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GNR 651- Digital Cartography

Cartography : Definition, History, Types of maps and their utility,
Mapping Standards: Survey of India and international standards for various map products.
Cartographic problems of Earth mapping: Shape of earth, Gravity effect, Reference Surfaces,
Geoid and Ellipsoid, Reference Systems and their interrelations. Map Projections and their properties.

Digital Maps: Definition, Analog to Digital Conversion hardware and Software,

Conversion standards, Digital Vector Data (DVD) standards and format defined
by Survey of India. Other standard formats in use. Cartographic Data Exchange
format (DXF) Digital Mapping Systems: Hardware and software for Data Input,
Analysis and Out put, Interface with GIS and GPS.

Text / References
Robert G Cromley, Digital Cartography, Prentice Hall, Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1992.
Quihe H. Yang , Map Projection Transformation, Taylor And Francis, London, 2000.
Mark S. Monmonier, Computer Assisted Cartography Principles And Prospects, Prentice-Hall,
Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1982.
Paul R. Wolf, Elements Of Photogrammetry, Mcgraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1974.
R.P Misra, A. Ramesh., Fundamentals Of Cartography, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi,
1989.

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Location on the Earth‘s Surface

(Science )

Datum

Projections

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Communication with Maps

primary model reality

secondary model

Digital Maps

Digital mapping (also called digital cartography) is the process by which a

collection of data is compiled and formatted into a virtual image. The primary
function of this technology is to produce maps that give accurate
representations of a particular area, detailing major road arteries and other
points of interest. The technology also allows the calculation of distances from
one place to another.
Though digital mapping can be found in a variety of computer applications the
main use of these maps is with the Global Positioning System, or GPS satellite
network, used in standard automotive navigation systems.
(Wikipdia)

Information about the area with

spatial reference and context
assigned to mapped objects
( including 3D + ?)

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GIS
Computer
Graphics
GPS
RS

Analog
cartography
Digital Cartography

Where is the art in maps?

• There is surprisingly little useful

theory about map design
• Imitating good maps is the best way
to learn
• Develop graphicacy (in analogy to
literacy, numeracy).

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Map Information Contents

• Geometric data
– Feature Geometry (Information )
–Attributes (Thematic Properties)
– Base Map (Reference)

Geometric Data: Basics

• Feature data and base map provide the spatial
reference and context for a thematic map
• They are always in a particular spatial reference
system!
• They come in two basic models:
–Vector data (typical for features)
–Raster data (typical for base map)
• These models reflect differences in
– Perception of Objects
– Data Storage Formats.

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Visualisation of 3D Space
• Two fundamentally different ways of
thinking about spatial phenomena
• as fields with spatial reference
–field view of space ( What ?)
• as entities with properties
– entity view of space ( Where ?)
Modern cartography and the 3D Map Revolution | Rachel Hwang | TEDxPenn

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kJOOoLzj-W8
How to be a Modern Day Cartographer | Kshitij Khandelwal |
TEDxYouth@Lovedale
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6b3pQ8Tox0

Field view
• Examples
–Topography, temperature, precipitation, magnetism
• Characteristics
–Question: ”what is here?"
–Continuous properties of space
–Measured at discrete locations
–Space is infinite set of such locations (x,y)
–Controlled variable: space
–Each location has attributes z1..zn:
• Pi = (xi, yi, zi1,... zin)

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Entity View
• Examples
–districts, parcels, buildings, utility lines,
geological layers, land use areas
• Characteristics
–Question: ”where is this entity?"
–Space is defined by the entities in it
–Controlled variable: theme
–geometric properties and relationships
• Location, shape, size
• Boundaries, neighborhoods, overlaps

Storage formats
• raster data
–by discretization on regular grids
• vector data
–by describing entities through boundaries

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Raster Data Model: Basics

Raster Data Model: Properties

• The simplest form of discretising
continuous space
• Very simple structure: matrix
• Every cell has 1..n attributes
• Raster data sources
–images
–Scanned maps

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Raster Data Model: Data

Structure
• Grids
–Standard: square cells
–alternatives: rectangular, hexagonal, triangular
• Problems
–Needs a lot of storage space
–Constant resolution
–Not invariant under rotations
• Partial solution: hierarchical models
–Run-length encoding
–Quadtrees

Raster Data Model: Overlay

All Layers MUST BE CO-REGISTERED wrt Coordinate Axes X.Y,Z

(Only for 3D )

Class A

Class B

Class C

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Vector data: Basics

y

F1
P2

F2

3
L1
F3
2 P1
1

1 2 3 x

Vector data: Properties

• Points bound lines, lines bound areas, areas
bound solids
• Sources
–Digitized maps
–Field surveys
• Storage
–„spaghetti“
–Topological data models (graphs, cell complexes)
• Strengths
–adaptable
–Invariant under more transformations.

