handled properly to prevent damage.
2. Clean and wipe the bench with damp cloth after each laboratory session.
3. The apparatus should not be exposed to any shock or stresses.
4. Always wear protective clothing, shoes, helmet and goggles throughout the laboratory
session.
5. Always run the experiment after fully understanding the unit and procedures.
6. It is necessary to prime the pump each time after draining/filling up the sump tank. To
prime the pump, loosen the air bleed screw on the pump housing to release air trap, then
tighten the screw.
29
4.8 Calculation
Flow rate Velocity, Head

Test Q Pipe v loss,
Volum e Time
Sections (m3/s) Dia. d (m/s) H Log u Log H
V (Litre) (Sec)
(m)
𝑣 = 4𝑄⁄ 2
−3 ( mH2O)
= 𝑉 × 10 ⁄𝑇 𝜋𝑑
7.5mm
12mm
19mm
30
31
5 Determine the head loss associated with flow of water through
standard fittings
5.1 Aim
To determine the head loss associated with flow of water through standard fittings used in
plumbing installations
5.2 Introduction
the study of losses in straight pipes, a wide range of accessories are available including pipe

5.3.1 Unit Assembly
following:
Smooth bore pipes of various diameters (7.5mm, 12mm and 19mm). An artificially roughened
pipe
1. A 90o bend
2. A 90o elbow
32
3. A 45o elbow
4. A 45o “Y”
5. A 90o “T”
8. A gate valve
9. A globe valve
and entry effects. A system of isolating valves is provided whereby the pipe to be tested can be
conducted on parallel pipe configurations. Ported manometer connecting valves ensure rapid
bleeding of all interconnecting pipe work.
33
8. Manometer
5.4 Theory
5.4.1 Head Loss through Fittings
A piping installation consists of various fittings such as bends, elbows, tees and valves that form
obstructions to flow. Head loss in a pipe fitting is proportional to the velocity head of the fluid
flowing through the fittings.
2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐾𝑢 ⁄2𝑔
where,
H = Head loss across fittings (mH2O)
K = Fittings Factor
u = Mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity m/s2)
34
5.4.2 Procedure:
section only.
3. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank in conjunction with flow control valve.
4. Measure differential head between tapping on each fitting with the pressurized water
manometer.
5. Measure differential head between tapping on test valves using pressurized water
manometer for different valve settings (open to closed).
5.4.3 Test Section

1. A 90o bend
2. A 90o elbow
3. A 45o elbow
6. A globe valve (Fully opened, 2 turns,)
35
5.5 Calculations
Flowrate Velocity Velocity

Pipe Head
Volume Time 𝑄 𝑢 head K= 𝐻⁄𝑢2
Dia. 𝑢2 loss Valve
Test sections V T 𝑉 4𝑄 2𝑔
= (𝑚3 D = H Position
(Litre) (Sec) 𝑇 𝜋𝐷 2 2𝑔
(m) (mH2 O)
/𝑠𝑒𝑐) (𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐) (𝑚)
90° 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑
90° 𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑜𝑤
45° 𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑜𝑤
Enlargement
Contraction
Globe valve
36
37
6 Determine the relationship between fluid friction coefficient and
Reynolds number
6.1 Aim
To determine the relationship between fluid friction coefficient and Reynolds number for flow of
water through a pipe having a roughened bore
6.2 Introduction
the study of losses in straight pipes, a wide range of accessories is available including pipe

6.3.1 Unit Assembly
following:
Smooth bore pipes of various diameters (6mm, 10mm and 17mm) An artificially roughened pipe
1. A 90o bend
2. A 90o elbow
3. A 45o elbow
38
4. A 45o “Y”
5. A 90o “T”
8. A globe valve
10. A gate valve
and entry effects. A system of isolating valves in provided whereby the pipe to be tested can be
6.3.2Unit Description
39
8. Manometer
6.4 Theory
6.4.1 Head Loss due to Friction through Pipes
For a circular pipe flowing full, the head loss due to friction (mH2 O) may be calculated from
the formula:
H=4flu2 /2gd or λLu2 /2gd … (1)
Where,
L = length of pipe between tapings (m) = 1 m for all pipes
d = internal diameter of the pipe (m)
u = mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
f = Pipe friction co-efficient
40
Having established the value of Reynolds number Re for flow in the pipe, the value of f may be
determined from a Moody diagram.
𝜌𝑢𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = … . (2)
𝜇
Where,
υ=molecular viscosity
ρ=density
6.5 Procedure
section only.
3. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank in conjunction with the flow control valve.
4. For small flow rates, use the measuring cylinder in conjunction with flow control valve.
5. Measure head loss between the tapping using the pressurized water manometer as
appropriate.
7. Measure the internal diameter of each test pipe sample using a Vernier Caliper.
6.5.1 Test Section

19 mm Roughened Bore Pipe
41
6.6 Calculation
Flowrate Reynolds Pipe Friction

Pipe Velocity
Volume Time 𝑄 Number Head loss Coefficient
Dia. 4𝑄 𝜌𝑢𝐷
𝑉
𝑓 = 𝑔𝐷𝐻⁄
V T 𝑢= H
= (𝑚3 D 𝜋𝐷 2 𝑅𝑒 =
2𝐿𝑢2
(Litre) (Sec) 𝑇 𝜇 (mH2 O)
(m) (𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐)
/𝑠𝑒𝑐)
42
43
7 Demonstrate the application of differential head devices in the
measurement of flow rate and velocity of water
7.1 Aim
To demonstrate the application of differential head devices in the measurement of flow rate and
velocity of water in a pipe.
7.2 Introduction
the study of losses in straight pipes, a wide range of accessories is available including pipe

