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GEOL30005 Applied Geophysics
Lecture 12: Qualitative interpretation process
What do aeromagnetic datasets tell us about geology?
What is it good for?
• Subsurface mapping
• Overprinting
• 3D geometry
• Large‐scale kinematics
• Defining areas of alteration
• Determining certain rock types
• Terrane‐scale coverage
What is it not good for?
• Unique solutions
g
• Determining detailed
stratigraphy
• Cleavages and lineations
• Variable resolution
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Interpretation Strategies and Methods
• One of the biggest hurdles in interpreting geophysical datasets is the
conversion from the physical property being measured to realistic
geology.
It is also very difficult to describe geophysical characteristics
• It is also very difficult to describe geophysical characteristics.
• In this lecture we will look at some ways to go about this, covering:
1. Strategies to get started on your interp.
2. Maximising output vs time
3. Dealing with ambiguity/uncertainty.
4. How to communicate your observations
5.
5 Some common pitfalls and mistakes.
Some common pitfalls and mistakes
• Remember – it’s YOUR interp, each is a one‐off, and there are no
golden rules
What can you read from the data?
• What geological information can be gleaned from aeromagnetic data?
• It is good for analysing the three dimensional geometry of the subsurface
• It is good for determining overprinting relations
• The types of geological features that aeromagnetic data is good at
identifying (remembering that you are mapping the distribution of magnetic
minerals in the Earth’s crust).
• 1. Stratigraphic marker horizons (containing magnetic minerals).
• 2. Faults
• Magnetic highs (magnetite created in the fault zone)
Magnetic highs (magnetite created in the fault zone)
• Magnetic lows (magnetite destroyed in the fault zone).
• Offset of magnetic stratigraphy.
• 3. Folds (if you have magnetic stratigraphy)
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What can you read from the data?
4. Alteration
• magnetite enrichment (e.g. at the margins of plutons)
• magnetite depletion (e.g. along fault zones, and other areas of high
oxidation).
5. Plutons
5 Pl t
• granites can be magnetically high or low
• mafic plutons generally have either a high magnetic response, and/or are
remanently magnetised
6. Dykes
• both high and low magnetic response
• remanent magnetisation is often a factor in the magnetic response of dykes
7. Lava Flows/Volcanic Provinces
• Characteristic short‐wavelength signatures, stippled or “elephant‐skin”
• Can be used to characterise individual lava flows
Getting Started
Before you do anything else, you need to:
• Work out what problem you are trying to
solve/address.
• Work out what scale to work at ‐ regional, local
or both
• Work out what data processing “tools” will
produce the most helpful images
• Remember each interp will require a slightly
different set of “tools”
• Think about the resolution and quality of your
dataset
• Work out how much time you have
• Get your hands on as much geological
information as possible
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Getting Started
Things you will probably want to do (these may
not necessarily be relevant):
• Describe regional aeromagnetic character of
the interp area ‐ define domains if applicable
• Define key regional structures
• Describe the magnetic character of key rock
types ‐ use outcrop/drillcore to constrain ‐ and
extend these relationships to areas lacking
outcrop/drillcore
• Magnetic character is best described using
intensity/texture terminology e g
intensity/texture terminology e.g.
“moderate to low intensity anomalies
with smooth texture”
“High to very high intensity subcircular
anomalies with stippled internal texture”
Getting Started
Things you may want to do (these also may
not necessarily be relevant):
• Map lithological distributions in detail
• Define overprinting relationships between
multiple tectonic events
• Identify alteration zones or other
mineralisation zones
• Characterise
Ch t i the 3D geometry of features
th 3D t ff t
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Maximising Output
To maximise your output the following are
important :
• DO concentrate on gradients and texture
• DO use all geological data and obey it
• DO remember that you have superimposed
shallow and deep signals
• DO define structures and their cross‐
cutting/overprinting relationships
g
• DO think about 3D geometries
• DON’T focus on colours, i.e. magnetic “highs”
or “lows” ‐ in an image these are arbitrary
Ambiguity/Uncertainty
• Dealing with ambiguity and/or uncertainty is
an inherent part of geophysical interpretation
But can be overcome by using your
constraints well.
