tmo

ffi
DAVID HARRIS
Contents
Introduction 6 Bastard Capitals 7I
The Development of Western Script I Cadels 80
Script Timeline 12
Getting Started 14 IrerreN & HUmANIST Scnrprs
Rotunda 84
RoivrnN & LerE Romex Scnlprs Rotunda Capitals I I
Rustic Capitals 16 Humanist Minuscule 90
Square Capitals 20 Italic 94
Uncial & Artifical Uncial 21 Humanist & Italic Capitals 98
Italic Swash Capitals 100
INsuren & Nauoxer ScnIPTS

Insular Majuscule 2I Posr-RENATssANCE Scnlprs

Insular Minuscule 31 Copperplate 102

Copperplate Capitals 106
CenouNr & Eenrv GorsIc Scntprs
Caroline Minuscule 38 RorvrnN & LarE RomeN Scntprs
FoundationalHand 42 Imperial Capitals 108
Early Gothic 46
Script Reference Chart 120

GorHrc Scnrprs Glossary 122

Textura Quadrata 50 Bibliography 124
Textura Prescisus 54 Index & Acknowledgments 125
Gothic Capitals & Versals 5 8
Lombardic Capitals 62
Bastard Secretary 66
BAtarde 70
Fraktur & Schwabacher 74
INraooucrroN

Introduction
Boor PRoDUCTToN 2,000 YEARS, the western Latin alphabet
The production of a Eo*
'has
manuscript book is I developed and been modifted by a vast
a complex business,
requiring the skills of range of social and technological changes,
numerous craftsmen.
providing a rich and varied resource for the
modern calligrapher to quarry. This book
charts that development, presenting scripts
in both historical and practical contexts.
Calligraphers of all levels will be able to " MaGNIFYING GLASS

explore the origins of each script and A magnifying glass or

eyeglass is a valuable aid to
understand anew the construction of examining the letterforms
in historical manuscripts
the 26letters that we use every duy. shown in this book.

G nNna,qttr, L.tr tN - BASED scripts fall Ascender line Bracketed serf Capital line

into two categories: formal - the

|
Minuscule Majuscule (capital
scripts used as the instrument of '"""'"'| '**'L (lowercase , Ear
letter)
letter, uppercase
letter)

l-4r
authority; and informal - the cursive I

or quickly written scripts used for

Bowl (bow,
everyday transactions. History
curved stroke)
repeatedly shows formal scripts
degenerating into cursive forms,
which are, in turn, upgraded, finally
achieving formal status as new hands
in their own right. The pages of
historical analysis in this book chart
the rise, fall, and revival of these
ru4
L,*r rr"*.1 | "'r - Inter-
letter
sPace
Horizontal
Joo,
Stem
(main stroke)
Inner-
letter
sPace

Interlinear space

hands, and explain the emergence

of other significant scripts.
Practical advice ,leadltne

Following the historical study of

ff'::i"''
each script is a practical guide to Minim
the construction of the letters in height
?en angle
that hand. A complete alphabet is
included, showing the separate strokes
needed to produce each letter, and
indicating th. probable sequence
of these strokes. To the left of this
alphabet, the chief characteristics Descender line

of the script are described and LErrrR ANAToMY

demonstrated in a separate panel.
The appearance of a script is
influenced by a range of practical
factors, including the cut of the nib
used to write it. Full information
about tools is given for each script.
In order to identify or construct scripts, it is
essential to become familiar with the vocabulary
of calligraphy. Unfortunately, there is no agreed
standard nomenclature, so terms used in this
book are those most commonly favored by
calli graphers and p aleo graphers. Alternative
terms, including those used by typographe$,
are shown here in brackets. For example, the
headline is known to some calligraphers as
the "waistline" and to rypographers as the
"x-line." Aithough these letters represent
only a few characters, the terms used to
describe their components are applicable
to all the letters in the alphabet. A full
glossary of the calligraphic terms used in
this book is also included (pp. 122-12j).