7.3.1 Unit Assembly
following:
1. Smooth bore pipes of various diameters (6mm, 10mm and 17mm) An artificially
roughened pipe
2. A 90o bend
3. A 90o elbow
4. A 45o elbow\
44
5. 45o “Y”
6. A 90o “T”
9. A gate valve
10. A globe valve
and entry effects. A system of isolating valves in provided whereby the pipe to be tested can be
45
8. Manometer
7.4 Theory
7.4.1 Flow Measurement Using Differential Head
7.4.1.1 Pitot Static Tube

The Pitot tube (named after Henri Pitot in 1732) measures fluid velocity by converting the
kinetic energy of the flow into potential energy. The conversion takes place at the stagnation
point, located at the Pitot tube entrance (Figure 3). A pressure higher than the free-stream (i.e.
dynamic) pressure results from the kinematics to potential conversion. This "static" pressure is
measured by comparing it to the flow's dynamic pressure with a differential manometer.
For incompressible fluid, the Bernoulli’s Equation describes the relationship between the
velocity and pressure along a streamline.
𝑝 2
⁄𝜌𝑔 + 𝑣 ⁄2𝑔 + 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 … . 7.1
Where,
p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section
46
ρ = Density of the flowing fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z = Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum.
Evaluated at two different points along a streamline, the Bernoulli equation yields.
𝑝1 𝑣2 𝑝 𝑣2
⁄𝜌𝑔 + 1⁄2𝑔 + 𝑧1 = 2 ⁄𝜌𝑔 + 2⁄2𝑔 + 𝑧2 … . 7.2
If z1 = z2 and point 2 is a stagnation point, i.e., v2 = 0, the above equation reduces to,
𝑝1 + 𝑣12⁄ = 𝑝2
⁄𝜌 2 ⁄𝜌 … 7.3
The velocity of the flow can hence be obtained,
2(𝑝2 − 𝑝1 )⁄
𝑣1 = √ 𝜌 … 7.4
Or more specifically,
2(𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 )
𝑣=√ ⁄𝜌 … 7.5
7.4.2 Venturi Meter

The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The venturi tube has
a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the figure below. The function
of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower its static pressure. A
pressure difference between inlet and throat is thus developed, which pressure difference is
correlated with the rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to change the area of the stream
back to the entrance area and convert velocity head into pressure head.
47
Figure 7-2: The Venturi Tube
Discharge coefficient, C d usually lies in the range between 0.9 and 0.99
7.4.3 Orifice Plate

The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline consists of a concentric square-edged
circular hole in a thin plate, which is clamped between the flanges of the pipe as shown in the
figure below.
Figure 7-3: The Orifice Plate
Pressure connections for attaching separate pressure gauges are made at holes in the pipe walls
on both side of the orifice plate. The downstream pressure tap is placed at the minimum pressure
position, which is assumed to be at the vena contracta. The centre of the inlet pressure tap is
located between one-half and two pipe diameters from the upstream side of the orifice plate;
usually a distance of one pipe diameter is employed.
The coefficient of discharge, Cd in the case of the orifice meter will be different from that for the
case of a venturi meter.
7.5 Procedure:
section only.
3. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank in conjunction with the inlet water flow
control valve.
4. Measure differential head loss between the tapping using the mercury manometer or
pressurized water manometer as appropriate.
5. Obtain readings on the venturi, orifice plate and Pitot tube
7.5.1 Test Section:

1. Pitot Tube
48
2. Venturi Meter
3. Orifice Plate
49
7.6 Calculations
Flow rate Velocity

Volume Pipe Dia Head loss
Test Time (t) (Q) 𝟒𝑸
(V) d 𝒗= H
section (sec) 𝟑 𝝅𝒅𝟐
(Liter) (𝒎 ⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄) (m) 𝒎
( ⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄)
(mH2 O)
Pitot tube
Orifice
plate
Venturi
meter
50
51
8 Compare Pressure lost during laminar flow with that of
turbulent flow
8.1 Aim
To compare Pressure lost during laminar flow with that of turbulent flow.
8.2 8.2 Unit Description
Figure: 8.1 Pipe Friction Apparatus and Valve positions
52
8.3 Theory
The unit is used to examine pipe friction losses in laminar and turbulent flow. The pipe section
used has an inner diameter of 4mm and a length of 500mm.The pressure losses are measured in
laminar flow with a water manometer. The static pressure difference is indicated. In turbulent
flow the pressure difference is measured with a water filled manometer. A level tank is provided
to generate the laminar flow. It ensures a constant water inflow pressure on the pipe section at a
constant water level. The level tank is not used to generate turbulent flow. The water is fed
directly from the water main into the pipe section. The flow rate is set by means of valves at each
end of the pipe.
The switch from laminar to turbulent flow form occurs when:
Retr ≈ 2300 means transient flow
Relam. < 2300 means laminar flow
Retur. > 2300 means turbulent flow
The Reynolds number is calculated from
𝑤×𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜐
d = inside diameter of the pipe section [m] w = velocity [m/s]
= viscosity of the medium [m2/s]
8.3.1 For laminar flow

Fall hv = h1 – h2
h1: static pressure at the entrance to the pipe.
The volume flow rate Q is best measured with a measuring vessel and a stopwatch.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑄=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
The velocity is given by:
𝑄
𝑤=
𝐴
Q = volume flow rate
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe

53
Where
and d = 4mm
𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴=
4
The fall hv is set with the drain valve. From the fall, the pipe coefficient of friction λ is calculated
as:
ℎ𝑣 × 𝑑 × 2𝑔
𝜆=
𝐿 × 𝑤2
Where L = 500mm pipe section, the value for hv has to be inserted in m.
The theoretical pipe coefficient of friction λ th is to be compared with the measured value. For
laminar flow:
64
𝜆 𝑡ℎ =
𝑅𝑒
8.3.2 For Turbulent Flow
The level tank is not used. For turbulent flow a higher flow rate is required. The water is
therefore fed directly from the hydraulic bench.
0.3164
𝜆 𝑡ℎ =
𝑅𝑒 0.25
54
8.4 Procedure
8.4.1 For Laminar Flow
Close valve 1 so that water cannot flow through this route. Open valves 2 and 4 and let water
flow through this route. Water will fill up in the level tank open the drain valve so that a constant
level of water is achieved in the level tank. Make this head position with the rubber O-ring
indicator. Turn the valves 5 and 6 so that water flows through the first manometer i.e. the
manometer with water connection at the lower end. Adjust the degassing valve of manometer so
that hv can be achieved. For getting constant head in level tank and laminar flow carefully adjust
the valve of hydraulic bench tank and valve number 7. Measure the flow rate with the help of a
measuring tank and stop watch.
8.4.2 For Turbulent Flow

Fill up the 2nd manometer with water i.e. the manometer with inlets at the top and ensure that
almost 1/3rd of both the tubes are filled with water and both are at the same level. If the level of
water in both tubes of manometer is not leveled then remove the pipes from the quick fittings at
valve 5 and 6 and from the manometer. Blow air through them and then attach them again.
Ensure that water level in both tubes of manometer is leveled and there is no water in the pipes
which are connecting valve 5, 6 with manometer.
Now close valve 2, 4 and open valve 1 and reverse the direction of valves 5 and 6.
Now start the pump of the hydraulic bench. Extremely slowly increase the flow through the
hydraulic bench valve and drain valve 7 so that there must be an air column between water
coming from pipes through valve 5 and 6 the water in manometer.
55
Figure 8-1
Note: If water is filled more than 1/3 rd of the manometer tubes then use the degassing valve to
lower the level of water.
Now measure the difference hv and flow rate with help of measuring thank and stop watch.
Note: Be extremely careful when taking values for turbulent flow. The water level is adjusted
very carefully by using hydraulic bench valve and valve 7. The water in the manometer should
not be getting mixed with water coming from the water through pipes. This condition can only
be achieved by adjusting hydraulic valve and valve 7.
56
Figure 8-2: Wrong Status
The situation shown in the above figure must be avoided. But if water from the pipe goes in the
manometer then switch off the pump. Open the degassing valve to drain water from manometer
and fill it again as mentioned earlier. Also blow air from both the pipes. Pipes should be clean
and there should be no water droplets in it.
57
8.5 Calculations
Flow
rate Velocity
Volume Time 𝑽 𝒘 𝑹𝒆 𝒉𝒗 × 𝒅 × 𝟐𝒈
𝑸= 𝟒𝑸 𝒘×𝒅 𝒉𝒗 𝝀= 𝝀𝒕𝒉
Flow type V t 𝒕 𝑳 × 𝒘𝟐
= =
(Liter) (sec) 𝒎𝟑 𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝝊
( )
𝒔𝒆𝒄 (m/sec)
Laminar
Turbulent
58
59
9 Determine the mechanical power produced by the Pelton turbine
9.1 Aim
To determine the mechanical power produced by the Pelton turbine.
9.2 Introduction
The experiment is designed for training and experimentation. It is used for demonstration
purposes relating to the principle of functioning of a pelton turbine. The orifice of the injection
nozzle can be altered by axial adjustment of the nozzle valve. Load can be placed on the turbine
with an adjustable, mechanical braking device.
The main parts of the pelton turbine are
1. Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement

2. Runner and buckets
3. Casing
4. Breaking jet
Figure 9-1: Pelton Wheel
60
Figure 9-2: Schematic Diagram of Pelton Turbine
1. Adjustable breaking device 2. Spring balance
3. Nozzle valve 4. Nozzle inlet
5. Turbine housing 6. Nozzle adjustment
7. Outlet through open housing 8. Pelton wheel
9. Base plate
61
9.4 Theory
Hydraulic machines are defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic energy (energy
possessed by water) into mechanical energy or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
Turbines are defined as hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy. Hydraulic turbines are of different types according to specification and pelton wheel is
one of the types of hydraulic turbines.
9.4.1 Pelton wheel turbine

The pelton wheel turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine. The water strikes the bucket along
the tangent of the runner. The energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy.
The pressure at the inlet and outlet is atmospheric. The turbine is used for high heads.
9.4.1.1 Constructional Details:
9.4.1.1.1 Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement

The amount of water striking the buckets of the runner is controlled by providing a spear in the
nozzle. The spear is a conical needle which is operated either by a hand wheel or automatically
in an axial direction depending upon the size of unit. When the spear is pushed forward into the
nozzle the amount of water striking the runner is reduced. On the other hand if the spear is
pushed back, the amount of water striking the runner increases.
9.4.1.1.2 Runner with buckets

It consists of a circular disc on the periphery of which a number of buckets evenly spaced are
fixed. The shape of the buckets is of double hemispherical cup or bowl. Each bucket is divided
into two hemispherical parts by a dividing wall which is known as splitter.
9.4.1.1.3 Casing
The function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge water to tail
race. It also acts as safe guard against accidents. As pelton wheel is an impulse turbine, the
casing of the pelton wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.
9.4.1.1.4 Breaking Jet