• This means you need all the geological info you
can get.
• EVERY part of the interpreted area must have
an interpretation attached to it ‐ it’s ok to be
unsure, but you must make a call (even if it’s
vague, e.g. “magnetic plutons ‐ sub‐circular
p pp
positive anomalies with a stippled texture”). )
• Most importantly, you must also document
your observations, and why you think an
anomaly is the rock that you have interpreted
it to be.
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Communicating Observations
The map and it’s legend are the best way to
communicate your results ‐ this should be able to
standalone without a lengthy blurb attached.
This means you need to:
• Use clear symbols on the map for structures
• Use amplitude, wavelength, texture,
orientation, & shape as descriptive terms.
• Describe your actual observations in the
legend, not just your interpreted
lithology/structure.
(i.e. instead of “granites” write “granites ‐
high‐amplitude (x nT) sub‐circular gravity
lows with smooth texture (y‐z km in
diameter)”)
Common Pitfalls and Mistakes
The most common pitfalls and mistakes are:
• Over‐interpreting your observations
• Under‐interpreting your observations
• Not enough information on the map
• Being “model driven”
• Poor cartography
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Over‐interpreting your observations
• This happens mostly when you state your interpretations without well
documented observations.
• e.g. ‐ anomaly x is a granite, anomaly y is mafic volcanics, anomaly z is
h f l
a thrust fault
• Fix: Record on the map/legend what evidence points to it being a
“granite” or “mafic volcanics” or a “thrust fault”. Think ‐ why should
someone believe me?
• Over‐interpretation can also happen when you come up with a
complex model for your area, without the necessary amount of
complex model for your area, without the necessary amount of
evidence.
• Fix: Record your evidence on the map/legend. Be conservative with
“models” of the area.
Under‐interpreting your observations
• This happens mostly when you do not make enough of a call in interpreting anomalies.
• Often this takes the form of replicating outcrop patterns, or geophysical anomalies, with
no attempt to link the two
• e.g. ‐ delineating highs and lows and just calling them “gravity highs/lows” ‐ we can see
thi f th it i l d your job is to tell us what they are geologically
this from the gravity image already ‐ j b i t t ll h t th l i ll
• e.g. ‐ delineating outcropping geology polygons, but not defining their subsurface
extent. Again we can see this on the geological map already ‐ your job is to identify the
extent and distribution of these rocks in the subsurface
• Fix: Use the magnetic signature defined from regions that have outcrop, or a sensible
guess based on your knowledge of rock properties (next weeks lecture), to map and
interpret the subsurface geology.
• Under‐interpretation can also happen when you do not “see” key features, or are not
confident enough to map them in.
• Fix: Do not worry too much, as you will see more features, and get better at
interpreting them as your confidence builds.
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Not enough information on the map
• This is characterised by a map with little on it, and a multi‐page
document containing all your observations and ideas.
• It is much easier to draw/annotate geology than describe it, and much
easier to understand off a map than to pick it out from many pages of
text.
• Fix: Draw everything possible on the map, and use a thorough legend
with magnetic signatures etc.
• Look at geological maps and see how much stuff they have in the
margins ‐
margins ‐ rock‐relationship diagrams, cross sections, stratigraphic
rock‐relationship diagrams cross sections stratigraphic
columns etc.
Being “model‐driven”
• This is characterised by interpretation based on some preconceived
idea (maybe from the literature, or from a previous area you have
looked at), WITHOUT having the necessary amount of documented
evidence.
• e.g. The fault is a thrust‐fault because the region was under shortening
at time x.
• e.g. The fault is a normal‐fault because it has sediments on one side of
it.
• Fix: Document your evidence, and interpret only as far as these allow.
• If your observations are consistent with other observations/models,
If b i i ih h b i / d l
THEN it is fine to relate them, e.g. observation: fault dips to the west,
and has sediments on the west. Interpretation: normal fault
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Poor cartography
• Obviously, a map that is poorly drawn is hard to read and is hard
to extract geological information from.