This angle indicates the degree oJ
Jorward lean ofthe letter; in this
case, the angle is close to 10o
The minim height oJ
this f isJour pen widths
LgrrEn- HEIGHT AND pEN ANGLE
The height of a letter is calculated
in pen widths, shown in this book
to the left of the letter in the form
of a "ladder." Each script is drawn
with the pen held at one particular
angle. The figures used to indicate
this angle refer to degrees to the
horizontal. Where relevant, the
approximate angle of the forward
lean of a letter is also given. This is
measured in degrees to the vertical.
SrRoxe sEeuENCE
A recommended sequence of strokes is given
for all 26 letters of each script. The use of
transparent colors makes it clear where
stroke crosses or overlaps with another.
Thejrst letter in the sequence
shows the model that you should
- in this example, a Caroline
Jollow
Minusculef (pp. ao-al)
The sensitivity oJ a quill
pen makes it an ideal tool
Jor drawing hairlines
INraooucrroN
i*roq Model scripts
The search for a definitive model
for any particular hand is virtually
The height ofthe impossible. Within each script there
ascender is about
three pen widths
are endless variations, ranging from
the excessively formal to the almost
The pen is held at
indecipherable. Therefore the scripts
an angle oJ 10"
to the hofizontal included in the practical pages of
this book are actually a synthesis of
This letter is written
with a "slanted" pen various different styles, and should
(square-cut nib) be used to prompt your own
personal redefinition of the hands.
Manuscript sources
By definition, a script is a system
of handwritten characters, and the
majority of the scripts included in this
book come flom manuscript sources.
a
An arrowhead Where appropriate, an enlargement
indicates where the
strokejnishes and of a section from an important
the pen is $ted manuscript is shown, often revealing
the basic ductus of the script under
scrutiny and giving invaluable clues
to the construction of letterforms.
Imperial Capitals
One significant script included in this
book must be regarded separately
from the rest - the Roman Imperial
Capital. A product of the brush and
not the pen, it was, until recently,
The second stroke creates
not accepted as a script at all. Due
The black anow indicates the ascender oJthe letter to its complexity and importance to
the pr ogress oJ the Jirst andjnally, the crossbat is
modern calligraphy and typography,
sftoke; on reaching the added with a third stroke
baseline, the pen is pushed it is explored in depth in a section
back over thejrst stroke at the end of the book. For the first
and upward
time, the origins and structure of
'Wrl.rrrNc all25 letters are demonstrated in an
rools
Some materials and implements are more easily accessible way (pp. 105-1 19).
suitable for an accurate representation of a script LeJt-handed work
than others. For instance, most scribes writing
before 1500 used either parchment or vellum,
The step-by-step letters demonstrated
which remain to this day two of the finest in this book are the work of a right-
writing surfaces. Frequently, the writing handed calligrapher. Left-handed
implement is of equal importance. For a
Bntarde letter (left), it would be difficult to calligraphers can follow the same
achieve the very fine lines with any other angles and stroke sequences, but
implement rhan a sharply cut quill. Advice
on the selection of surfaces and writing tools might find it useful to adjust their
is given in "Geming Starred" (pp. 1a-l5). normal writing position to the
"underarm" position: tuck the arm
The quill has been shorn oJ
most oJ its barbs, making it inwards, turn the hand to the left,
easier to handle
and shift the paper dor,vn to the right.
Nibs cut obliquely from top right to
bottom left can also be very useful.
THE DETELIP/tIENT oF WESTLRN ScRtPT

The Develnpment of Western ScriPt

rfinr FIRST ALPHABET evolved in Phoenicia in about 1200 sC.
I This was adapted iq the eighth century rc by the Greeks,
whose letterforms were borrowed by the Etruscans and, in
turn, by the Romans. AII subsequent Western scripts lrave
.lrolr"d from Roman originals. The scripts in this book are
grouped in six categories: Roman and Late Roman Scripts
(pp I6-27, 108-1 19),Insular and National Scripts (pp. 28-j7),
iuroline and Early Gothic Scripts (pp. 3s-19), Gothic Scripts
(pp. 50-.8 3),Italian and Humanist scriptr (pp. and
!4-101),
Post-Renaissance Scripts (pp. 102-107).The duration of
each script is shown in a timeline (pp. 12-13) -

PnOg,qgrY the most important event
in the history of Western script was
the Roman adoption of the Etruscan
alphabet. By the first century nc, the
Romans had developed several scripts.
ErRuscaN LETTERS
These letters have been written in Oscan,
an ancient Italian language derived from
Etruscan. In addition to the writing system,
almost every aspect of Etruscan culture was
adopted by the Romans, including the legal
and military systems.
.in@dr:r. I ,.+atrq:,r

One was a quickly penned, cursive This terra-cotta tablet, oJ a type used to matk property
script used for correspondence, and land, shows clearly recognizable letterforms, such
as this character, which resembles an overturned E rst::lffr!,i!r41rrr.:t

scratched onto a wax tablet or written

with a reed pen on PaP)T us. This hand
was influential in the development of
the minuscule letter, including the
Half Uncial (pp. jS-39). Another
THs LartN ALPHABET
This inscription from the base of the Trajan
Column, Rome, is one of the finest surviving
examples of Imperial Capitals (pp. 108-109). slil$a+.Irr$ifrrri

The oldest Latin alphabet contained 21

key script was the Rustic CaPital, characters, as opposed to the Etruscan 20. By
used in manuscript, signwritten, late Roman times, the Latin alphabet had 23
characters, the two additional characters - Y and .
and inscribed forms (pp. 16-17).
"tii+lF'
, ...,..i." ffi.-]s$qqBtsq
Z - havtngbeen taken from the Greek Upsilon +:rsrqry'.
Imperial Capitals andZeta. A1l of these characters have survived ,i ..J!4wssfffi$fF
for modern use, with the addition in medieval
The third Roman hand produced bY times of lettersJ U, and W.
the first century BC, now known as
the Imperial Capital, was used in both I
l":'
i

stone-carved and brush-drawn form

1

",.