When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the forward direction the amount
of water striking the runner reduces to zero. But the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a
long time. To stop a nozzle in a short time a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet of
water on the back of buckets. This jet of water is called breaking jet.
62
9.4.1.2 Working of Pelton wheel turbine:
The water from the reservoir flows through the penstocks at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted.
The nozzle increases the kinetic energy of the water flowing through the penstock by converting
pressure energy into kinetic energy. At the outlet of the nozzle, the water comes out in the form
of jet and strikes on the splitter, which splits up the jet into two parts. This part of the jet glides
over the inner surfaces and comes out at the outer edge. The buckets are shaped in such a way
that buckets rotates, runner of turbine rotates and thus hydraulic energy of water is converted into
mechanical energy on the runner of turbine which is further converted into electrical energy in a
generator/alternator.
9.5 Procedure
1. Connect the apparatus with the hydraulic bench.
2. Switch on the hydraulic bench pump.
3. Open the valve slowly so that water begins to flow through the turbine.
4. Adjust the flow rate in the turbine by nozzle adjuster screw.
5. Load the turbine by turning the adjustment breaking device.
6. Note down the speed of turbine in rpm with the help of tachometer. Note down the
breaking power .
7. Now the torque can be calculated by T = F b . r r : radius of pulley = 25 mm
8. The mechanical power produced by the turbine can be calculated by
9. PM = 2πnT / 60
n = speed of the pelton wheel in rpm.
63
9.6 Calculations
n Net force F b Torque T Power P M
Sr. #
(rpm) (N) (Nm) (watt)
64
65
10 Determine the mechanical power produced by the Francis
turbine
10.1 Aim
To determine the mechanical power produced by the Francis turbine
10.2 Introduction
The apparatus is intended for instruction and experimentation and serves to demonstrate the
operating principle of a Francis turbine. The vanes in the scroll casing can be adjusted. The
turbine can be loaded with an adjustable mechanical brake unit. Typical turbine characteristic
curves and power curves for various speeds can thus be recorded by way of the vane adjustment
and brake unit.
The main parts of the Francis turbine are
1. Penstock
2. Casing
3. Guide mechanism
4. Runner
Figure 10-1: Francis Turbine
66
Figure 10-2: S chematic Diagram of Francis Turbine
1. Adjustable Screw 2. Spring balance

3. Adjustable brake unit 4. Vanes
5. Tube inlet 6. Scroll casing
7. Base plate 8. Vane adjustment
10.4 Theory
energy. Hydraulic turbines are of different types according to specification and Francis Turbine
is one of the types of hydraulic turbines.
67
10.4.1 Reaction Turbine
In this type of turbine there is a gradual; pressure drop takes place continuously over the fixed
and moving blades or over guide vanes and moving vanes. The function of the guide vanes is
that they alter the direction of water as well as increases its velocity. As the water passes over the
moving vanes its kinetic energy is absorbed by them.
10.4.2 Francis Turbine

The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as Francis turbine
after the name of J.B Francis an American engineer who in beginning designed inward radial
flow reaction turbine. In the modern Francis turbine, the water enters the runner of the turbine in
the radial direction and leaves in the axial direction at the outlet of the runner. Thus the modern
Francis turbine is a mixed flow type turbine.
10.4.2.1 Constructional details
10.4.2.1.1 Penstock
It is a long pipe at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted. The water from reservoir flows through
the penstock. The nozzle increases the kinetic energy of water flowing through the penstock.
10.4.2.1.2 Casing
In case of reaction turbine, casing and runner are always full of water. The water from the
penstocks enters the casing which is of spiral shape in which area of cross section of the casing
goes on decreasing gradually. The casing completely surrounds the runner of the turbine. The
casing is made of spiral shape so that the water may enter the runner at constant velocity
throughout the circumference of the runner.
10.4.2.1.3 Guide Mechanism

It consists of a stationary circular wheel all-round the runner of the turbine. The stationary guide
vanes are fixed on the guide mechanism. The guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes
fixed on the runner without shake at inlet. Also by a suitable arrangement, the width between two
adjacent vanes of a guide’s mechanism can be altered so that the amount of water striking the
runner can vary.
10.4.2.1.4 Runner
It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed. The surface of the vanes
is made very smooth. The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters and leaves the
runner without shock. The runners are made of cast steel, cast iron or stainless steel. They are
keyed to the shaft.
10.4.2.1.5 Draft tube

The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than atmosphere
pressure. The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A tube or pipe of
gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the tail
68
race. This tube of increasing area is called draft tube. The draft tube, in addition to serve a
passage for water discharge has the following two purposes also
The turbine may be placed above the tail race and hence turbine may be inspected properly.
The kinetic energy rejected at the outlet of the turbine is converted into useful pressure energy.
10.5 Procedure
Position experimentation setup on hydraulic bench such that the outlet from the draft tube can
guide the water into the duct of hydraulic bench.
Make hose connection between hydraulic bench and Connection (2) of Francis turbine using
quick release connectors.
Figure 10-3
Close Hydraulic bench’s main cock and switch on pump; slowly open main cock as far as it
will go.
Release lever (6) for vane adjustment by turning it and expel air from draft tube by slowly
opening and closing (7) the vanes.
Figure 10-4
69
The angle of impact of the water on the runner vanes (1) is stipulated by the position of the
vanes (2). The above angle determines the speed and thus also the power of the turbine.
Vane adjustment is released by turning the lever.
Now open the water supply from the hydraulic bench.
Load the turbine by turning the adjustment breaking device.
Note down the speed of turbine in rpm with the help of tachometer. Note down the breaking
power .
Now the torque can be calculated by
T = Fb . r where r = radius of pulley = 25 mm
The mechanical power produced by the turbine can be calculated by
PM = 2πnT / 60 where n=speed of the turbine in rpm
70
10.6 Calculations
N Net force F b Torque T Power P M
Sr. #
71
72
11 Determine the mechanical power produced by the Kaplan
turbine
11.1 Aim
To determine the mechanical power produced by the Kaplan turbine
11.2 Introduction
The apparatus is intended for instruction and experimentation and serves to demonstrate the
operating principle of a Kaplan turbine. The turbine can be loaded with an analogue force gauge.
Typical turbine characteristic curves and power curves for various speeds can thus be recorded
by the brake unit.
The main parts of the Kaplan turbine are
1. Water inlet
2. Casing
3. Propeller
4. Brake Unit
Figure 11-1: Kaplan Turbine
73
1. Adjustable brake unit 2. Shaft
3. Water inlet 4. clapping bars
5. Water outlet 6. propeller
7. Force gauge 8. base plate
11.4 Theory
energy. Hydraulic turbines are of different types according to specification and Francis Turbine
is one of the types of hydraulic turbines.
11.4.1 Reaction Turbine

