Data base structures and

Models
• All CAD systems depend on its data base. The CAD
database contains application models, designs,
assemblies and alpha-numeric information such as
BOM and texts.

• It can also include interactive graphic software’s, system

commands, function menus and plotter output
routines.

• The database resides in the computers memory

(primary & secondary storages)
A model on contents of the data base as suggested
by Foley and Dam are:
1. Basic graphic elements (point and other elements)
2. Geometry (shape of the model components and
their layouts in space)
3. Topography or structure of models (how various
components are connected to form the model)
4. Application specific data like its material
properties.
5. Application specific analysis programs such as
FEM.
• Different types of models are mechanical,
electrical, mathematical etc.
– The complete description of the model stored
explicitly as data requires lots of space.

• Other types of models are designed to store a

minimum of data with complete procedures.
– Such model can be re-captured as needed. It saves
storage space but consumes computational time.
• In case of Engineering analysis or NC part
programming the data structure may involve storing
the co-ordinates of geometry together with other
information which might be required to completely
define the model for some application programs.
– There are some disadvantages that such definitions if
lines, points, planes may be converted to a cylinder by
rotation but when analysis is required, the software may
not consider it as a solid; hence results may be
inaccurate or the space required is too large.
(A classical example on differences in thinking of
software & mechanical engineers)
• Alternate forms of database includes the
graph base model example: Tetrahedron
(containing a series of points, edges and
surfaces of the geometric element) .

– Its edges, vertices and the solids to faces are also

recorded, which in-turn comes out to be a
compact way to define a solid.
 Basic two types of modelling

• Earlier only drawings were drawn by

draftsmen on papers.

• Next, involved the graphic plotters, for

automation where the lines were formed on
required papers in a short time, which
improved the productivity of the designers.
 Shortcomings
• Since these drawings were 2-dimensional and
involved papers/ sheets; its storage and
retrieval were done manually.

– More recently CAD systems have been developed

which possess capability to define objects in 3-D.
This is a more powerful feature as it allows the
designer to develop a 3-D with all the views and
helps in analysis also.
 Wire frame models (WFM)
• A wire-frame model, also wireframe model, is a visual
representation of a three-dimensional (3D) physical
object used in 3D computer graphics.
• It is created by specifying each edge of the physical
object where two mathematically continuous smooth
surfaces meet, or by connecting an object's constituent 
vertices using (straight) lines or curves.
• The object is projected into screen space and rendered
 by drawing lines at the location of each edge. The term
"wire frame" comes from designers using metal wire to
represent the three-dimensional shape of solid objects.
• 3D wire frame computer models allow for the construction
and manipulation of solids and solid surfaces. 3D solid
modeling efficiently draws higher quality representations of
solids than conventional line drawing.

• Most current day graphic systems use wire frame modelling.

These images assume the appearance of a frame constructed
from a wire; hence the name WFM. It reduces storage space.

• Limitations: It may confuse the viewer as some hidden lines

may not appear & it cannot distinguish which side is a solid.
• The interpretations may be different as only lines are visible.
Examples
 Solid Models
• Solid modeling (or modelling) is a consistent
set of principles for mathematical and
computer modeling of three-
dimensional solids. 

• Solid modeling is distinguished from related

areas of geometric modeling and computer
graphics by its emphasis on physical fidelity.
 Solid models
• These are improved models giving more clarity
to the viewer.
• There is less risk of misinterpretations.
• Contrasting colours can be added.
• Animations can be added.
• Shading and hatching can also be added.
– Extensive developments in storage capacity,
software and hardware makes the solid modelling
more popular.
Examples
Basic approaches in solid modelling
1.) Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG):
-These are building block approaches which helps to
build models out of solid graphic primitives such as
rectangular blocks, cubes, spheres, cylinder and
pyramids.

• One can construct a precise model; then add,

subtract, insert the components to get the required
shapes.
• Unusual shapes are difficult to be made here.
2.) Boundary Representations:
• It requires the drivers to outline or to make the
boundary of the object on the screen.
• User sketches various views of the object from
top, side, front etc., and draws inter-connections
amongst them to establish relationships.
• Some transformations are also used for refining.
– Example is for an aircraft structure, these are very
feasible representations for its unusual shapes.
 Mathematical Modelling
• It uses CAD systems to develop a
mathematical description of the geometry of
an object (model), which is stored in the
memory of the computer.
• The CAD system can display an image of the
model on the graphics terminal and perform
certain operations on the model.
 – Once the models are prepared, we need to place
them in the environment
– Objects are defined in their own local coordinate
system
– We need to Translate, Rotate and Scale them

02/10/09 Lecture 4 19
 CAD/ CAM Features
Most of the computer aided design systems offer extensive
capabilities for developing engineering drawings such as :

1. Automatic cross-hatching of surfaces in drawings from wire

frame models.
2. Capability to write text on the drawings; size, type of text
writing can be controlled and justified “Horizontal or Vertical”.

3. Dimensions can be done correctly using different systems

Metric/ English etc.
4. BOM’s can be automatically generated.
5. Different views and cross sections could be automatically
generated.
 Design Process
• Recognition of the need: It comes from the
Customers.
• Definition of the problem: Specifications of items
• Synthesis: These are highly interactive processes,
which are conceptualized and improved through
analysis again and again.
• Analysis and Optimization: To get the best
possible outcome within the imposed constraints;
may move back to previous step as iteration.
• Evaluation: Evaluating or measuring the
design against the specs. Established in the
problem definition phase. It requires testing,
simulation or fabrication for ascertaining the
quality, reliability and other criteria’s.

• Presentation: Through BOM, circuit diagrams,

drawings etc.