(pp. 108-109). More than 2,000 years

later, the letters of the script provide
the basis of our modern caPitals.
By the fourth century, the Square i
$.

Capital, a modified deluxe bookhand,

had also emerged (pp.20-21).
Another important scriPt that had :'
its origins during the Roman period
.lr't

was the Uncial (pp. 2a-25). Similar :

..,
.ta
I
't

in form to the Greek Uncial that

preceded it, this was develoPed for
use by the early Christian Church-
 Trur Dr,vrLopMEtnr or WnsrrRl,r ScRrpr

Cnazu-puacNE AND ArcurN Insular and National scripts

In many ways, the eighth-century Emperor Charlemagne
modeled himself and his court on his Roman forebears.
After the demise of the western
Roman influence in the Frankish Empire was particularly Roman Empire in the fifth century,
important in the areas of learning and scholarship, in
numerous hands developed in the
which the emperor was aided by a prominent monk from
York named Alcuin. LJnder Alcuin's abbotship frorn 796- kingdoms carved out of the remains
804, the great scriptorium at Tours, France, was founded.
of the Empire. Irish scripts, such as the
Here, the Caroline Minuscule was created (pp. 38-39).
Insular Majuscule (pp. 28-i1), derived
from Uncial and Half Uncial forms,
are now known as "insular" scripts.
Elsewhere in Europe, national scripts
included the Visigothic in Spain and
Thc rottndcJ rip of thc
penknili \rt{lBCts thor it
the Merovingian in France.
nos .r1'o u:cdJor \coring The most important means of
/incs on rhc pagc
I communication between different
I
nations was the Christian Church,
.,,,,,

l: ,;;r' o, . ,,
l.
which kept the torch of literacy and
n,G
\"1
learning alive. Irish monks formed
many monastic centers in Scotland and

P
l

northern England, as well as in Luxeuil

and Corbie in France, and Bobbio in
critical
Italy. Meanwhile, monks from Rome
The scribe casts a eye over the The production oJbook covers was T'he parchment is stretched on d qooLlen
newly sharpened nib oJ the quill a sepatate craJt requiring the skills Jrame anrl scraped u,ith a curvetl kniJe
entered southern England and were
oJ a team oJ workers responsible for the widespread
conversion to Christianity there.
+ +l"c'' TtrE pRopucrroN tI'ilr 'r
ui] oF Caroline and Early Gothic scripts
, '.: OF MANUSCRIPTS It-r
.: i .-. These 1 2th-century illustrations The first empire in the West to
t','-''
i . .'ir show some of the processes t
ag ,J 'i .,.
emerge from the remains of the
:, . ..!, involved in the production of a \_ir

- .li medieval book. First, the

,.t
.:L.
"*, qJ
,*
- I Roman Empire was that of Charles
'r, i

parchment maker would soak the
skin and then stretch and scrape it.
Thejnished manuscript book lends Next, the dried parchment would
authority to the monk's preaching be trimmed and scored in
preparation for the scribe. The
text would be planned in detail,
with spaces left for the work of
the illustrator and illuminator.
After the scribe had completed his
text, the illurninator would apply
the gold leaf which was then
overdrawn by the illustrator.
Finally, separate leaves were
gathered and bound, and the
cover fitted.
The book js bountl and the scribe prepares to
ntake an;necessarl annotations to the text
i\
,'J* I \.
',tr-.. .,t
.r,* 'r
Y'' { ; ,d'f
the Great (Charlemagre). By the ninth
century, his Frankish Empire stretched
Once Jried onLl cleanecl, the
parchntcnt it t rimrnc,l to :ttc
from the Pyrenees to the Baltic. A
reformed hand devised by Alcuin of
York became the established hand of
the empire - it is now known as the
Caroline MinuscuL (pp. 38-39).
Outside the Frankish Empire,
national hands persisted. In Italy,
the Beneventan script was one of the
longest surviving post-Roman scripts,
T e aching.Jr om ul it t e n anuscrip ts
m
used from the mid-eighth century until
u'as a ke,v aspect of'monastic liJe
1300 (pp. 8a-85). In England, the
Insular and Anglo-Saxon Minuscules
.
-.t
.n

sufficed until the tenth century (pp.

\$
.

'fin
'.r ;/
i'a
| .- 'll
+$€1 , ,l+rj

: --'
34-35), when the Caroline Minuscule
"'r .iftr:
-E-rc"v-
i
:r."i was introduced. Over time, the
" ;"'''
"{, uq
..a
:

.
i.

