Introduction

to
Geometric Modeling

CAD/CAM/CAE
 OBJECTIVES OF GEOMETRIC MODELLING
• To understand requirements for the information that is
generated during the geometric modelling stage.
• Study various types of geometric models possible
• Develop various methodologies used for geometric construction
such as sweep, surface models, solid models, etc.
• Recognize the various types of surfaces and their application as
used in geometric modelling
• Appreciate the concept of parametric modeling which is the
current mainstay of most of the 3D modeling systems
• Develop the various mathematical representations of the curves
used in the geometric construction
• Discuss the various CAD system requirements that need to be
considered while selecting a system for a given application
• Understand the concept of rapid prototyping and the various
methods available for the purpose.
 BENEFITS OF GEOMETRIC MODELLING
• Stored in mathematical form, so modification can be easily done
• by commands like move, rotate, scale
GEOMETRIC MODELLING

• A prototype is needed for testing and optimizing design.

• Costly
• Time consuming

• CAD eliminates the need of developing prototype.

• Assists to evaluate the design.

• “Computer compatible mathematical description” of the

geometry of the object is called as geometric modelling.

• CAD software allows the mathematical description of the

object to be displayed as the image on the screen of computer
 STEPS FOR CREATING GEOMETRIC MODEL
Steps through which designer create GM by using CAD software:

1) Creation of basic geometric objects:

• By using commands like points, lines, and circles

2) Transformations of the elements:

• By using transformation commands of the geometric elements
like scaling, translation etc.

3) Creation of the geometric model:

• Commands that cause integration of the objects or elements of
the geometric model to form the desired shape
• Merge, shell, loft, sweep
 STEPS FOR CREATING GEOMETRIC MODEL

• During the process of geometric modeling

the computer

• converts various commands from the software into

mathematical models,

• stores them as the files and

• finally displays them as the image.

• The geometric models created by the designer can be opened at

any time for reviewing, editing or analysis.
METHODS OF CREATING GEOMETRIC MODEL

• Wire Frame modeling

• Solid modeling

• Surface modeling
 Taxonomy
Geometric Modeling

Solid Modeling
Wire Surface Modeling
Frame
Modeling
Voxels CSG B-rep

Winged Edge Halfedge

 WHY TO DRAW 3D MODELS?

• 3D models are easier to interpret.

• Simulation under real-life conditions.

• Less expensive than building a physical model.

• 3D models can be used to perform FEA (stress, deflection,

thermal…..).

• 3D models can be used directly in manufacturing, Computer

Numerical Control (CNC).

• Can be used for presentations and marketing.

 3D MODELING
There are three basic types of three-dimensional computer geometric
modeling methods:
• Wireframe modeling
– modeling the curves of the part.

• Surface modeling
– Model the surfaces of the part, but without knowledge of
material.

• Solid modeling
– full solid representation
 WIREFRAME MODELING

• W F models are drawn by using lines and curves.

• Connected by using their point coordinates or vertices.

• Simplest way of 3D representation.

• Difficult to understand and visualize the 3D model.

• Still used to generate simple geometric shapes and models.

 WIREFRAME MODELING

• Entities used to generate model are classified as:

• Analytical curves: line, circle, hyperbola, parabola, E

• Synthetic curves: Hermite, Bezier, B-spline, Rational

• Basic curves are combined with desired continuity like C0, C1, C2

to get the required smoothness of the curve.

• Entities required are Line, Ellipse, Circle, Spline, Polygon etc

 WIREFRAME MODELING
• Contains information about
the locations of all the points
(vertices) and edges in space
coordinates.
• Each vertex is defined by
x, y, z coordinate.
• Edges are defined by a pair of
vertices.
• Faces are defined as three or
more edges.
• Wireframe is a collection of
edges,
• there is no skin defining the
area between the edges.
 WIREFRAME MODELING

Geometric model represented in wireframe model

 WIREFRAME MODELING

• A cube can be generated with twelve edges generated from eight

vertices.
 WIREFRAME MODELING

Advantages:

• Can quickly and efficiently convey information than multi-view

drawings.

• The only lines seen are the intersections of surfaces.

• Can be used as input for CNC machines to generate simple parts.

• Contain most of the information needed to create surface, solid and

higher order models.
 WIREFRAME MODELING

Disadvantages:
• Do not represent an actual solids (no surface and volume).
• Cannot model complex curved surfaces.
• Cannot be used to calculate dynamic properties.
• Ambiguous views
 WIREFRAME MODELING

• Uniqueness problem
• Ambiguity problem
WIREFRAME MODELING
 WIREFRAME MODELING
Of the various forms of representing the objects in geometric models,
wire frames is the most basic

There are three types of wire frame geometric modeling:

1) 2D: It stands of two dimensional view and is useful for flat objects.

2) 21/2D:
• It gives views beyond the 2D view and permits viewing of object
that has no sidewall details.
• Provides extruded depth to 2D model without any detailing on its
depth

3) 3D: The three dimension representation allows complete three-

dimensional viewing of the model with highly complex geometry.
WIREFRAME MODELING
WIREFRAME MODELING
 SURFACE MODELING
A surface model represents the skin of an object, these skins have no
thickness or material type.