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Vector data: Data structures

ENV EDG NOD
total nodes 11 adjacent node #
# of hull nodes 6 A B,K A 1,6,7
# of triangles 14 B A,C,L B 1,7,8
Min z_value C B,D C 1,2,8
Max z_value D C,E D 2,3,8
E D,F,L E 3,8,9
F E,G F 3,4,9
G F,H,M G 4,9,10
HUL H G,I H 4,5,10
I H,J,N I 5,10,11
node # J I,K J 5,6,11
1 K A,J,N K 6,7,11
2 L B,E,M L 7,8,9
3 M G,L,N M 7,9,10
4 N I,K,M N 7 ,10,11
5
6

NXY
6
node
1
# coordinates
x1,y1
1 A J 5
2 x2,y2 K
3 x3,y3
.
. B 7 N 11 I
11 x11,y11 C
L M 10 H
NZ 8 G
node # x_value 2 D
9 4
E
1 z1 F
2 z2
3
.
z3
3
.
11 z11 TIN data structure of ARC INFO

Data Formats
• Traditionally, each GIS had its own
proprietary data format
• A data format describes
–How data are structured logically
–How data are stored
• Using data in other systems
–through Data Exchang Formats (OpenGIS
interfaces)
–Through standardized formats

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Data Formats: Examples

• Tagged Image File Format (.TIF, raster)
• Joint Photographic experts Group (.JPG, raster)
• Windows Bitmap Format (.BMP, raster)
• AutoCAD Drawing Exchange Format (.DXF,
vector data in ASCII)
• Scalable Vector Graphics (.SVG, raster and
vector)
• GML (Geographic Mark-up Language, vector)
• ESRI Shapefiles (.SHP, vector)
? XML
? KML

•SHP (Shapefile) The shapefile is BY FAR the

most common geospatial file type you'll
encounter. ...
•KMZ/KML (Keyhole Markup zipped /
Language) KML stands for Keyhole Markup
Language. ...
•GDB (File Geodatabase) ...
•MDB (Personal Geodatabase) ...
•LYR (Layer) ...
•OSM (OpenStreetMap) ...
•ArcInfo Coverage. ...
•E00 ArcInfo Interchange.
gisgeography.com/gis-formats/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS_file_formats

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How to Choose Geometric Data

• Key criterion: spatial resolution
–Example: poverty/education map
• Availability
• Tool dependence (diminishing)

Linking Geometry and Attributes

• To produce a thematic map from
geometric and attribute data, the two must
be combined
• Two basic forms
–Identifier (ID) of feature geometry is listed in
attribute tables
–Geometry is stored in relational database

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Ground Remote
Analogue sensor
survey and Maps
historical
Data capture records

Images

Keyboard Computer
and computer media
media Scanner
Digitiser
Tabular
Vector
Raster
Cleaning & Storage

Editing and error correction Geocoding

Data Retrieval and Analysis Results/ Output

( Map
Composition )

Workflow in Digital Cartographic System

Ground Remote
Analogue sensor
survey and Maps
historical
records

G
Data Capture

Images

Keyboard Computer
I
S
and computer media
media Scanner
Digitiser
Tabular
Vector
Raster
Cleaning & Storage

Map/Image
Projection and
Editing, Error correction and Geocoding Datum

Results/ Output
Data Retrieval and Analysis ( Map
Composition )

Workflow in Digital Cartographic System

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Point
 A point object has neither length nor breadth nor
depth.
 May be used to indicate spatial occurrences or events,
and their spatial pattern.

• Epicentre of Earthquake
• Ambient Temperature
• Atmospheric Pressure
• .
• .
• .
• .
• …………..

? DEM, a point or 3D Surface Polygon in 3D (TIN)

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Temperature

Line

 A line object has

length, but not
breadth or depth.
 Used to represent
linear entities that are
frequently built
together into
networks.
 Also used to
measure distances
between spatial
objects.