_. . ie- 1--:",
Caroline Minuscule became more
.",./., "-' --
l'ij i""'
': , -:,-, compressed, anticipating the angular,
uniform aspect of Gothic letters. This
Once the leaves oJ the manuscript The punched holes ctre joined by scored Sntall hole.; ttrc puncheJ through the compressed script is known as Late
are placed in order, they are lines, betw'een w'hich the scribe v,ould parchntent, probab|,v to prot'ide
stitched together then v'rite the text qLriJilin,'t lor sp,t, inq Caroline or Early Gothic (pp. a6a7).
Tur Dr,vr.LoP.MENT or Wrsrrax Scnrpr

*sf

rffiffiffieesffiffiffite er*YkmffiKffiffi.
*--#?
ffitr&t
Gothic scripts
ffffiM T extur a P resci sus is characteriz.ed
wffi#&ffiffir
Gorrrrc TExruR r scRrprs
This detail from the 13th-century'Windmill Psalter
By the end of the 12th century, a by the "cut olf'Jrrt oJ certain shows Gothic Textura Prescisus scipt (pp. 54-5r.
letters, such as this r from Both the Prescisus and its twin script, the Quadrata.
complex system of Gothic scripts the W;ndmill Psaher were reserved for prestige religious book work.
had evolved throughout Europe. For
simplicity, these are often divided
into two groups: the high-quality
(deluxe), formal hands used for
both religious and secular book
text, and the cursive hands used for
documentary work and, from the late
13th century, for vernacular book
production. The two most important
deluxe bookhands were the Textura
Quadrata (pp. 50-51) and its twin,
the Prescisus (pp. 54-55).
Bastard scripts
Gothic cursive scripts are known as
bastard scripts, and they remained I

e
in use until supplanted by the
I
s
Copperplate in the 1Sth century
(pp. 102-103), some 200 years after
the demise of the formal Gothic
bookhands. Bastard hands are
difficult to categorize, differing from
country to country, town to town,
and trade to trade. However, general
differences can easily be discerned
between English (pp. 66-67), French
(pp. 70-71), and German (pp.7a-75) ,,}

models. It was in bastard text script

that minuscules and capitals of the fj

same hand first appeared together -

with the Gothic Capitals used to
begin new sentences and denote
proper nouns (pp. 58-59).

r h is man u s.,,n?o'#3},J; HH:,*:

of Pliny's llatural History shows beautifully
penned Humanist Minuscule letters. The
handwritten Renaissance script was used as a
model for rype by 15th-century Venetian
printers. It quickly replaced the Gothic models
favored byJohann Gutenberg, the German
inventor of printing with movable type.

10
 Tur Drvr.Lop,44Et',tr or Wr.srp,ax Scarpr
Gorurc tsASTARD scRrprs
This page is from a Book of Hours Italian and Humanist scripts
ftaee rq16, x r{rrrlr. clrlrlftlhrfiirr produced in France after the introduction In Italy, the formal Gothic scripts
{e rbrfucqrtr{6 txt of printing. Ownership of a handwritten
{lu" xt-apsgqrs rr* .;_l never really secured a footing. Italian
book at this time was an indication of
,t'trro*r1 ueu. *+ tr rit * &"ue$l n*rr[ high social sratus. The elegant script is letterforms of this period generally
titir rlreert ;.fi. $ tulr{rrrr} {ilt(f*ifii; a late Bitarde hand known as Lettre -
tt'iYrrr r/ir r r r r r rr$rrrlhtr"fi rt"= Bourguignonne (pp. 7 0-7 1), which
known by the name of Rotunda
";
f\ rrr'p',*rffil*rc contains a mixture of cursive and (pp. 8a-85) - were rounder, with a
a:lu, rru$r.&-
Textura elements.
,13k, r * r tlrr rlrr$?rrtr urt $a p-1ifim. much more open aspect than their
;gr tr r m l{ rxtxr r$l h;$iwp"+#*fil-_ The B1tarde letter f often has Gothic contemporaries.
ifu{us*actul*" :.,1 ;:;; a distinctiveJorward lean, as By 1400, a revised version of the
does the longJorn oJs
rlr$srgr{ r{k{rr sF'raf{r fifi Caroline Minuscule script known as
&r tirur Bqsrsr grrffitrtr*rt MonpRN CALLIGRAPHY the Humanist Minuscule had become
{11€€{*r} ef rgra:$rrr$ {Al*r*f This three-dimensional work, which
crs{gr
measures 9'/rby 14by 2 inches Qaby 35
the established writing hand of the
res$g rarqi}l ft {{{s$} {t r?8*E$$iEEilt _
by 5 centimeters), was created in 1993 Renaissance (pp. 90-9 1). Eventually,
*ttf{tret, *}{{$t{ # $*} $fu:ut *stfl.t{r by Denis Brown. Entitled phoenix, the
qT jrT [,e r r re rr $r page of Insular letters - reminiscent of the
its adaption for typ" made it the
c $s
e\]llut
rTl r ma
o tI a f*r*o-'h r rr e I g rt g{}ltrrl r I y*fi r,
great manuscripts of Kells and Lindisfarne preeminent letterform in Europe,
(pp. 28-3 7) - has been penetrated by
rft * nrryt*a q*F$ r{"krs $r&sr} r{{&fir and its use continues to the present
electric wires as a metaphor of the
phoenix creating new life from the old. day. A variant of the Humanist
Minuscule that also remains in use is
the Italic (pp. 9a-95). Devised as a
manuscript hand in 1420, it was
adapted for type by 1500.
Po st-Renai s sance s cript s
The final script of significance
is the Copperplate (pp. 102-ir03).
As the name suggests, this was
originally hand engraved or etched
on sheets of copper. Typified by
delicately joined loops and exotic
proportions, this cursive letter could
be engraved with far greater ease than
it could be drawn. However, in its
simpler handwritten form, the
Copperplate did have the advantage
of being very fast to pen. By the
19th century, it was the standard
script of business and education.
fuIodern calligraphy
A modern calligraphy revival began
at the beginning of the 2}thcentury
with the pioneering work of Edward
Johnston in Englan d (pp. 42Jj) and
Rudolf von Larisch and Rudolf Koch
in Germany (pp. 74-75). Since the
1950s, interest in calligraphy has
proliferated in many cultures, both
those with and without Latin-based
alphabets. During the last 20 years,
as calligraphers have explored and
redefined letterforms, calligraphy has
become an art form in its own right.