• Surface models define the surface features, as well as the edges, of

objects.

• A mathematical function describes the path of a curve (parametric

techniques).

• Surfaces are edited as single entities.

SURFACE MODELING
 SURFACE MODELING

• External shape of object can be obtained with no information

about internal shape.
• E.g. sheet metal cover, car body exteriors.

• The basic sketching tools required for surface generation are :

• extruded surface
• revolved surface
• swept surface
• offset surface
 SURFACE MODELING

• A cube can be generated as surface model with six faces instead

of 12 edges
 SURFACE MODELING
ADVANTAGES:
• Eliminates ambiguity and non-uniqueness present in WFM

• Renders the model for better visualization and presentation

• Objects appear more realistic.

• Provides the surface geometry for CNC machining.

• Provides the geometry needed for mold and die design.

• Can be used to design and analyze complex free-formed surfaces

(ship hulls, airplane wings, car bodies, …).

• Surface properties such as roughness, color and reflectivity can be

assigned and demonstrated.
 SURFACE MODELING

DISADVANTAGES:

• Surface models provide no information about the inside of

an object.
• Complicated computation, depending on the number of
surfaces .
 SOLID MODELS
• In the solid modeling, the solid definitions include vertices
(nodes), edges, surfaces, weight, and volume.

• The model is a complete and unambiguous representation of a

precisely enclosed and filled volume.

• It may be assessed for mass property calculations, analysis,

manufacturing, inspection, QC etc.

• Modeling software like SW, I, PE, I etc. are available.

• Most of the software provides various options to generate all three

types of models. (WF, S & S)
 SOLID MODELS

• Analysis automation and integration is possible only with solid

models has properties such as weight, moment of inertia, mass.

• Solid model consist of geometric and topological data

• Geometry  shape, size, location of geometric elements

• Topology connectivity and associativity of

geometric elements
 SOLID MODELS
ADVANTAGES:

• Has all the advantages of surface models (uniqueness, non-

ambiguous, realistic, surface profile) plus volumetric information.

• Allows the designer to create multiple options for a design.

• 2D standard drawings, assembly drawing and exploded views are

generated form the 3D model.
 SOLID MODELS
ADVANTAGES:
• Can easily be exported to different Finite Element Methods
programs for analysis.

• Can be used in newly manufacturing techniques;

– CIM, CAM and DFM & DFA

• Mass and volumetric properties of an object can be easily

obtained; total mass, mass center, area and mass moment of
inertia, volume, radius of gyration, …
 SOLID MODELS

DISADVANTAGES:

• More intensive computation than wireframe and surface

modeling.

• Requires more powerful computers (faster with more

memory and good graphics), not a problem any more.
 WHY SOLID MODELING?

• Recall weakness of wireframe and surface modeling

– Ambiguous geometric description

– incomplete geometric description

– lack topological information

– Tedious modeling process

– Awkward user interface

 Methods of Creating Solid Models

• Boundary Representation (B-rep), mostly used in finite

element programs.

• Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG), CAD packages;

Unigraphics, AutoCAD – 3D modeler.

• Parametric Modeling, CAD packages; Unigraphics,

SolidWorks, Inventor by AutoDesk, Pro/Engineer, ….

BASIC PRIMITIVE SOLID:
 SET THEORY

Union Difference Intersection

 BOOLEAN OPERATION
• Union
– The sum of all points in each of two defined sets.
(logical “OR”)
– Also referred to as Add, Combine, Join, Merge
 BOOLEAN OPERATION
• Difference
– The points in a source set minus the points common to a
second set. (logical “NOT”)
– Set must share common volume
– Also referred to as subtraction, remove, cut
 BOOLEAN OPERATION
• Intersection
– Those points common to each of two defined sets (logical
“AND”)
– Set must share common volume
– Also referred to as common
 BOOLEAN OPERATION

Subtract

Union
Intersection
  Volumetric and Mass properties of an object can be easily obtained.

Corresponding mass properties are obtained if density is included.

Geometry
• Geometry is the actual dimensions that defines the entity of an
object
• It is called as metric information
• It includes
• length of line
• Angle between lines
• Centre of circle
• Radius of circle

• Geometry concerns size and shape of an object

• Topology generalizes many distance related concepts, such as
continuity, compactness and convergence.

• In topology we can consider two wholly different shapes in

geometry as the same because we can pull or push the lines or
move the vertices.

• It is the way in which entities are associated and connected.

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
Primitive Solids
 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
• The simplest the representation
are called primitives.
• Typically they are the objects of simple shape:
• cuboids, cylinders, prisms, pyramids, spheres, cones
• The set of allowable primitives is limited by each
software package.
• Some software packages allow CSG on curved objects
while other packages do not.
 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
• Constructive solid geometry (CSG) is a technique used in solid
modeling

• Constructive solid geometry allows a modeller to create a complex

surface or object by using Boolean operators to combine objects.

• Often CSG presents a model or surface that appears visually

complex,

• but is actually little more than cleverly combined or decombined

objects.

