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GEOL30005 Applied Geophysics
Lecture 16: Quantitative interpretation
3D modelling
How do we use 3D models?
• The earth is 3 dimensional
• Almost all geological data has a 3D aspect to it
Shape of a fault or fold
Terrain model
Digital dataset
Sample locality X, Y and Z
• Ultimately the presentation of geological data in
3 dimensions is the best (and most realistic) way
3 dimensions is the best (and most realistic) way
to analyse geospatial or geometrical relationships
within the data.
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Why build 3D models?
• 3D visualisation of regional structures
• design (mine)
• tectonic interpretation
• groundwater aquifer systems
groundwater aquifer systems
• geothermal exploration
• understanding plumbing systems
• fluid flow modelling
• geostatistics / volume estimation
• testing (forward modelling/inversions)
• reconstruction
• collaboration
• education
• minimise risk
Industry uses for 3D models
• Mine design
Pits
Declines
Stopes
Safety
• Drilling management
Databases
Planning
• Grade control and reserve estimation
• Exploration
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Mt William Fault
Thomas Fault
Governor Fault
Geological modeling packages
• GOCAD (owned by Paradigm)
Oil industry roots
Powerful and flexible model building
Many plugins (Numerical modeling, geophysical modeling –
( etc))
• Vulcan 3D (owned by maptek)
Primarily used in surveying and mine planning
Development but not exploration
Tied to drilling and financial systems
Integrated with SQL databases
Integrated with SQL databases
• Surpac
As above with strong surveying focus
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Geological modeling packages cont.
• MineSight
Similar to Vulcan
Mine planning focus
• FracSIS
Visualisation of different data types in 3D
Object oriented database
• 3D Geomodeller
Developed by Intrepid Geophysics
Automatic surface generation based on constraints
3D forward modelling (and inversion)
Geological modeling packages cont.
• Petrel (owned by Schlumberger)
Strong focus in oil and gas
• Leapfrog
Auto surface generation based on drilling data
Auto surface generation based on drilling data
Powerful for visualisation
Not used for mine planning
• 3D GIS
ArcGIS, MapInfo
Many of the concepts of these packages are similar. Eg. They
all use points, curves and surfaces. If you have knowldege of
one, the skills‐set is (at least in part) transferrable.
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GOCAD
• Feature rich
Lots of functionality and plugins
• Fast
For simple models that can then be infinitely refined
• Complex surfaces
• Data integration
Can import many different data types and visualise them
along side each other
• Volumetric modelling
Constrained statistical models and volume models
• Lets look at the types of objects used in most 3D modelling
software packages using Gocad as an example…
Modelling data objects (GOCAD)
PointsSet
• Set of points or nodes that are not connected in any way
• X, Y, Z +/‐ properties
• Good way to import some surfaces or grids
Good way to import some surfaces or grids
Fault interpretations
Mineral occurrences in
• Can be used to generate the Melbourne Zone
surfaces
• Can also be generated within
GOCAD by digitising
• Just like GIS point data in 3D
lik G S i d i 3
• A PointsSet can have many
attributes associated with it
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Modelling data objects (GOCAD)
Curves
• Consists of connected (and/or
disconnected) segments;
Each segment connects 2 atoms
• Each segment connects 2 atoms
• Can’t have triple points (branching)
• Segment
2 connected atoms = a segment
• Part
A curve can have many parts (connected or not)
• Extremityy
2 end atoms of a curve
• Closed or open
Modelling data objects (GOCAD)
Curves (cont)
• Can be digitised
• Created from PointsSets
• df f
Extracted from surfaces
• Common way to build models
Curves from sections or
drawings
Surfaces from curves
• Curves can have many
attributes associated with
them
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Modelling data objects (GOCAD)
Surfaces (tessellated surfaces)
• Gocad used Triangulated Irregular Networks (TIN)
• Made from connected (and/or) disconnected
triangles
g
• Triangles can be any size
• Surfaces cannot have “wings”
• A curve can have many parts
(connected or not)
• Surfaces can have many attributes
associated with them
associated with them
Modelling data objects (GOCAD)
Surfaces
(cont)
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Modelling data objects (GOCAD)
Voxet
• 3D regular grid consisting of volume elements called
voxels (cells)
• Node at the center of each cell
• Cells arranged along grid lines parallel to X, Y and Z
called u, v and w
• Useful for 3D potential field
forward and inversion
modelling
• Interpolation of values in 3D
Modelling data objects
Voxet (cont)
• The length of cells in a voxet can have
different lengths in the x, y, and z,
direction
• But every cell in the voxet must have
the same shape.
• Voxets can have many attributes
associated with them
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Modelling data objects (GOCAD)
Stratigraphic grids (SGrid)
• Just like a voxet only they allow anisotropy in
geometry
Property values can be associated with cell
• Property values can be associated with cell
walls or with cell centers
• Numerical modelling
• Geostatistical analysis – ie. Distribution of
rock property using kriging (3D gridding)
• S‐grids can have many attributes associated
with them
Modelling data objects (GOCAD)
Stratigraphic grids (cont)
• Sgrids allow the top and bottom of cells to be parallel to stratigraphy
• This is particularly powerful because it enables us to more accurately
represent the geometry of geological objects
p g y g g j
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Modelling data objects (GOCAD)
Wells
• Well path (location) and
property information
Can store geophysical wireline
• Can store geophysical wireline
logs (many different properties)
• Well markers interpreted from
drill core
• Structural information
Modelling data objects (GOCAD)
Wells (cont)
•Wells are
particularly
important for
p
geological modelling
since they are often
the only depth
constraint available.