11
t

Scntpr Ttttruxr

Date (ao)

Script 100 zzt{rxre,N;

Timeline Olp RonaaN
CupstvE
Gru,sr UNcm

FlLl usrlc{)'
200
Key ffiffiffiffi ffiffiffiss
Gray line: Chief line of influence
Dotted line: Durttion of script for text
White line: Duration of script for use
other than for text

400
Npw RouaN
ftsut'fi.crtcu forwo'
Cupstvp Harr UNcrar Cunslvr, Ha.rr UNctal

INsulap MrNuscurr,

ffrrtpueLc n?crct s
ffi

ffi BENeveNt.tN MINuscurE Luxrutl

Vlstcornlc ffi MrNuscure
700 MINuscurs ffi
ffi
ffi

INsurRr
ffi ffi Mapscure
800 ffi ffi

$
ffi
H
R
ffi
ffi
CRnortNB
bapctfrno obx
900 MtNuscurs
ffi ffi

& ffi

1000 $ ffi

$ ffi

1 100 * ffi

ffi

1"200

RoruNoa
ISnflfrffin Iuumil
ffi
ffi
1300 SB
ffi
ffi

ffi
K
# $ Tsxruna
ffi ffi
ffi Quanntra
1400 ffi
ffi
ffi
ffi

ffi
ffi
ffi
w ffi
w

ffi

FouNoarroNar HlNn
(Bnrrrsn CarltcnRPHtc
REvrvar) illnthr-h
12
 Scatpr Truruxr

SENATVSPO frxmorrmnn .ffi

_ffi
IMI,ERIAL ffi
ffi
C,qprrals ffi

r r- * ffi ffi ffi &ffi ffieffi &ffi &ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi&
g
ffi
ffi

ffi

@ ffi

t cfiC IMPROB'ITD
ffi

ffi

Squnnr Caprrar-s

t
rrapffi&mmffirmp[m
)t:1* ffi

ffi
RuNtc CApTTRLS
I ffi ffi

.fir ffi
ffi

ffi
ffi

ffi

ffi INsur-atr Dispr-Ry ffi

ffi Caprrals ffi

ffi ffi_
ffi @
ffi

ffi

Iqol:IFT:rN:
Lon,lBaRprc Caprrals
I

I
rrnfin#tra# ffi

ffi

ffi

B,q.srann ffi
HuunNrsr MrNuscum
Sr,crEraRy ffi

no&rsllct
ffi

gulas
t'ry.9ornfrus0
F*nxruR ?tolrofgnorm

CoppERt,la.tg

ffi

ffi
ffi

GEnmRN
ffi
C,qllrr;nRpHrc
ffi
RevrvRr-

ffi

ffi

13
Scntpr Tturuttr,

Date (ao)

Script
100
7znrxreN;
Timeline 200
Oro Rol,taN
CuRstvE
Gnr,r,r UNctar

K"y
Cray line: Chief line of influence
Dotted line: Duration of script for text
ILIUS TI(Y), ffiffiffiffiffiffis:

Wite line: Duration of script for use

other than for text

400
NEw RoURN
frsutfi.rctcu furw
CuRsrvE Harr UNcrar Cunsrvr Harr UNcnr

INsulan MrNusculr

cpDtmufiL1fi,hn
ffi

Vrsrcornrc ffi Br,NEvp,NtaN MINuscur-e LuxEurr-

700 MlNuscurn ffi

ffi
ffi

w
Mtt tuscure lrsel
ffi INsurap.
ffi &
800 Ma;uscurE
ffi ffi

900
ffi
ffi
ffi

ffi CRRorrNr, bapctfmowhx

ffi w MrNuscurr
ffi #
ffi w
1000 ffi ffi

w ffi
1 100 ffi ffi

ffi

E,rRrv
GorHrc

RoruNua ffi
#
ffi ffi Comdbrnr
ffi ffi

ffi ffi Tr,xruna.

ffi ffi
1400 ffi ffi Quaonara
ffi ffi
ffi
'ffi'

ffi ffi
ffi
1500 ffi ffi
ffi
"& &
ffi

1600 @.

