Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater Volume 2

WHO GUIDELINES FOR THE
SAFE USE OF WASTEWATER ,

EXCRETA AND GREYWATER
VOLUME II
WASTEWATER USE IN AGRICULTURE
GUIDELINES FOR THE SAFE USE OF
WASTEWATER, EXCRETA AND GREYWATER
Volume 2
Wastewater use in agriculture
WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater / World
Health Organization.
v. 1. Policy and regulatory aspects — v. 2. Wastewater use in agriculture

— v. 3. Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture — v. 4. Excreta and
greywater use in agriculture.
1. Water supply. 2. Water supply - legislation. 3. Agriculture. 4. Aquaculture.

5. Sewage. 6. Wastewater treatment plants. 7. Guidelines. I. World Health
Organization. II. Title: Safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater. III.
Title: Policy and regulatory aspects. IV. Title: Wastewater use in agriculture.
V. Title: Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture. VI. Title: Excreta and
ISBN 92 4 154686 7 (set) (NLM classification: WA 675)

ISBN 92 4 154682 4 (v. 1)
ISBN 92 4 154683 2 (v. 2)
ISBN 92 4 154684 0 (v. 3)
ISBN 92 4 154685 9 (v. 4)
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Printed in France.
ii
CONTENTS
List of acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vi

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix
Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1.1 Objectives and general considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1.2 Target audience, definitions and scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
1.3 Driving forces behind increasing wastewater use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3.1 Increasing water scarcity and stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3.2 Increasing population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3.3 Wastewater as a resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.3.4 The Millennium Development Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.4 Organization of this Guidelines document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
2. The Stockholm Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

2.1 A harmonized approach to risk assessment/management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
2.2 Assessment of environmental exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
2.3 Assessment of health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
2.4 Tolerable health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
2.5 Health-based targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
2.6 Risk management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
2.7 Public health status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
2.7.1 Excreta-related diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
2.7.2 Schistosomiasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
2 7.3 Vector-borne diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
2.7.4 Measuring public health status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3. Assessment of health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

3.1 Microbial analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
3.1.1 Survival of pathogens in soil and on crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.2 Epidemiological evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
3.2.1 Risks to consumers of crops eaten uncooked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
3.2.2 Risks to agricultural workers and their families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
3.2.3 Risks to local communities from sprinkler irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . .45
3.2.4 Overall results for farming families and local communities . . . . . . .46
3.3 Quantitative microbial risk analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
3.4 Emerging issues: infectious diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
3.5 Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
3.5.1 Health impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
3.5.2 Assessing the risks from chemical contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
3.5.3 Emerging issues: chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
4. Health-based targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

4.1 Tolerable burden of disease and health-based targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
4.1.1 Step 1: Tolerable risk of infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
4.1.2 Step 2: QMRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.1.3 Step 3: Required pathogen reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.1.4 Step 4: Health-based protection measures to achieve required
pathogen reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
iii
Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater
4.1.5 Step 5: Verification monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

4.1.6 Example derivation of microbial performance targets . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.2 Microbial reduction targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
4.2.1 Unrestricted irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
4.2.2 Restricted irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.2.3 Localized irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.3 Verification monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.3.1 Wastewater treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.3.2 Other health protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.4 Food exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .–6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5 National standards: variations from ≤10 DALY per person per year . . . .71
4.6 Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.6.1 Health-based targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.6.2 Physicochemical quality of treated wastewaters for plant growth
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
5. Health protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

5.1 Crop restriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
5.2 Wastewater application techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
5.2.1 Flood and furrow irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
5.2.2 Spray and sprinkler irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
5.2.3 Localized irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
5.2.4 Cessation of irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
5.3 Pathogen die-off before consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
5.4 Food preparation measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
5.5 Human exposure control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
5.5.1 Fieldworkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
5.5.2 Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
5.5.3 Chemotherapy and immunization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
5.6 Wastewater treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
5.6.1 Low-rate biological systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
5.6.2 High-rate processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
5.7 Raw wastewater use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
6. Monitoring and system assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93