In this type of turbine there is a gradual; pressure drop takes place continuously over the fixed
and moving blades or over guide vanes and moving vanes. The function of the guide vanes is
that they alter the direction of water as well as increases its velocity. As the water passes over the
moving vanes its kinetic energy is absorbed by them.
11.4.1.1 Radially outward flow reaction turbine

This reaction turbine consist a cylindrical disc mounted on a shaft and provided with vanes
around the perimeter. At inlet the water flows into the wheel at the centre and then glides through
radially provided fixed guide vanes and then flows over the moving vanes. The function of the
guide vanes is to direct or guide the water into the moving vanes in the correct direction and also
regulate the amount of water striking the vanes. The water as it flows along the moving vanes
will exert a thrust and hence a torque on the wheel thereby rotating the wheel. The water leaves
the moving vanes at the outer edge. The wheel is enclosed by a water-tight casing. The water is
then taken to draft tube.
11.4.1.2 Radially inward flow reaction turbine

The constitutional details of this turbine are similar to the outward flow turbine but for the fact
that the guide vanes surround the moving vanes. This is preferred to the outward flow turbine as
this turbine does not develop racing.
The centrifugal force on the inward moving body of water decreases the relative velocity and
thus the speed of the turbine can be controlled easily
11.4.1.3 The main component of a reaction turbine

1. Casing
2. Guide vanes
3. Runner with vanes
74
4. Draft tube
11.4.1.3.1 Casing
This is a tube of decreasing cross -sectional area with the axis of the tube being of geometric
shape of volute or a spiral. The water first fills the casing and then enters the guide vanes from
all sides radially inwards. The decreasing cross -sectional area helps the velocity of the entering
water from all sides being kept equal. The geometric shape helps the entering water avoiding or
preventing the creation of eddies.
11.4.1.3.2 Guide vanes

Already mentioned in the above sections
11.4.1.3.3 Runner with vanes

The runner is mounted on a shaft and the blades are fixed on the runner at equal distances. The
vanes are so shaped that the water reacting with them will pass through them thereby passing
their pressure energy to make it rotate the runner.
11.4.1.3.4 Draft tube

This is a divergent tube fixed at the end of the outlet of the turbine and the other end is
submerged under the water level in the tail race. The water after working on the turbine, transfers
the pressure energy there by losing all its pressure and falling below atmospheric pressure. The
draft tube accepts this water at the upper end and increases its pressure as the water flows
through the tube and increases more than atmospheric pressure before it reaches the tailrace.
11.4.2 Mixed flow reaction turbine

This is a turbine wherein it is similar to inward flow reaction turbine except that when it leaves
the moving vane, the direction of water is turned from radial at entry to axial at outlet. The rest
of the parts and functioning are same as that of the inward flow reaction turbines.
11.4.3 Axial flow reaction turbine

This is a reaction turbine in which the water flows parallel to the axis of rotation. The shaft of the
turbine may be either vertical or horizontal. The lower end of the shaft is made larger to form the
boss or the hub. A number of vanes are fixed to the boss. When the vanes are composite with the
boss the turbine is called propeller turbine. When the vanes are adjustable the turbine is called a
Kaplan turbine.
75
11.5 Procedure
1. Connect the apparatus with the hydraulic bench.
2. Switch on the hydraulic bench pump.
3. Open the valve slowly so that water begins to flow through the turbine.
4. Adjust the flow rate through the turbine by valve of hydraulic bench.
5. Note down the speed of turbine in rpm with the help of tachometer. Note down the
breaking force Fb.
6. Now the torque can be calculated by
T = Fb . r
r = radius of pulley = 25 mm
7. The mechanical power produced by the turbine can be calculated by
PM = 2πnT / 60
n = speed of the turbine in rpm.
76
11.6 Calculations
n Net force F b Torque T Power P M