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3D modelling example
Basin modelling of a deformed Neoproterozic basin
Limited outcrop
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Aeromagnetic data
Aeromagnetic interpretation
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Forward modelling
• Forward modelling of a series of profile models
provides a framework from which we can build up a
3D starting model
• We can then refine the boundaries of the starting
model using inversion modelling
g g
Forward modelling
Combining forward modelling with
surface interpretations (like mag,
gravity interp) provides a framework
from which we can build 3D models
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Surface framework model
Starting model
• Once we have a 3D model characterised by
surfaces (built from whatever we can get our
hands on ‐ potential field models, cross‐
sections, drill holes, seismic, map‐view
interpretations), we can export the model to be
inverted
• First step is to convert the model into a voxet
(ie 3D grid composed of cells)
• Next we can assign petrophysical properties
like density and magnetic susceptibility
• Then the model is inverted to refine the
geometric boundaries and petrophysical
properties.
Inverted 3D surface model
• Basin has an asymmetric geometry which thickens
from the North (~ 4 km) to south (~ 11 km)
• The volume of the basin is calculated at 35 000 km3
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Inverted 3D discretised model
• Boundaries between rocks in a discretised model are characterised by cells with
different discrete attributes (ie rock ID)
• They also have other attributes like density and magnetic susceptibility
• Cell size for this model = 2km x 2km x 1km
Observed and calculated response of the 3D model
• Once the model is inverted, we can visualise the observed and calculated response
• The observed response is a good match with the calculated response
• Remaining differences are characterised by a short wavelength response which has
a short wavelength, is unorganised, not interpreted as geological
Observed Calculated (forward model)
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Evolution of the Neoproterozoic Basin
• Determining 3D geometries (along
with other geological data) allow us
speculate about the tectonic
setting of a geological terrane
Eg…..
Eg
• Extended into a simple shear style set
of half grabens.
• Bounded by an underlying listric fault
which flattened at depth below the
sedimentary basin.
• Early Palaeozoic
y shortening,
g,
development of thrust faults causes
exhumation of BIFs
But geometries are just the beginning
– we can do much more…
Tiny bit about geostatistics…
• Visualising models in 3D is cool and useful but doing geostatistical
analysis of 3D datasets is one of the most valuable aspects of 3D
modelling
• Spatial geostatistics is about characterising the spatial variation of
attributes (ie properties)
attributes (ie
• Could be porosity, velocities, magnetic susceptibility, density, gold
concentrations – almost anything that has a variably continuous
distribution
• Can be used to:
Characterise mineralisation types
Define reserves and resource blocks
Define reserves and resource blocks
Characterise alteration and
mineralisation types
Identify heterogeneity in hydrocarbon
reservoirs
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Tiny bit about geostatistics…
• To do a geostatistical distribution throughout a 3D grid (which is a fancy sort of 3D
gridding process), you need 3 things:
Data to distribute
A 3D grid to distribute it throughout (preferably a stratigraphic grid)
A search ellipse
p
• Creating the ellipse is a complicated process, and beyond the scope of this subject,
however:
Search ellipse is created through a process called variogram analysis
A semi‐variogram is a plot that shows how data becomes uncorrelated as the
distance between data points increases
• Variogram modelling involves
fitting a mathematical curve
fitting a mathematical curve
to the points in the variogram.
Tiny bit about geostatistics…
• Doing a variogram
analysis in lots of
diff t di ti
different directions
enables us to describe
a search ellipse
• Ellipse transformed so
its aligned with the
stratigraphic grid
• This enables data to be
Thi bl d b
distributed along
stratigraphic horizons
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Seismic velocities kriged throughout a stratigraphic
grid in the Gippsland basin
COLLATE CONSTRAINING DATA
Field Data Potential field data Electrical geophysics Drilling & wells
• Structural & • Gravity • MT,EM,IP, resistivity • Wireline and core logging
stratigraphic mapping • Magnetics Seismic data Other datasets
• Sampling • Reflection 2D/3D • Radiometrics
• Passive seismicity • GPR
DERIVATIVE INTERPRETATIONS
Filtered and enhanced Qualitative geophysical Seismic Interpretative mapping and Quantitative geophysical
geophysical datasets interpretation Interpretations geological cross sections profile modelling
Import data into 3D software for
visualisation
Re‐evaluate input data /
No Quality control ‐ data
acquire new field constraints
consistent?
Yes
Generate map view fault traces, outcrop distributions and depth section lines to
describe Z axis geometries
Assign magnetic susceptibility / Build 3D surface model from section
density measurements to model lines and map traces
Calculate No
forward model
Populate model with
Model Yes attributes for further
Geophysical inversion acceptable? modelling
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3D models are:
• Incredibly powerful visualisation tools
• Enable user to:
analyse 3D data for subtle geospatial relationships
characterise the nature of objects in 3D space
Develop inputs for other applications (numerical simulations,
geophysical modelling, flow modelling)
• 3D models are not anything new
• We’re just representing data we already
had in a way that makes it easier to
visualise
i li
+ some interpolation
cf chemist plotting up lab results
Next week at 10am….
On the fly 3D modelling demonstration
Will involve 3D modelling methodology using Gocad
More value if its interactive
No slides, no recording
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