6.1 Monitoring functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
6.2 System assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
6.3 Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
6.4 Operational monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
6.5 Verification monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
6.6 Small systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
6.7 Other types of monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
6.7.1 Food inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
6.7.2 Public health surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
7. Sociocultural aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101

7.1 Cultural and religious beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
7.2 Public perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
7.2.1 Public acceptance of wastewater use schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
8. Environmental aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107

8.1 Components of wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
8.1.1 Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
8.1.2 Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
iv
Volume 2: Wastewater use in agriculture
8.1.3 Heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

8.1.4 Toxic organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
8.1.5 Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
8.1.6 Organic matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
8.1.7 Suspended solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
8.1.8 Acids and bases (pH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
8.2 Environmental effects through the agricultural chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
8.2.1 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
8.2.2 Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
8.2.3 Surface water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
8.3 Management strategies for reducing environmental impacts . . . . . . . . . .126
9. Economic and financial considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129

9.1 Economic feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
9.1.1 Cost–benefit analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
9.1.2 Costs and benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
9.1.3 Multiple objective decision-making processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
9.2 Financial feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
9.3 Market feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
10. Policy aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139

10.1 Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
10.1.1 International policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
10.1.2 National wastewater use policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
10.1.3 Wastewater in integrated water resources management . . . . . . . . .141
10.2 Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
10.2.1 Institutional roles and responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
10.2.2 Rights of access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
10.2.3 Land tenure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
10.2.4 Public health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
10.3 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
10.4 Developing a national policy framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
10.4.1 Defining objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
10.4.2 Assessment of policy environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
10.4.3 Developing national approaches based on the WHO Guidelines .148
10.4.4 Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
11. Planning and implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151

11.1 Reporting and communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
11.2 Interaction with community and consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
11.3 Use of data and information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
11.4 Project planning criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
11.4.1 Support services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
11.4.2 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Annex 1: Good irrigation practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177

Annex 2: Summary of impacts of heavy metals and trace elements
associated with wastewater irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
Annex 3: Health impact assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Annex 4: Glossary of terms used in the Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
v
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND
ABBREVIATIONS
vi
PREFACE
vii
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ix
x
xi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
xiii
xiv
xv
xvi
Log10 A B C D E F G H
pathogen Root Leaf
reduction 7
Labour intensive
W
Highly mechanized
6
W
5 DO DIL
4 DO DIH
T SSI
3
2 T T T
T T
1 T
0 T
Unrestricted irrigation Restricted irrigation
T = Treatment DO = Die-off W = Washing of produce

DI = Drip irrigation (H = High crops; L = Low crops) SSI = Subsurface irrigation
xvii
xviii
xix
xx
xxi
xxii
xxiii
1
INTRODUCTION
1
2
3
Population
(billions)
8 Population
without
7
water
6 scarcity
4 Population
with water
3 scarcity
4
2
2.8
1
0 0.46
1995 2025 2050 Year
4
5
6
1. Introduction
Guidelines
4. Health-based 7. Sociocultural
targets aspects
2. Stockholm
Framework 5. Health protection 8. Environmental
measures aspects
3. Assessment of
health risk 6. Monitoring 9. Economic and
and system financial
assessment considerations
Supporting Other
evidence information
10. Policy aspects
11. Planning and

implementation
7
2
THE STOCKHOLM FRAMEWORK
Health-based
targets
Basic control
approaches
Tolerable
health risk
Water/waste Other management

quality objectives objectives
Define measures and interventions Assess

(requirements, specifications) based environmental Assessment of
exposure health risk
Health risk management
on objectives
Define key risk points and audit

procedures for overall system
effectiveness
Define analytical verifications Public health

(process, public health) status
9
10
Table 2.1 (continued)
11
12
(continued)
13
14
15
16
Hazard Hazard Hazard
Treatment Treatment Treatment
Application of wastes Personal protective Access to safe