1700

1800

FouNnarroNar HaNo
(Bnrrrsu CarucRa,pnrc
Rlvrval) Lththr-h
12
Gr.rrmc Srusrro

Getting Started
tTtnr ART OF CALLIGRAPHY begins with the tools
I and materials, and these should be selected
with great care. Often, a struggle to achieve
u good result is an indication that the chosen
surface or writing tool is unsuitable. Due to
a widespread revival of interest in calligraphy,
there is now an enormous range of pens, PaPer,
and other equipment available. Here, basic
information is given on the types of surfaces
and writing implements you can use, and also
on how to make the two traditional types of SuRracr,s
For practice
pen - the reed pen and the quill. and trying out
initial ideas, a
The reed pen lightweight designer's
The reed pei, ,rd the quill (opposite) have been used since antiquiry. Although layout paper is ideal. For
both have now been rrp..r.did by other writing implements, the reed pen more formal work, good-qualiry
paper is important - PreferablY a
remains an ideal tool for expressive calligraphy. It is usually made from a
hol1ow-stemmed garden cane (Phragmitis communis), but some calligraphers smooth, close-grained and acid-
use a synthetic material, such as plastic tubing, instead. A sharp craft knife
free type. Vellum, made from
A selection handmade
is required to make a reed pen - always take the greatest care when using it. calfskin or goatskin, is the finest material oJ

for writing, with parchment a close second' and machine-made papers

-WRtrtNc IMPLEMENTS
In addition to the reed pen and quil1, there is a huge range of [Ise a smal]

writing implements from which the calligrapher can choose' pointed

felt-tipped pens are ideal for trying out ideas, but for sablebtush

flexibiiity ,rrd ..o.ro-y, detachable nibs are an excellent Jor drawing

option. th. ,t. of a fountain pen gllarantees a constant supply built-up
oiirrk,
or although a sPIrIlB-ruduqu
lnK. altl)ougrl dip pen
spring-loaded urP rr more
PLrI is rrrurL
tlettets
convenient for changing ink loaded
,spring
are
I

colors casily. A broad-edged ldip

pens
l,
brush is esiential for conitructing , The calligraphic lideolJor large- Iq
lmperial lfounro-in
pen is lscale *ork l#

Capitals (pp. , A tandard I one oJ

the most M -{

1. Cut a length of cane about 7 2. On the reverse side of the cane, t tL t t$.' I Prn hotd" 'on tools
ffi
Ifr,
|convinient lf
inches (18 centimeters) long. Use a directly underneath the first cut,
strong craft knife to make a cut about make a shorter cut lo create the flat
tiooed !tt*|"t;'Y':,"
t;i;,,',:i:;i", l-
ffi
1'l, inches (4 centimeters) long to
reveal the hollow center of the cane.
top of the pen nib. Next, remove
any pith from the core of the cane.
A rett

I .
'prr1i-inori*ork *tii .,,
Ii
-ii,. ii
i

11
ii
l

{-sl
1:l

{
(-i

:'
t
B

3. Return to the underside of the pen 4. Finally, make a longitudinal cut

and carve shoulders between the two about'/, inch (1.5 centimeters) long
C}

cuts. Make a square or oblique cut through the center of the nib - this
across the top of the nib as desired (see will make the flow of ink easY. The
reed pen is now ready to use'
{')
"straight" and "slanted" pens, opposite). F
a

14
 Gr,rrmc Sr,sarEo

The quill
Although the quill is probably the finest of all writing tools, it is nor as
convenient as other implements and requires more practice in handling.
Being of a softer material than a steel nib or a reed pen, it requires gentler
pressure than you would expect, but the subtlety of line that it produces
is far superior to that of other pens. Turkey, goose, or swan feathers are
the most useful, and duck or crow may also be used for formal work.

usrNc A wHETSToNE
To sharpen a steel nib, hold the pen
at 45" to the whetstone and stroke
the top side along the stone.

DrracnasrE NIBS

?ointed Copperplate
steel nib
1. Cut the shaft of the Gather 2. Holding the shaft firmly, make a
Speedball
to a length of about 7% inches long, sweeping cut on the underside
(20 centimeters) and carefully strip of the quill. Carefully make a second
obliqu"-rutrtl ffiffiffi the barbs from it using a scalpel or cut to shape the shoulders and pare
Mitchell sharp craft knife. the edges to form the tip.
squarc-cut"rbffi
Detachable reservoir
Mitcheiifla
m
Jot #t&n

.::rinr is madeJrom
****.w
-,lin, and is tougher
:. : re
Jbrous than vellum
A long, broad-
, Use o reed \
"I .-r""
. :lt)od-edoed I
pen for
edged sable or
II '
, \
:::h€ttc or synthetic brush
. is I exoressive \
--::: brush " I
calligrcphy
is usedJor
_' ;";
'.nilal I \,0,
:

.tlor I large-scale ru,,,

:::rial I lmperial is the most
::irals I
Capitak traditional 3. Make a short longitudinal cut 4. Place the tip of the quill on a
oJ tools through the center of the nib to ease cutting surface and carefully cut across
I
j the flow of ink. Remove the pith the shaft to create the nib edge. Make
I from the center of the pen and any a square cut for a "slanted" pen and an
,
i remaining material on the outside. oblique cut for a "straight" pen (below),
,.STRAIGHT,, ..SLANTED''
AND PENS
Throughout this book, there are references to "straight" and "slanted"
pens. This can cause confusion, as the meaning of these terms appears to
be contradictory. The "straight" pen is held horizontally, producing thick
stems and thin horizontal strokes. The "slanted" pen is held at an angle of
about 30o, creating horizontal and vertical strokes of similar weight.