• CSG defines a model in terms of combining basic and generated

(using extrusion and sweeping operation) solid shapes.
Solid Modeling Example Using CSG

Union

Plan your modeling strategy

before you start creating the
solid model
Cut

Cut
 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

CSG objects
can be
represented by
binary trees,
where leaves
represent
primitives, and
nodes
represent
operations.

In this figure, the nodes are labeled for intersection, for union,
and - for difference.
 Constructive solid geometry
(CSG) - advantage
• CSG is powerful with high level command.
• Easy to construct a solid model – minimum
step.
• CSG modeling techniques lead to a concise
database less storage.
– Complete history of model is retained and can
be altered at any point.
• Can be converted to the corresponding
boundary representation.
 Constructive solid geometry
(CSG) - disadvantage
• Only boolean operations are allowed in the modeling
process  with boolean operation alone, the range of
shapes to be modeled is severely restricted  not possible
to construct unusual shape.

• Requires a great deal of computation to derive the

information on the boundary, faces and edges which is
important for the interactive display/ manipulation of solid.
 Solid Modeling
Boundary Representation (B-rep)
• A solid model is formed by defining the surfaces that form
its boundary (edges and surfaces)

• The face of a B-rep represents an oriented surface, there

are two sides to the surface; solid side (inside) and void
side (outside), unlike faces in a wireframe.

• B-rep model is created using Euler operation

• Many Finite Element Method (FEM) programs use this

method. Allows the interior meshing of the volume to be
more easily controlled.
• B-rep is a method to create solid models of physical objects
• B-rep solid is represented as a volume contained in a set of faces.
• It also contains topological information that defines the
relationship between faces.
• In B-rep a solid is bounded by its surface and has its exterior and
interior clearly defined.
• As it includes such topological information, a solid is represented
as a closed space in 3D space.
• The geometry can be described by its boundaries like vertices,
edges and surfaces.
• Each face is bounded by edge and each edge is bounded by
A B-rep model of an object consists of faces, edges, vertices,
loops, genes (handle) and body.

• Vertex: A unique point

(ordered triplet) in space.
• Edge :A finite, non-self
intersecting space curve
bounded by two vertices
that are not necessarily
distinct.
• Face :Finite, connected,
non-self intersecting
region of a closed,
orientable surface
bounded by one or more
loops.
• Loop :An ordered
alternating sequence of
vertices and edges. A
loop defines non-self
intersecting piecewise
closed space curve
which may be a
boundary of a face.
• Loop is a hole in a face
• Body :An independent
solid. Sometimes called a
shell has a set of faces that
bound single connected
closed volume. A
minimum body is a point
(vortex) which
topologically has one face
one vortex and no edges.
• A point is therefore called
a seminal or singular body.
• Genus : it is topological name for the number of handles or
through holes in an object
The total information present in a B-rep model is classified
into topological and geometrical data.,

The topological part of the data provides the relationship

among its objects such as vertices, edges and faces similar
to that used in WFM

Geometric information is usually equations of edges and

faces.
 TYPES OF MODEL IN THIS SCHEME

There are two types of solid models in this scheme

a) Polyhedral solid or object
• Consists of planer faces connected at straight edges which in
turn are connected at vertices.

b) Curved solid or object:

• Similar to polyhedral objects but with curved faces and
edges.
Polyhedral objects are classified in to four class:
a) First class:
• do not have holes
• each face is bounded by a single set of connected edges

b) Second class
• face may have loop

c) Third class
• objects with holes that are not through

d) Fourth class

• Through holes
• Topologically holes are called as handle
• Topological name for no. of handles in object is genus
Euler Equation

Euler proved that polyhedra are topologically valid if they

satisfy the following equation

F–E+V–L=2(B–G)

The simpler version of the above equation is

F–E+V =2
 Curved and Faceted B-rep model
• A closed cylindrical face has one edge and two vertices.
• A spherical face has one vertex and no edges.
• A boundary model of a closed cylinder has three faces (top,
bottom and cylindrical face) two vertices and one edge
connecting two vertices.
• The other edges are for visualization called as limb.
• The boundary model of a sphere consists of one face one
vertex and no edges
CONSTRAINT BASED MODELLING
CONSTRAINT BASED MODELLING
CONSTRAINT BASED MODELLING
CONSTRAINT BASED MODELLING
CONSTRAINT BASED MODELLING
CONSTRAINT BASED MODELLING
 FEATURE BASED MODELLING

•A feature is defined as a shape and operation to build parts.

•Shape is a 2D sketch

•Operation is activity that converts a sketch into 3D shape

 FEATURE BASED MODELLING
STEPS TO CREATE OBJECT BY FEATURE

1. Create sketches
2. Create features
3. Use features to build parts
FEATURE BASED MODELLING

EXTRUDE
FEATURE BASED MODELLING

REVOLVE
FEATURE BASED MODELLING

SWEEP
FEATURE BASED MODELLING

LOFT
FEATURE BASED MODELLING

PATTERN
FEATURE BASED MODELLING

SPIRAL
FEATURE BASED MODELLING
•Shaft
•Pipe
•Boss
•Cut
•Hole
•Slot
•Pocket
•Shell
•Fillet
•Chamfer
•Rib
•Spring