- allowing die-off equipment drinking-water and
periods sanitation for local
Access to safe communities
Produce restriction drinking-water and
sanitation near Restrict public
Control of trematode facilities access to ponds
intermediate hosts
Control of vectors Control of vectors
Prevention of cross- and intermediate and intermediate
contamination hosts hosts
Post-harvest Personal hygiene Vector barriers,

processing repellents,
prophylactics
Food hygiene
Cooking food
Consumer Workers and Local

families communities
17
18
19
20
21
22
3
ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH RISK
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
(continued)
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
4
HEALTH-BASED TARGETS
59
60
61
62
Box 4.1 (continued)
63
64
Log10 A B C D E F G H
pathogen Root Leaf
reduction 7
Labour intensive
W
Highly mechanized
6
W
5 DO DIL
4 DO DIH
T SSI
3
2 T T T
T T
1 T
0 T
Unrestricted irrigation Restricted irrigation
T = Treatment DO = Die-off W = Washing of produce

DI = Drip irrigation (H = High crops; L = Low crops) SSI = Subsurface irrigation
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
5
HEALTH PROTECTION MEASURES
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
Box 5.1 (continued)
86
87
88
89
90
91
6
MONITORING AND SYSTEM
ASSESSMENT
93
94
Assemble the team to prepare the risk management plan
Document and describe the system
Undertake a hazard assessment and risk

characterization to identify and understand how risks
can be managed in the system
Assess the existing or proposed system (including a

description of the system and a flow diagram)
Identify control measures —

the means by which risks can be controlled
Define monitoring of control measures —

what limits define acceptable performance and how
these are monitored
Establish procedures to verify that the risk

management plan is working effectively and will meet
the health-based targets
Develop supporting programmes (e.g. training, hygienic

practices, standard operating procedures, upgrade and
improvement, research and development, etc.)
Prepare management procedures (including corrective

actions) for normal and incident conditions
Establish documentation and communication

procedures
95
96
97
98
99
100
7
SOCIOCULTURAL ASPECTS
101
102
103
100.0
80.0
% surveyed
60.0 Agree
40.0 Not sure
20.0 Disagree
0.0
g n n ng on ry r e
tin tio tio oi arg
h ga ga s hi g ati u nd e rv ch
f ig ir ri
ir ri wa
ir r i L a e s r e
Fi
re r lr r
lf wn Ca ral na ate
Go La u l tu a t io d w
n
ric cre ou
Ag Re Gr
104
Specific users
General survey
survey
Identification and evaluation Plan

Plan of study Project implentation
of alternatives selection
Public notification/ Public Customer-specific Public notification/ Customer-specific

involvement meetings workshops involvement information programme
105
8
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
Evaporation
Aquatic
plants
Storage dam Evaporation

Aquaculture
Industrial
Sewage discharges
Wastewater treatment plant
(in developing countries) Aquatic
plants
Infiltration
River
Sewerage system
Sprinklers
Irrigation channels Lake
Irrigation
drainage
Soil
(retains metals, organic matter and phosphorus)
Compounds and water Cattle consuming
absorption by plants irrigated crops
Infiltration
Consumer
Crops
Water + salts Cattle
Water
Aquifer
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
(continued)
117
(continued)
118
(continued)
119
(continued)
120
121
122
123
Water balance in Mexico City and the Mezquital Valley
29 m3/s from groundwater

and surface water from 12 m3/s of rainwater and 48 m3/s of
basins requiring pumping municipal wastewater
1200 m from 300 km
62 m3/s Mexico City
water supply
8 m3/s urban reuse
52 m3/s of
wastewater
25 m3/s of natural
33 m3/s from
groundwater
recharge
100 m
Mexico City aquifer
25 m3/s of wastewater Mezquital Valley aquifer

infiltration
70 km
124
Box 8.3 (continued)
125
126
127
128
9
ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL
CONSIDERATIONS
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
10
POLICY ASPECTS
International National Local
Policy Legislation Institutional Regulation

framework application
139
140
141
Box 10.1 (continued)
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
11
PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION
151
152
153
154
Health
Technical Economic
feasibility feasibility
Sustainable Social impact