• Fix: Use clear symbols and significantly different colours for
different rock units, don’t forget to put on a legend, north arrow,
scale bar etc, try to be as neat as possible.
• Re‐check your map for anything you have forgotten /
overlooked / could do better.
• These mistakes are easily made (I make loads) but can make a
huge difference to how well somebody understands your work.
Some examples
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Applying mapping technique to regional geophysical
data (eg., Western Victoria)
Traverse 2
Some examples
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Some examples
Applying mapping technique to regional
aeromagnetic and gravity data
(Western Gawler Craton)
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Applying mapping technique to regional aeromagnetic and gravity data
(Western Gawler Craton)
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Interpretation strategy
• There are many different ways that you can interpret geophysical
datasets. Just like there are different ways that you can map geology.
The manner in which you interpret will depend on:
• The manner in which you interpret will depend on:
The geology that you may be interested in
The quality and resolution of your dataset
What you want to achieve in your interpretation (ie. Are you
interested in lithological distribution or are you interested in
pluton distribution or 3D architecture of faults?)
pluton distribution or 3D architecture of faults?)
The time in which you have to undertake the interpretation
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Before interpretation you need to do some data prep first
Choose the appropriate presentations of data
• Image(s) emphasising shallow
features (eg. 1vd)
• Image(s)
Image(s) emphasising
emphasising deeper
deeper
features (eg. upward continuation)
• Greyscale to observe contrast in the
image of colour to get the
amplitude detail
IT IS IMPORTANT THAT YOU USE MULTIPLE
IT IS IMPORTANT THAT YOU USE MULTIPLE
REPRESENTATIONS OF THE DATA WHEN YOU
UNDERTAKE AN INTERPRETATION BECAUSE
DIFFERENTLY PROCESSED IMAGES WILL
PROVIDE DIFFERENT INFORMATION.
Before interpretation you need to do some data prep first
Choose appropriate scales
• Working scale to allow accurate definition of contact positions.
It is no use looking at the continental scale image of Australia if you
want to accurately mark in boundaries of Banded Iron Formations in the
Pilbara
Pilbara
• Also have regional scale
data on hand so that the
big picture to be viewed.
This will give you more
context.
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Before interpretation you need to do some data prep first
Gather relevant geological data (preferably at the same scale)
• Remember that potential field data (gravity and magnetic data)
does not have unique solutions.
This issue can partly be overcome if you constrain the interpretation
• This issue can partly be overcome if you constrain the interpretation
with geology information.
• Constraining data can come form:
Rock exposures, mapping, drill holes, petrophysical data, and
structural data.
Geological data can reduce the ambiguity enormously and
restrict what is possible for your interpretation.
i h i ibl f i i
Geological Framework ‐ you can use your understanding of
geology of a region to guide your interpretation.
Overlay the geology and the geophysics data
• This stage is often done in a GIS
package.
• Make sure projections are correct
so that the data and the imagery
so that the data and the imagery
are spatially compatible.
• This is a real constraint and you
should be honouring the geological
data ‐ unless you otherwise have a
reason to believe its incorrect.
• Try to integrate structural data as
Tr to integrate str ct ral data as
well (e.g. strike and dip if
lithological units)
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Finally you can begin your interpretation
*Treat the interpretation like a geological mapping exercise*
• Document observations as you go
• Gradually build geological interpretation.
• Like mapping, different approaches will be more effective in different
terranes.
• What sort of things do you look for when undertaking mapping?
Distribution and trends of lithologies
Distribution and trends of structures
Geometry of rocks and structures
Geometry of rocks and structures
Overprinting relationships (ie. the sequence of geological events)
• These are exactly the things that you need to keep in mind when
undertaking an interpretation of a geophysical dataset.
Here is a general technique to get you started
1) Forming the geometrical skeleton.
• At this stage of the process you will begin to map out
geophysical anomalies by tracing out their distribution.
• The geometrical skeleton is an important part of the
interpretation process when you are first learning the art
of geophysical interpretation because it forces you to look
and assess the data, and allows you to identify and map
out trends in the data.