The road network of Mumbai

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Source : Maps of India

Source : Google Map

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Area
 An area object has two dimension, length and breadth, but
no depth.
 Represents enclose areas of natural or artificial objects.

Area objects are used to present Soils of the State of Maharashtra

Surface
 A surface is a kind of volume object but its depth is
actually the spot height of the surface.
 Used to present natural or statistical surface objects.

A surface object that

represents the 3-dimensional
surface of a City.
The surface model is overlaid
with a Landsat TM image to
show land cover information
in association with the
topographic positions.

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Volume
Used to present natural (e.g. mine bodies and buildings) or
artificial objects.
A volume object have length, breadth and depth.

Volume objects are used to present building blocks of Hong Kong Polytechnic University.

• Point
• Line
• Surface
• Area
• Volume

366

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DEM

DSM

DTM

DEM is often used as a generic term for DSMs and DTMs,

only representing height information without any further definition about
the surface.

Some definitions consider the terms DEM and DTM as synonyms

Certain definitions consider the terms DEM and DSM as synonyms

Some define the DEM as a subset of the DTM, which also represents
other morphological elements or define a DEM as a rectangular grid and
a DTM as a three-dimensional model (TIN).

Most of the data providers (USGS, ERSDAC, CGIAR, Spot Image) use
the term DEM as a generic term for DSMs and DTMs.

All datasets which are captured with satellites, airplanes or other RS

platforms are originally DSMs (like SRTM or the ASTER GDEM). It is
possible to compute a DTM from high resolution DSM datasets with
complex algorithms

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369

HARDWARE

SOFTWARE

Screen digitizing is the process of creating

and/or editing a segment or point map while
an existing raster map is displayed as a
background in a map window. The raster map
can be for instance a band of a satellite
image, a color composite, a scanned map, or
a scanned photograph. By using the mouse,
you can directly digitize elements of interest
on the background map.

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• On-screen digitizing is an interactive

process in which a map is created using
previously digitized of scanned
information. This method of geocoding is
commonly called "heads-up" digitizing
because the attention of the user is
focused up on the screen, and not on a
digitizing tablet.

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Rotating Drum Flatbed Scanners

Spatial sampling schema

A B C D

E F G

Spatial sample designs:

(A) simple random sampling;
(B) systematic sampling;
(C) systematic sampling with local random allocation;
(D) systematic sampling with random variation in grid spacing;
(E) clustered sampling;
(F) transect sampling; and
(G) contour sampling.

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Common Data Input Errors

Dead end Leaking polygon Invalid polygon

sliver

Slivers Edge shift Attribute errors

Edge matching
 Joining map sheets
 Automated or manual procedures

Original two map sheets

Two sheets brought together Derived single sheet with

showing discontinuities edges adjusted

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Designing a Map

? “GOOD” Map
1.Cartographically Correct

2.Pleasing Colours

3.Soothing Distinct Patterns

4.Simple but effective lettering

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? “GOOD” Map
FULLTEXT01-Map visualization in ArcGIS, QGIS and MapInfo

http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:729183/FULLTEXT01.pdf

courses.washington.edu-gis250-lessons-map_layouts

https://courses.washington.edu/gis250/lessons/map_layouts/

Typical SOI TopoSheet

at 1:50000 scale

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Issues in Map Design:

•Cartographic design

•Colour theory and models

•Patterns

•Typography and lettering the map

Legend

Cartographic Design
• Design is creation.
- Objectives of map design.
- General reference map.
- Thematic map.
• Functional design.
- Unlimited options for organising the visual
character of the display.
- Most design choices are compromises.

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Design Process

• Draw heavily on imagination and creativity

(graphic ideation)

• Develop a specific graphic plan by analysing various

alternatives and weigh them within the limits of the
general plan

• Prepare detailed specifications for map construction

• Design prototypes

Perceptual Considerations
Graphic elements
- Point marks - position
- Line marks - direction and position
(1D array of points )
- Area marks - extent, direction and position
( 2-dimensional array of points )

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•Perceptual and Cognitive Limitations

•Symbol differences in a display must be perceptible to be of
use.
[ This is determined by two variables, namely just noticeable
difference (JND) and least practical difference (LPD).]

•JND is the smallest difference that can be reliably

perceived between symbols, sizes, colours, shapes,
etc.