A"straight" pen has an oblique-cut nib, A"slanted" pen has a square nib, cut
cut at an angle oJ about 70o to the at right angles to the shaJt - it is ideal
thort - it is idealJor scripts such as Jor scripts such as the Caroline
the Half Uncial (pp. 40-41,) Minuscule (pp. 40-41,)

15
Rouax {L,qrr. Rou.tN Scarprs

Rustic Cupitals
TF
of today is sometimes
THE cALLIGRArHER
Iconfused by the rich variety of scripts available, re -.-4 t L c "h o' '
$ ,.:a.. i ,B
"h .il-EtEi.'[.
\
"i 'c' r\ [."\ + +'u\'i. -, a" u-'.
both modern and historical, the., th" opposite "L ,he*q"\itt
t ! a(, F ,
"'\
r r p rl 0, "E il

must have been true for the scribe tli" early \t

5B5+"!.
,nlt,u\
i,q...'*
'
, : L,\ **L -\ ..\ *.
"f
Roman period, who had only three basic hands.
The first was the magnificent Imperial Capital -
the most complex of all scripts, used in stone-
cut form on the great monuments of state (pp.
E**"-
108-109). Second, for everyday needs, there i r,
..---.i*,',
,.-,,. +1., , -.

,\

was the cursive script - the quickly executed

I

hand used by everyone writing in the Latin

language. Third, there was the Rustic Capital,
an elegant alternative to the Imperial Capital
and popular with both signwriter and scribe.
Fnou rHE FrRSr ro the fifth century,
the Rustic Capital was used for deluxe
manuscripts, particularly works by The nib would have been

Virgil. After the fifth century, it lost held at a near verticalJor

the upright strokes
favor as a manuscript hand, although
its use for titles continued for centuries
afterward. As far as is known, the VEp.crrrus
script was not used for Christian RouaNus, "#\*; -';, ,i. j JtLl-\q i
Ectoc.t II
literature, and the conversion of
Rome to Christianity in AD 3 1 3,
This magnificent and
rare example of a
l.\3.;L..ii'li\:i-\;
with its attendant use of the Uncial Virgil manuscript in
Rustic Capitals dates
@p. 2a-25), may be one reason for the from the second half
demise of the Rustic as a bookhand. of the fifth century.
The words are
Rustic Capitals also served as stone- separated by a pwnctus
cut letters, often used in conjunction (midpoinQ, instead of
the scriptura continua
with Imperial Capitals on the less (continuous script)
prestigious monuments. typical of this period.

Trlp nrERaRCHlr oF scRrprs

Rustic Capitals were used for titles
until the late 1.2th century as part of
ctf{r L*ffi,.f,tu T$tuT$VS.
"hierarchy of scripts."
a so-called
n}}. ff) L [,]{ryL.r
Rustics were used for chapter
openings, Uncials for the first lines, r rn [.rc*"r J r f HTr s r}r s-roR}hg
ca?o$Irrtr- ffii,L$lttaum
followed in this example by a fine "y5,Ahbr:t
*Ato.tBrartrrra,fnf,ntreund'JtbJ-n8{xl'trn,fi nttnrrr}r+rr
Caroline Minuscule text (pp. 3 8-3 9).
ry
p er{on* e,, Ar1 gr& ft ar. ti u qx 1i1,'.rrroonfth u$ : }*
.. i.!i!r!-1+ir!.ii, ir

..@:.
,d&tr
"o
l'
,.t

,
.18
liL
%.
1q&
i'
li.r

t1'l
t!l
%&
&*@
&". i &'^. }.
:ra
J."\
'8,,
:

r:,
;

-'v 2t qF-*
'd::

B#;P
t"". 'q,fu

16
 Rusnc Cnrutrs

Writing materials
The fact that we have evidence of the
The pen or brush is
held at an angle oJ Rustic Capital in both manuscript and
40" Jor the broad signwritten form shows that two
diagonal stroke
different writing implements were

.L .l;\3 p&. 14."

t
,1
& A .: + '; * 1 6 Q.'&
*
E t:B
\'
used. The script would have been
written \ rith equal fluency with either
i