Sr. #
77
78
12 Study the characteristics of single pump operation with variable flow
rate.
12.1 Aim
To study the characteristics of single pump operation with variable flow rate.
12.2 Introduction
Pumps are used in almost all aspects of industry and engineering from feeds to reactors and
distillation columns in chemical engineering to pumping storm water in civil and environmental.
They are an integral part of engineering and an understanding of how they work is important.
Centrifugal pump is one of the most widely used pumps for transferring liquids. This is for a
number of reasons. Centrifugal pumps are very quiet in comparison to other pumps. They have a
relatively low operating and maintenance costs. Centrifugal pumps take up little floor space and
create a uniform and non-pulsating flow.
The Series / Parallel Pump Test Rig is specially designed to demonstrate to the operating
characteristics of centrifugal pump in series, parallel or single pump operation. This training unit
operates in close loop.
This equipment will explore the relationship between pressure head and flow rate of a single
pump and of two identical pumps that are run in series or in parallel.
When identical pumps are run in series, the pressure head is doubled but the flow rate remains
the same. When pumps are run in parallel the flow is increased but the pressure head produced is
approximately the same as that of single pump.
This equipment also allows the study of efficiency of a pump. The energy in this experiment is
put through two transformations. First, the electrical energy, which is the energy put into the
system, is transferred to mechanical energy, which is the energy required to move the shaft and
impeller. Second, the mechanical energy is transferred into energy of the fluid. This is
accomplished through the pump rotation, which transfers the velocity energy of the water to
pressure energy. The overall efficiency is the product of the mechanical (shaft) efficiency and the
motor efficiency.
79
12.3.1 Unit Assembly
3
1
6
2
1
Figure 12-1: Series and Parallel Pump test apparatus
1. Pump 1 2. Pump 2
3. Water tank 4. Speed Sensor
5. Pressure gauge 6. Rotameter
80
Figure 12-2: Process diagram for Serial / Parallel Pump Test Rig
12.3.2 Specifications
Before operation, students must familiarize themselves with the apparatus. Please refer to Figure
12.2 to understand the process. The unit consists of the followings:
12.3.2.1 Dimension
The unit has a dimension of 1.10 m (L) × 0.65 m (W) × 0.70 m (H).
12.3.2.2 Pumps
Two units of Horizontal Single Stage Centrifugal Pump (P1) and (P2)
12.3.2.3 Circulation Tank

A transparent PVC water tank is provided to supply water to P1 and P2.
Flow rate and pump head, speed and power indicators.
All indicators are displayed in its respective engineering unit. No conversion is required.
12.3.2.4 Process piping

The process piping is made of industrial PVC pipes. Valves used are nonferrous to minimize rust
and corrosion.
81
12.3.2.5 Selector switch
The selector switch allows the selection of system operates either with 1 pump or 2 pumps
(series/parallel).
12.3.2.6 Digital indicator

There are 4 digital indicators located at the front panel for displaying of flow rate, pump head,
power and speed indicators.
Power indicator: Indicated value is in Watt.
Speed indicator: Indicated value is in Revolution per Minute (RPM).
Flow indicator: Indicated value is in Liters per Minute (LPM).
Pressure Indicator: Indicated value is in bar (abs).
Pressure Transmitter 1 (PT1) 0-4 bar (abs)
Figure 12-3: Construction features of a centrifugal pump
Instruments that are permanently installed are turbine flow meters (FT) for measuring water flow
rate, pressure transmitters (PT) for measuring the pump head and a power transducer to measure
the motor input power. There are 2 speed sensors to measure pump speed for P1 and P2,
respectively.
82
12.4 Theory
Pumps are devices that transfer mechanical energy from a prime mover into fluid energy to
produce the flow of liquids. There are two broad classifications of pumps: positive displacement
and dynamic.
12.4.1 Dynamic Pumps

Dynamic pumps add energy to the fluid by the action of rotating blade, which increases the
velocity of the fluid. Figure 2 shows the construction features of a centrifugal pump, the most
commonly used type of dynamic pumps.
12.4.2 Horizontal Single Stage Centrifugal Pump

Centrifugal pumps have two major components:
1. The impeller consists of a number of curved blades (also called vanes) attached in a
regular pattern to one side of a circular hub plate that is connected to the rotating
driveshaft.
2. The housing (also called casing) is a stationary shell that enclosed the impeller and
supports the rotating drive shaft via a bearing.
A centrifugal pump operates as follows. When the prime mover rotates the driveshaft, the
impeller fluid is drawn in axially through the center opening (called the eye) of the housing. The
fluid then makes a 900 turn and flows radially outward. As energy is added to the fluid by the
rotating blades (centrifugal action and actual blade force), the pressure and velocity increase until
the fluid reaches the outer tip of the impeller. The fluid then enters the volute-shaped housing
whose increased flow area causes the velocity to decrease. This action results in a decrease in
kinetic energy and an accompanying increase in pressure.
The volute-shaped housing also provides a continuous increase in flow area in the direction of
flow to produce a uniform velocity as the fluid travels around the outer portion of housing and
discharge opening.
Although centrifugal pumps provide smooth and continuous flow, their flow rate output (also
called discharge) is reducing as the external resistance is increased. In fact, by closing a system
valve (thereby creating theoretically infinite external system resistance) even while the pump is
running at design speed, it is possible to stop pump output flow completely. In such a case, no
harm occurs to the pump unless this no-flow condition occurs over extended period with resulting
excessive fluid temperature build up. Thus pressure relief valves are not needed. The tips of the
impeller blade merely shear through the liquid, and the rotational speed maintains a
fluid pressure corresponding to the centrifugal force established. Figure 12.4 shows the cutaway
of a centrifugal pump.
83
Figure 12-4: The cutaway of a centrifugal pump
12.4.3 Pump Head versus Flow rate Curves for Centrifugal Pumps
Figure 12.5 shows pump head versus flow rate curves for a centrifugal pump. The solid curve is
for water, whereas the dashed curve is for a more viscous fluid such as oil. Most published
performance curves for centrifugal pumps are for pumping water. Notice from Figure 12.5 that
using a fluid having a higher viscosity than water results in a smaller flow rate at a given pump
head. If the fluid has a viscosity greater than 300 times that of water, the performance of a
centrifugal pump deteriorates enough that a positive displaceme nt pump is usually recommended
Figure 12-5: Pump head versus flow rate curves of centrifugal pump for water and
for a more viscous liquid
The maximum head produced by a centrifugal pump is called pump shutoff head because an
external system valve is closed and there is no flow. Notice from Figure 12.5 that as the external
system resistance decrease (which occurs when a system valve is opened more), the flow rate
increases at the expense of reduced pump head. Because the output flow rate changes
significantly with external system resistance, centrifugal pumps are rarely used in fluid power
systems. Zero pump head exists if the pump discharge port were opened to the atmosphere, such
as when filling nearby open tank with water. The open tank represents essentially zero resistance
to flow for the pump.
Figure 12.5 shows why centrifugal pumps are desirable for pumping stations used for delivery
water to homes and factories. The demand for water may go to near zero during the evening and
84
reach a peak during the daytime, but a centrifugal pump can readily handle these large changes in
water demand. Since there is a great deal of clearance between the impeller and housing,
centrifugal pumps are not self priming, unlike positive displacement pumps. Thus if a liquid
being pumped from a reservoir located below a centrifugal pump, priming is required. Priming is
the pre-filling of the pump housing and inlet pipe with the liquid so that the pump can initially
draw the liquid. Priming is required because there is too much clearance between the pump inlet
and outlet ports to seal against atmospheric pressure. Thus the displacement of a centrifugal
pump is not positive where the same volume of liquid would be delivered per revolution of the
driveshaft. The lack of positive internal seal against leakage means that the centrifugal pump is
not forced to produce flow when there is a very large system resistance to flow. As system
resistance decreases, less fluid at the discharge port slips back into the clearance spaces between
the impeller and housing, resulting in an increase in flow. Slippage occurs because the fluid
follows the path of least resistance.
12.4.4 Formula for Calculation of Variables