•LPD is the smallest difference that can be produced

by the cartographic process.

Issues in Map Design:

•Cartographic design

•Colour theory and models

•Patterns

•Typography and lettering the map

Legend

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Digital Mapping
Systems

Dr. S. S. Gedam
CSRE, IITB

How is Digital Cartography

Different from GIS
• GIS: Input is mostly secondary data
source
• Digital cartography: Generates Primary
Information from Technologies of:
– Remote Sensing : Image Analysis
– GPS
– LIDAR
– Digital Photogrammetry
– SAR interferometry ..... …….?

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GIS

Web Based Mapping

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Limitations of Analog (Paper)

Maps
• Fixed scale
• Fixed extent
• Static view
• 2D product and hence limited capability
for 3D visualization
• Mapping Standards are producer
specific

Uses and IT to provide secured access to any data user

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In Conclusion
• Cartography is both an art and a science
• Maps are fundamental to GIS projects and
Hence Digital Cartography is Integral part of any
meaningful GIS
• Modern advances in cartography make it easy
to produce ‘good’ (and bad) maps
• Technologies of Remote Sensing, GPS, LIDAR,
SAR are positively influencing the Cartographic
workflow.
• Internet is a positive change in the content and
techniques of GIS-based cartography (Google
Earth, Bhuvan )

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Digital Map Data Analysis

ArcMap

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Let’s Know what you know about Mapping

On a A4 size blank paper, draw a map that will Guide Your Friend to Reach
your home from the ‘Bus Station’ or ‘Railway Station’ ( which ever is relevant to
your present location). Google Pin Location is NOT the OPTION- we will try to
understand how this pin is dropped in Google navigator through cartographic
Processes.
Name: Roll No: As far as possible
the Map you draw
should be self
explanatory with
minimal Lexical
/Text instructions

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OGC Standards •KML

•LandInfra/InfraGML
•3D Tiles •LAS
•3dP •Location Services (OpenLS)
•Moving Features
•ARML2.0 •NetCDF
•Cat: ebRIM App Profile: Earth Observation Products •Observations and Measurements
•Catalogue Service •OGC API - Features
•Open GeoSMS
•CDB •OpenMI
•CityGML •OpenSearch for EO
•Coordinate Transformation •OpenSearch Geo
•Ordering Services Framework for Earth Observation Products
•EO-GeoJSON •OWS Context
•Filter Encoding •OWS Security
•GML in JPEG 2000 •PipelineML
•PubSub
•GeoAPI •PUCK
•GeoPackage •SWE Common Data Model
•GeoSciML •SWE Service Model
•Sensor Model Language
•GeoSPARQL •Sensor Observation Service
•Geography Markup Language •Sensor Planning Service
•GeoRSS •SensorThings
•Semantic Sensor Network (SSN)
•Geospatial eXtensible Access Control •Symbology Core
Markup Language (GeoXACML) •Simple Features
•Geospatial User Feedback (GUF) •Simple Features CORBA
•Simple Features OLE/COM
•GeoTiff •Simple Features SQL
•GroundwaterML •Styled Layer Descriptor
•HDF5 •Symbology Encoding
•Table Joining Service
•I3S •Time Ontology in OWL
•IndoorGML •TimeseriesML (tsml)
•S •Two Dimensional Tile Matrix Set
•WaterML
•Web Coverage Processing Service
•Web Coverage Service
•Web Feature Service
https://www.ogc.org/docs/is •Web Map Context
•Web Map Service
•Web Map Tile Service
•Web Processing Service
•Web Service Common
•WKT CR

Typical
Example of
End Sem
QP

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Digital Map
Compositions

Dr. S. S. Gedam
CSRE, IITB

Guiding Factors

• How is this map going to be used?

• Will the map have a single theme or many?
• Is this a single map, or is it part of a series of similar
maps?
• Who is the intended audience? What is the level of their
knowledge about the subject matter?
• Will it remain in digital form and be viewed on the
computer screen or will it be printed?
• If it is going to be printed, how big will it be? Will it be
printed in color or black and white?
• Are there map guidelines already set up by your
organization?