-..*ntlk 'e$
t Rusrrc Caprrar R a reed pen - or after the fourth
The execution of
the letter R begins
century, a quill - or a brush. The
with a twist of the brush would have been a broad-
pen at the head edged, flexible sable, held at a near-
of the stem.
upright urgl" to create the thin stems
and broad horizontal strokes.
\ A simple ductus
\ The basic difference between the
] Imperial and the Rustic lies in the
'!t
rr\! complexity of the stroke weight.
+ The strokes of the Imperial are eyen,
II
T
r
with no sharp contrasts in weight.
; TheJeet oJthe letter turn sli7htt/ downward
t This effect requires numerous changes
beJore
Jinishing with an upward Jhck
I
in tool angle (pp. 110-1 19). The
-q
The portrait illustration shows Virgil
ductus of the Rustic is simpler to
sitting beside a lectern, with a capsa pen, with a pronounced difference
Jor storing scrolls to his leJt in stroke weight between the
hicJTourishes
thick and thin strokes.
6
heF, X, andL
'i a t' + !! q*4,,q
.- .- <e + .*
&:
r ' i i!:
(i,
: .* .. -+ 4
. aA .1A l.i
,,.q

risllff
.

'=',J.'\i:,\ -\ ..
,aq

-Lu-q- ;
\ ?- .. i h \r r.\'
I -t - \.
d
s-

PapvRus rEar
Papyrus was the principal
writing surface for more than
3,000 years until the late

The interlinear gloss has been

written in a modern ltalic
hand (pp.9+-95)
at right angles
PErrR Harupay to each other.
Thrs nrodern version of Virgil's Eclogue VII,
,rren in black ink on cream paper, was penned
Peter Halliday in 1983. Note the contrast he
achieves between the broad horizontal and
diagonal strokes and the thin verticals. Dp,rarr FRoM VrRcrrrus
RouaNus, Ecroca II
'q& '6iW ,"f
%a.
\bs
":t
% :!iii,
q
:i
*1
e% & @* adr*

17
 RoueN &-Lnr Rou.qru Scarprs

Rustic Capitals
-l-"t Ducrus op the Rustic capital is different from the other
r hands shown in this book in that the pen angle can be as steep
as 85o to the horizontal for the thin vertical strlkes. This angle
T There is no
crossbar on the A

is relaxed to nearer 45o for the foot serifs and diagonal strok-es.
TheB is a

$
Therefore, from the top of the stem to the beginnlng of the foot, 4 tall letter and
the pen must twist as much as 40o, and this traisition"is the key to rises aboue
I
the headline
well-executed Rustic capitals. with its serif, thin stem, and broad I
foot, the L (below) typifies many Rustic letters. The letter height is

f
3
generally between four and six pen widths, but can reach ,"-u.rr.
'lr
/
,

1. Using a square-cut pen nib,

begin the serif of the letter L by
pushing downward with the broad
edge of the nib. The pen angle
should be about 65o for this itroke.
2. Pull the pen downward to the
right, while rwisting the nib from 65o
to almost vertical at the line of the
stem.
'Without
lifting the pen, begin
drawing the fine stroke of the stem.
I
p
4
1l

I
l
'"!ii
'--r ?
,TM
li-+-,
9nl

1 "@"+
z\\,

.&
:.,----+ 2
The second
@
:----* l stroke of the
tallF rises
lil
aboue the
3. At about halfway to the baseline, 4. Lift the pen, tum it to 45o, and add
anticipate the foot serif by gradually the foot serif in one firm, downward ,&
- w
headline

turning the pen to about 50". This diagonal sweep. The foot is a major -\--;
4
will create the distinctive Rustic element in the script for it leads ihe
thickening of the stem b2se. eye forward to the next letter.
,&],
$
This form oJ
G is most
commonly used
. This broad sweeping
curue is drawn in one
smooth stroke with a
pen angle of 45-50"
iil,r, o,ttrrnorti*
form of G k
Diagonal sweep used on the

&
It is the repetition of the bottom line oJ 1
downward sweeping a page o;f text
strokes, combined
with the near-diagonal ternative G
strokes of the feet,
that gives the Rustic
Capital its characteristic
rhythm. These strong
strokes provide a
counteqpoint to the
1
fine vertical stems. I
18
 Rusnc Captr,s,Ls

si .@ , ),
This is the
4
,1
ii
:r
^+-,
'):
;;:
The stem
of the I is
q (
J

L,J
modern identical to
form ofJ
o! lrq
that of the I
erM'
^-r \-y'
la \
Jr
23
,; @j

I
::

fr ,/
----\_--t
I
&i5
K ,i1
i,:
dw%=
a-t
2
%\ %i\
%.\
+

L
,l
The seif of
the tallL
ises aboue
the headline
t1
i W'
-----:f
t/u'rmoJw
2

For theY,
ffir'
;lft,
use the same
ductus as the A
...

0
t1
,l %\,
'fl Thisformrl Y,3 \
Jor all rext
used /
I ffi
T @
j
Bi
bottom
exrcpt the
page
line of a
I
I

"W
-\-'t
-&t$*-

j
'

UG
\2 Use thisform
I ofY only on
I
the bottom line
.tI of a page of text
\
'---_-,
j

\, )

fi;
-;a1
\
1 '\, \
2 -----t
19