Institutional and public
feasibility project
planning perception
Market Financial
feasibility feasibility
Environmental
impact
155
156
157
158
REFERENCES
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
Annex 1
Good irrigation practice
177
178
179
Table A1.2 (continued)
180
181
182
183
Annex 2
Summary of impacts of heavy metals
and trace elements associated with
wastewater irrigation
185
186
187
188
Annex 3
Health impact assessment
Procedures Methods
Apply screening criteria to Profiling of communities

select project or policy
Collect evidence
Establish steering group Interview stakeholders and
from previous
key informants reports
Agree scope and terms of
reference for assessment Identify health determinants
affected
Select assessor
Conduct assessment Assess evidence
Appraise the assessment Establish priority impacts
Negotiate favoured options

Recommend and justify
Implement and monitor options for action
Evaluate and document
189
190
Annex 4
Glossary of terms used in the
Guidelines
191
192
193
194
195
196
The third edition of the WHO Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater,
excreta and greywater has been extensively updated to take account of
new scientific evidence and contemporary approaches to risk management.
The revised Guidelines reflect a strong focus on disease prevention and
public health principles.
This new edition responds to a growing demand from WHO Member

States for guidance on the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater
in agriculture and aquaculture. Its target audience includes environmental
and public health scientists, researchers, engineers, policy-makers and
those responsible for developing standards and regulations.
The Guidelines are presented in four separate volumes: Volume 1: Policy

and regulatory aspects; Volume 2:Wastewater use in agriculture; Volume 3:
Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture; and Volume 4: Excreta and
Over the past decade, wastewater has become a significant resource for
agricultural production in its own right. Volume 2 of the Guidelines
explains requirements to promote safe use concepts and practices, including
health-based targets and minimum procedures. It also covers a substantive
revision of approaches to ensuring the microbial safety of wastewater used in
agriculture. It introduces health impact assessment of new wastewater projects.
ISBN 92 4 154683 2

Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater Volume 2

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WHO GUIDELINES FOR THE

SAFE USE OF WASTEWATER ,

v. 1. Policy and regulatory aspects — v. 2. Wastewater use in agriculture

1. Water supply. 2. Water supply - legislation. 3. Agriculture. 4. Aquaculture.

ISBN 92 4 154686 7 (set) (NLM classification: WA 675)

© World Health Organization 2006

List of acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vi

Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii

2. The Stockholm Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

3. Assessment of health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

4. Health-based targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

4.1.5 Step 5: Verification monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

5. Health protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

6. Monitoring and system assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93

7. Sociocultural aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101

8. Environmental aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107

8.1.3 Heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

9. Economic and financial considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129

10. Policy aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139

11. Planning and implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151

Annex 1: Good irrigation practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177

T = Treatment DO = Die-off W = Washing of produce

10. Policy aspects

11. Planning and

Water/waste Other management

Define measures and interventions Assess

Define key risk points and audit

Define analytical verifications Public health

Table 2.1 (continued)

Table 2.2 (continued)

Hazard Hazard Hazard

Treatment Treatment Treatment

Application of wastes Personal protective Access to safe

Post-harvest Personal hygiene Vector barriers,

Consumer Workers and Local

Table 2.5 (continued)

Table 3.10 (continued)

Table 3.11 (continued)

Table 3.12 (continued)

Table 3.12 (continued)

Table 3.13 (continued)

Box 4.1 (continued)

T = Treatment DO = Die-off W = Washing of produce

Table 4.7 (continued)

Table 5.3 (continued)

Table 5.3 (continued)

Box 5.1 (continued)

Assemble the team to prepare the risk management plan

Document and describe the system

Undertake a hazard assessment and risk

Assess the existing or proposed system (including a

Identify control measures —

Define monitoring of control measures —

Establish procedures to verify that the risk

Develop supporting programmes (e.g. training, hygienic

Prepare management procedures (including corrective

Establish documentation and communication

Table 6.2 (continued)

40.0 Not sure

Identification and evaluation Plan

Public notification/ Public Customer-specific Public notification/ Customer-specific

Storage dam Evaporation

Table 8.1 (continued)

Table 8.1 (continued)