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General Guide Lines

• A format (layout) should be developed for the series, so that all
the maps produced have the same style.
• The colors used should be chosen carefully, since the maps are
printed in color.
• Political boundaries might need to be included, since they
influence the types of actions that can be taken in each deforested
area.
• The typeface size and style to be used for titles, captions, and
labels have to be larger than for maps printed on 8.5” × 11.0”
sheets. The type styles selected should be the same for all maps.
• Select symbols that are widely recognized, and make sure they
are all explained in a legend.
• Cultural features (roads, urban centers, etc.) may be added for
locational reference.
• Include a statement about the accuracy of each map, since these
maps may be used in very high-level decisions.

Arranging map elements

• Choose a suitable map area !
• Preferred arrangements
–Legend to the right of (or below) the map area
–Title above the map area or legend
–Scale indicator below the map area
–Scale and north indicators as optical counter-
points
–Secondary elements never too big!
• Overall impression
–Use of paper or screen „real estate“
–Figure/ground contrasts
–Optical balances
–Frames need to be delicate

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Elements of Map
• frame • names of authors
• border • name of editor
• title • data sources
• key to symbols • copyrights
• scale • production date
• projection and datum • temporal reference of
• Legend data
• north arrow • definition of terms

Layout
• Spatial reference: scale, north, coordinates
• Arranging map elements
• Borders

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Legend In Maps

• Legend
–Purpose
–Function
–Design requirements
–Design elements
• Back to data integration

Issues
• Which elements are used when?
• What do they contain?
• What is their form?
• How should they be arranged?

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Criteria
• Does the element contribute to
communication?
• In what form does it contribute most?
• Find the balance between multiple design
elements

General rules
• Mandatory design elements:
–Title
–Legend
–Source
–North arrow
–Scale
• Absolute necessities:
–Title
–Legend
–Source
• Judge in each case:
–North arrow
–Scale

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Purpose of the legend

• To design the map
–Decide on contents and symbols
–As part of editorial plan
• To help understand the information in the map
–Explain symbols
• all point, line, and area symbols need to be explained!
–Additional information
• Data sources
• Temporal reference
• Attribute definitions
• Production (authors, date, methods)
• More than a key to symbols!
–A two-way translation device
–The „ontology of the map“

Function of the legend

• That which is “to be read”
–to recognize and distinguish the graphical elements
–to match the graphical elements to their
explanations
–to interpret the map
• Explains the topic and message of the map
• Adapted to map purpose and users
• Role of legend changes in digital maps
–Dynamic possibilities (pop-up, context-sensitive
etc.)
–analogy to software help

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Design requirements for

legends
• Legend itself is an information product !
–Clarity above all !
–Parts constitute a whole
–Relationships to map contents and layout
• Hierarchical structure
–Groups for feature types, other parts
• Values in map comparable to values in legend
• Observe minimal size of symbols
• No abbreviations!
• No title (“Legend”)

Special attribute requirements

• qualitative (nominal) attributes
–Explain all values
• ordinal attributes
–Explain all values
–Order bottom-up or left-right
• quantitative attributes
–Min. 3 values
–for example, smalles, medium, largest

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Design elements of legends (1)

• Mandatory
–symbols
–scale
–map projection
–data sources
–temporal reference of data
–production date
–copyrights

Design elements of legends (2)

• Optional
–Names of authors, researchers, editors
–Processing details
–Thematic reference (definitions)

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Lettering
• Purpose
• Function
• Style
• Automation

Purpose of map lettering

• Explains the theme and representation
–Map title: theme, space, time
–Legend (see lecture 10)
• Establishes spatial reference
–Geographic names
–Coordinate grids
• Always in a secondary role!
–Use text sparingly
–Primary elements are the map graphics
–Avoid the obvious („title“, „legend“ etc.)

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Functions of lettering
Treat text as symbol for
• Labeling of geographic names
• Kinds and hierarchies of object types
–for cities, roads, rivers
–through a systematic use of font, size,
capitalization, small caps, color, lightness, style etc.
• Locations
–Positioning (for points)
–Extent (for lines and areas)

Spelling
• Basic rules
–Geographic names in areas with latin
alphabets are labeled in their official form,
including all diacritical marks (^, ´, `).
• Examples: Bruxelles, Milano, žadzbork
–Geographic names in areas with non-latin
alphabets are transliterated or transcribed
• Transliteration: letter for letter
• Transcription: sound for sound, e.g., Beijing
• Spelling has political significance