• At this stage of the interpretation your geological
p
interpretation will not have started – p y
it is purely an
procedure to get you to look at the data.
• As you get more experienced you will not have to do this
step because you do it in your mind as you interpret the
data
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Here is a general technique to get you started
1) Forming the geometrical skeleton.
• At this stage of the interpretation you should be CONCENTRATING on the
geometrical aspects of the data.
Narrow "worms " which should have some
shape.
Differentiate deep sources from shallow
Differentiate deep sources from shallow
sources
Delineate identifiable contacts and
discontinuities (eg. faults)
• REMEMBER only draw them were you can see
them.
• The interpretation comes later.
• Document characteristics of gradients (plunge
Document characteristics of gradients (plunge
or dip information).
• The resultant map should be considered as a
geometrical or structural skeleton on to which
a geological classification can be built.
Here is a general technique to get you started
2) Grouping areas of common geology or geophysical character
• This is the stage where you get identify regions
within the geophysical imagery that have
different characteristics.
At thi t di id th i i t t
• At this stage divide the image into separate
domains.
Domains can be separated based on
numerous criteria:
Geophysical texture (smooth vs. mottled).
Trends of geophysical anomalies.
Amplitude and wavelength of the regions of
Amplitude and wavelength of the regions of
anomalies.
Geology constraints
• Don’t forget that your geological constraints can
help you to delineate the domains.
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Here is a general technique to get you started
2) Grouping areas of common geology or geophysical character
• Constrain if possible to fit surface geological data
• If there are contradictions between the geology
and the magnetic data there must have a
geological explanation.
(eg. if continuous stratigraphic
horizon reduces magnetic signature
along strike due to alteration)
• Amount of grouping will depend on the
scale of the interpretation
scale of the interpretation
Continental interpretation ‐ group
terranes
Terrane interpretation ‐ group rock
formations
Here is a general technique to get you started
3) Combining stage 1) and 2) to produce a geological interp
This stage involves combining all of the previous stages to produce a geological
interpretation of the data. This stage involves:
• Tracing of magnetic and/or gravity anomalies (akin to form surface mapping).
• Identify areas, belts, zones of consistent aeromagnetic character and assigning a
geological association to them
• Correlating the anomalies and patterns with rock units/lithologies.
• Identifying structures such as folds and faults.
• Faults may truncate and offset anomalies.
• Faults may define the boundaries of different geophysical domains with different
structural trends.
• Faults may be defined by steep gradients in the geophysical data.
• Folds may be obvious in the data because magnetic horizons may be followed
around their plunging hinges.
• Folds may be indicated by oppositely dipping beds (ie gradients) on either limb of
the fold
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Here is a general technique to get you started
3) Combining stage 1) and 2) to produce a geological interp
This stage involves combining all of the previous
stages to produce a geological interpretation of
the data. This stage involves:
• Tracing of magnetic and/or gravity anomalies
(akin to form surface mapping).
• Identify areas, belts, zones of consistent
aeromagnetic character and assigning a
geological association to them
• Correlating the anomalies and patterns with
rock units/lithologies.
k i /li h l i
• Identifying structures such as folds and
faults.
• Faults may truncate and offset anomalies.
Here is a general technique to get you started
3) Combining stage 1) and 2) to produce a geological interp
• Faults may truncate and offset anomalies.
• Faults may define the boundaries of
d ff h ld h d ff
different geophysical domains with different
structural trends.
• Faults may be defined by steep gradients in
the geophysical data.
• Folds may be obvious in the data because
magnetic horizons may be followed around
their plunging hinges.
their plunging hinges
• Folds may be indicated by oppositely
dipping beds (ie gradients) on either limb of
the fold
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This lecture’s reading…
Gunn, P.J., Maidment, D. and Milligan, P.R., 1997. Interpreting aeromagnetic data in areas of
limited outcrop. In Gunn, P.J. (editor), Airborne magnetic and radiometric surveys, AGSO
Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics 17, 175‐185.
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