𝑃𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
Overall Efficiency 𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = × 100
𝑃𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
Fluid Power 𝑃𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑔𝑄𝐻𝜌

Gravitational Acceleration 𝑔 = 9.81𝑚/ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑃𝑀
Volumetric flow rate 𝑄=
60,000
𝑃2 − 𝑃1
Pump Head 𝐻=
𝜌𝑔
Water Denisty 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
12.5 Experimental Procedure:

12.5.1 General Start-Up Procedures
1. Before conducting any experiment, it is necessary to do the following checking to avoid
any misused and malfunction of equipment.
2. The circulation tank is filled with water.
3. Make sure V5 is in fully close position.
4. Switch ON the main power supply.
5. Turn on the main switch on the control panel. Ensure all digital indicators illuminate.
6. Turn on the computer and activate the data acquisition software.
7. Check for the following valve positions.
85
8. Turn on the pump and slowly open V5 until maximum flow rate is achieved.
9. Follow the experiment procedures to determine the desired flow rate.
10. Use the pump speed selector switch to monitor the pump speed.
11. Use the pressure selector switch to monitor the pressure in the pipe.
12. Turn the pump speed controller clockwise to increase pump speed or anti- clockwise to
decrease the pump speed.
12.5.2 General Shut-Down Procedures

1. Turn off the pump.
2. Make sure valve V5 is in fully close position.
3. Turn off the main switch on the control panel.
4. Shut down the computer.
5. Switch off the main power supply.
12.6 Equipment Set Up
12.7 Procedure
1. Follow the basic procedure described in section 12.5.1.
2. Ensure that all setting follows the equipment set up.
3. Test the pump characteristics under the following conditions and record the data.
Maximum motor speed; varied V5 opening V5 fully opened; varied motor speed.
86
12.8 Calculations
Flow rate Speed Power PT1 PT3 PT3- PT1 Pump head, H Efficiency
(LPM) (RPM) (Watt) (bar) (bar) (bar) (m) (%)
87
88
13 Study the characteristics of pump-in-series operation with
variable flow rate
13.1 Aim
To study the characteristics of pump-in-series operation with variable flow rate.
13.2 Introduction
The Series / Parallel Pump Test Rig are specially designed to demonstrate to the operating
motor efficiency.
89
Figure 13-1: Series and Parallel Pump system
1. Pump 1 2. Pump 2
90
13.3.2.1 Dimension
13.3.2.2 Pumps


and corrosion.
91
(series/parallel).

respectively.
92
Figure 13-3: Two centrifugal pumps connected in series

13.4 Theory:
13.4.1 Centrifugal Pump Connected in Series
On the other hand, if a single pump does not provide enough head for a given application, two
pumps connected in series, as shown in Figure 13.3, can be a remedy. The effective two-pump
performance curve is obtained by adding the head of each pump at the same flow rate. The
operating point shifts from A to B, thereby providing not only increased head as required but also
greater flow. Figure 13.3 shows the characteristics of two identical pumps, but the pumps do not
have to be the same.
60,000
𝑃2 − 𝑃1
Pump Head 𝐻=
𝜌𝑔

Fully Close Fully Open Variable
Pump ON
Valve Valve Param eter
V2 & V4 V1 & V3 V5 Both Pump
13.6 Procedure
1. Follow the basic procedure as written in section 12.5.1.
2. Ensure that all settings follow the equipment set up.
3. Test the pump characteristics under the following conditions and record the data.
Maximum motor speed; varied V5 opening
4. V5 fully opened; varied motor speed.
93
13.7 Calculations
94
95
14 Study the characteristics of pump-in-parallel operation with
variable flow rate
14.1 Aim
To study the characteristics of pump-in-parallel operation with variable flow rate.
14.2 Introduction
The Series / Parallel Pump Test Rig are specially designed to demonstrate to the operating
thermodynamics efficiency.
96
Figure 14-1: Series and Parallel Pump test apparatus
1. Pump 1 2. Pump 2
97
14.3.2.1 Dimension
14.3.2.2 Pumps


and corrosion.
98
(series/parallel).