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Style rules
• Only single words or short expressions
• Tied to map objects
• Not only horizontal
–direction: 0...180
–follow curved lines
• Observe figure-ground relationships
• easy to read and understand

Style criteria (1)

Legibility is the main criterion
• Simple fonts
–Mumbai vs. Mumbai
• Not too wide, not too narrow
–Mumbai vs. M u m b a i
• Capitals only rarely
Mumbai vs. MUMBAI
• Bold only rarely
Mumbai vs. Mumbai

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Style criteria (2)

• clear design concept, changing one variable
only
e.g., italics: Mumbai, Schoools vs.
Mumbai, Schools

• Only few fonts (e.g., Arial or Times)

• Only few sizes and font styles (italics, bold etc.)

• Each variation of style needs to carry a

message!

Name placement
• Point objects
–Right before left
–Above before below
• Linear objects
–Appropriate offset
–Appropriate location along line
–Above before below
• Areal objects
–Within
–Centered
–Match extent

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MAP SCALE
• Attribute data
–Measurement Scales
–Classification
• Geometric data

Attributes
• Maps should answer questions
• Typical questions
–How much? How many?
–Where? When?
–Which?
–Why?
• Answers from measured attributes
–quality: names
–count: number, cost
–spatial: length, direction, area, volume
–temporal: date, duration
–physical: weight, wind force, energy
–derived: water quality,

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Data
• Data are values assigned to attributes
–length = 42 m
–number of inhabitants = 280,000
• Taken from scales
• Assigned by measuring
• Measurement scales are fundamental to
all science
–names, adjectives, numbers

Measurement Scales
• 4 levels
–Nominal
–Ordinal
–Interval
–Rational

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Nominal Scale
• Examples
–administrative regions: countries, states, counties,
towns
–land use classes: urban, agricultural, ...
–soil types
• The result of a classification
–only names
–not ordered!
–operation: comparison for equality (=)
• Warning
Nominal scale is often called „qualitative“ (in
cartography), though quality is typically ordered

Ordinal Scale
• Examples
–water quality
–earthquake magnitudes
–degree of agreement in surveys
• The result of an ordering
–values can be uniquely ordered
–order relation (< or <=)
–no information on differences
• Warning
numbering („on a scale from 1 to 5“) does not
always allow for computations

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Interval Scale
• Examples
–temperatures in Celsius or Fahrenheit
–calendar dates
• The result of arranging values on a scale
–differences can be determined
–quantitative (numbers)
–no sums or quotients
• 20 degrees Celsius is not „twice as warm“ as 10 degrees
• Warning
zero and units are a matter of convention

Ratio Scale
• Examples
–Population numbers
–Terrain heights
• The result of a quantification
–absolute values
–ratios can be computed
–many different scales (counts, statistical, spatial,
physical etc.)
• Warning
units (if any) are a matter of convention

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Some comments on Scales

• Higher scales contain lower ones
–Ratio scales are also interval, ordered, and
nominal
–Interval scales are also ordered and nominal
–Ordered scales are also nominal
• The 4 scale types are necessary, but not
sufficient
• It is always important to consider the
specific properties of attributes

Scales Transformations
• Within a scale
–possible without information loss
–e.g. Celsius to Fahrenheit (and back)
• From higher to lower scale
–possible with information loss: abstraction
–often done in mapping: (re)classification
–e.g. from 16 preference classes to 5
• From lower to higher scale
–not possible without additional information
–e.g. Celsius to Kelvin, Bundesländer to preference
order

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Which scale?
• Vote percentages of a party in elections
• Geological age
• Population numbers
• Road class
• Grape sorts
• Postal codes
• Form of government (monarchy, republic,
dictatorship)
• Water quality
• Big Mac Index

Software for Digital Mapping

• ARCGIS (ESRI, USA)
• MAPINFO (Intergraph)
• Autodesk Map (Autodesk)
• ERDAS
• ILWIS

• ……….
• QGIS (Open Source)
• GRASS (Open Source)

• GRAM++

• ……..

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GOOD Luck for the End-Sem

• In these difficult time,Take care of self and
others in the Family.
• Follow the Mask and Social distancing Norms
• Get Vaccinated ASAP.
• Respect the HONOR CODE for the EndSem
Exam. Considering the hard times, I will try not
to fail anybody, irrespective of your score,
provided, you have complete mandatory
requirements for the course (Attended Mid and
EndSem)

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