Figure 14-3: Two centrifugal pumps connected in parallel
respectively.
99
14.4 Theory
14.4.1 Centrifugal Pump Connected in Parallel
If a single pump does not provide enough flow rates for a given application, connecting two
pumps in parallel, as shown in Figure 14.3, can rectify the problem. The effective two-pump
performance curve is obtained by adding the flow rates of each pump at the same head. As
shown, when two pumps are connected in parallel, the operating points shift from A to B,
providing not only increased flow rate as required but also greater head. Figure 14.3 shows the
characteristics of two identical pumps, but the pumps do not have to be the same.
14.4.2 Impeller Types

An impeller is a rotating component of a centrifugal pump which transfers energy from the
motor that drives the pump to the fluid being pumped by accelerating the fluid outwards from
the centre of rotation. The velocity achieved by the impeller transfers into pressure when the
outward movement of the fluid is confined by the pump casing. Impellers are usually short
cylinders with an open inlet (called an eye) to accept incoming fluid, vanes to push the fluid
radially, and a splined, keyed or threaded bore to accept a driveshaft.
14.4.2.1 Backward-curved Blades

Backward-curved blades use blades that curve against the direction of the pump impeller's
rotation. Centrifugal pumps with backward-curved blades yield higher efficiency compare to the
forward-curved blades because the fluid flows into and out of the blade passages with the least
amount of turning. Sometimes the blades are airfoil shaped, yielding similar performance but
even higher efficiency. The pressure rise is intermediate between radial and forward-curved
blades. Backward-curved pumps are preferred for applications where one needs to provide
volume flow rate and pressure rise within a narrow range of values. Backward curved pumps can
have a high range of specific speeds but are most often used for medium specific speed
applications-- high pressure, medium flow applications.
14.4.2.2 Forward-curved Blades

Forward curved blades, which curve toward the direction of pump impeller’s rotation.
Centrifugal pumps with forward-curved blades produce pressure rise that is nearly constant,
albeit lower than that of radial and backward-curved blades, over a wide range of volume flow
rates. Centrifugal pumps with forward-curved blades generally have a lower maximum
efficiency. Forward-curved pumps are for high flow, low pressure applications.
100
Figure 14-4: Backward and Forward Blades
14.4.3 Formula for Calculation of Variables

60,000
𝑃2 − 𝑃1
Pump Head 𝐻=
𝜌𝑔

Fully Close Fully Open Variable Pump ON
Valve Valve parameter
V3 V1, V2 & V4 V5 Both Pump
14.6 Procedure
Follow the basic procedure as written in section 12.5.1.
Ensure that all setting follows the equipment set up.
101
Test the pump characteristics under the following conditions and records the data. Maximum
motor speed; varied V5 opening; V5 fully opened; varied motor speed.
14.7 Safety Precautions

Never operate the pumps when there is no liquid in the pipeline. It will cause serious damage to
the pumps. (Water Level above PVC pipe 10 cm)
Do not operate pump above and below its limit as given below:
MINIM U M MAXIM U M
ORIENTATION FLOW RA T E FLOW RA T E
(LPM ) (LPM )
Single 40 120
Series 40 120
Parallel 40 240
102
14.8 Calculations
103
14-104

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Contents

1 Measuring the losses in the plumbing fittings ..................................................................... 6

1.2 General Description

Figure 1-1: Energy losses in Bends and Fittings

Outer Dia of Pipe 20 mm

Inner Dia of Pipe 17 mm

Outer Dia of Enlarged Section 50 mm

Outer Dia of Enlarged Section 32mm

Inner Dia of Fittings 17 mm

v = Average velocity of flow in the smaller pipe (m/s)

g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 )

1.5 Characteristic of Flow through various Pipe Fittings and Valve

Figure 1-2: Elbows 7

1.5.2 Short bend

Figure 1-3: Bend fittings

1.5.2.1 Sudden enlargement

Figure 1-4: Fluid Flows through S udden Enlargement

1.5.3 Sudden contraction

Figure 1-5: Fluid Flows through S udden Contraction

In this case, K is related with v 2 so that

1.5.4 Gate valve

Valve position Loss coefficient, K

Fully open 0.19

Table 1-1: Loss coefficient across gate valve

Volume Time Flowrate Manom eter readings (mmH 2 O)

(liter) (sec) (m3/s)

90o Sudden Sudden 45o Long

2.2 General Description 1

Outer Dia of Pipe 20 mm

Inner Dia of Pipe 17 mm

Outer Dia of Enlarged Section 50 mm

Outer Dia of Enlarged Section 32mm

Inner Dia of Fittings 17 mm

v = Average velocity of flow in the smaller pipe (m/s)

g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 )

2.5 Characteristic of Flow through various Pipe Fittings and Valve

Figure 2-2: Elbows

2.5.2 Short bend

Figure 2-3: Bend fittings

2.5.3.1 Sudden enlargement

Figure 2-4: Fluid Flows through S udden Enlargement

2.5.4 Sudden contraction

Figure 2-5: Fluid Flows through S udden Contraction

In this case, K is related with v 2 so that

2.5.5 Gate valve

Valve position Loss coefficient, K

Fully open 0.19

Table 2-1: Loss coefficient across gate valve

Volume, Differential Pressure

3.2 General description

Figure 3-1: Drag Coefficient Apparatus

3.3.1 Pressure drag

3.3.2 Friction drag

v = sink speed m/s

𝜈 = kinematic viscosity of the fluid

4.3 Unit Description

4.3.2 Unit Description

Figure 4-1: Fluid friction measurements apparatus

2. Smooth Bore Pipes 10. Globe Valve

3. Sudden Contraction 11. Inline Strainer

4. Artificial Roughen Pipe 12. Long Elbow

5. Gate Valve 13. Venturi Meter

6. Water Inlet 14. Orifice Meter

7. Outlet Flow Control Valve 15. Pitot Static Tube