Gorrutc Cturdts

.<f i@-r
',,irmif
/ :i]llzi'
i!' 'ff;' , ('"-.$3fi I,
I

2U' ;;;
I

I The curue of \ flffit The bowl of

i:;iJ the H can be E3rH thek mn be
I iffii
I

rfl., :
ffiJ/fl
" *' ,
w/.f
a,

Finish the / ,;
strengthened
with
tryngthened
with
3
H wirh o lt .,
an
additional
,\ additional
an

2l\
r,a , :"i I
hairline curl
-r.. ,r;*
( "",*:H
stroke

The sixth
stroke

..1iI stroke oJ the

On both thel f ;;: J J could be
and theJ, the ,iiii;,, drawn from
bulges are "'-''{'' right to left,
drawn last 3 finishing

'z(.:-J 1
;qT with the
hairline curl

\ ,I
+
The bowl of the
be strengthened
T
with
can
an
4

additional stroke
W;'
3

,(-7
1 1 3

'(-ffiJ ;ffi
Thefoot of the L
can be adapted to
\
li w
join onto the (,* i"'ffi1-
Jollowing letter iiffi##-ffil
ffi / *
re:"*'.."'reqsffis*
3 7t -
35 1

ffi
6

'(\I
. a:-1
,l
The curue of
the V can be

%I
-# ffiffi.I,
& ffi/ d#t
"J
strengthened
with an
additional

> - u*Jl t::rrr,;i.

stroke

1
1 4
\6 The curue of ..-

'! ffil ,{##'

/-t
, --,
"n4fl;sBHs ,
2 rf'"-Tffi
l'*"1,:;:1
,S*#fit@&.. \ the N can be 2/
\t\l t
;ffi#\8
" ffif ""48r.. \
--^
I
ffi[[l:-/ffii
:::;ffffi
;xilr+
sitt# t #
+ '/W'/f,ffi
,ffi}* ffila, *
additionat "J m- { *, curue of
stroke
,]ff',

:ffiry 1 theW
;ffi- ri,i;i,,fffr
,' can be
*
t *'o, 3 6> strengthened with

rhe bowt of the an additional stroke

,,iuf;:!,i, I
io drii ihii" ....t --'
1
'-:t---f

2(
" or Q can be ,u---.--
-.,".-'","' .|
*@No
to the o ffi*ufu*.re*/,4ffi
r, (d,mt'*,:i,:!,:i,
Q, add a tail 6$ /
\l I
I l*
ffi
------+
7
6

snoke t; e'S
3l
/
3 1 3
-:7
ffi,
pi,ti nii iiiit
of theY
\'I t below the

W,
baseline
lupl"'4&HM
Alternative O and Q

.,r$:ffi*\
6

ru
1P 'f/

tu
.

@@4
red '"i t
,r;;!"::,
sfuoke
3.//
,W
"')t
2
Y

61
Gorutc Scn.rprs

Lombardic Cupitals
LoMeaRDIC Capnnl is a built-up letter characterized
A
I \by curved stems and distinctive monoline serifs.
Unlike Gothic Capital, (pp. 58-59), Lombardic letters
worked well in sequence and so were used for whole
words and phrases. They were successful both in penned
form as display capitals and carved form for monumental
work. The script was increasingly prevalent by the mid-
1 1th century, and finally ousted by the Humanist Capital
The letter M can
alternatively adhere tc
in the l6th century (pp. 98-99). However, it enjoyed a LolaeaR-orc Caprrar M a baseline cross stroke.
A square-cut nib is used to making the right-hani
resurgence, particularly as a monumental letter, during draw Lombardic Capitals, stroke a minor image
with the pen held close to oJthe left-hand one
the 19th-century Gothic revival in England, under the the horizontal (pp. 64-6r. (pp.6+-6s)
influence of the architect and designer A.W.N. Pugin.

Truran rs A RELU:TANIE among

some authorities to use the adjective
"Lombardic" in relation to this
script, because the letters have little
specifically to do with the northern
'",:;,';:,';'*':
give the strokes
extra weight
j t-xp&"KffiKffi
Italian region of Lombardy. However,
over the centuries, the term has
been widely used and accepted by
calligraphers, typographers, and
letterers, and has come to represent
the particular combination of Imperial
and Uncial elements that make up this
distinctive hand of capital letters.
A simplified Imperial
Lombardic Capitals can be seen as

;;6;1ip"*G;iil;;;il;i.
simplified, pen-drawn versions of the

11e) rubxql,>\iy,/
ft\F,Ih\
ir\fl/k p*)"-r n"*n 5T
#.#&"ffi* //A
*)'
t-p".iul
strokes of ih" (pp. 110

;f",LTn+$:#'"I'fH:ll rhce,
usuallyincludesUncialformsof"";i:::,::,;,WEGIrr
\ffi
'"z#ig 'csx*ffi-ag{,hSX{f}{}
ffi:'i;;;;i;:;;;;:' (pp 4647 )
---- anno.lnquatm.tn qutnra. mfr tfr!:u r m uin r rurr cdro
THE wTNCHESTERBTBLE (apuuo}llmrydm.{Ixutum chotrdr.tprrcrturrc

,e,,,1 1Jn\i,if,illii::::f:*H:liJ#:*:; glr.*urdr uriron$dulnqurnra marrrr.rpro{r

'i[i11*i,,H#l;i:,:1ffff [:H'f ff .*.:'**"[*:annurqwnrurwlnrrnlgrauonrrwrroachrm.
,**;#.ff,Xtr*;trt;,;+!$;i:;;,1;[1fifffi,;i*1T,.5 h&umdruer$um dn] adc,rrrhrrr.frrrduuzi
initial, Ezekiel is depicted dreaming by the Chobar River. The fafffdOCmlngffaCialdfOf'm femf flUmeif
four interlocking wheels are symbolic ofthe four fvangeli+r.

62

In this early example
oJ a histotiated Versal
(pp. 58-59), the Virgin
is shown in theJorm
of a capital letter I
M feature internal decoration. The words of the
-f,-
i,3*
#ffi
Louaaaotc Caprau
These display letters rcad: "IN Nl4 Dlll TnE GErroNE SACRAMENTARy
NRI IHU PS INCPT LIB SACRA]4TR." In the title letters of this eighth-century rext
This is an abbrcviation oJ: "Ill NOMIIIE for Christmas Eve Mass, produced in northern
DO]IINI NOSTRI JESU CHRISTI. France, we can discern the crude beginnings
IIICIPIT LIBER SACRA ]LATRIS" of Lombardic Capitals. The scribe has used
Imperial Capitals as his models, drawing the
outline of each letter in a single stroke with a
narrow pen nib. In the first three lines, letters
title have been considerably abbreviated. On
the second line the abbreviation of "DOMINI"
as "DNI" has been indicated with a mermaid
instead of the traditional horizontal stroke.
Built-up letters
Unlike most other capital scripts
included in this book, the Lombardic
letter is not the product of a natural
movement of the hand. While each
basic component of the Gothic
Capital, for instance, is made
from a single stroke (pp. 60-61),
a Lombardic component is built
up from several composite strokes.
The sides of the stems curve inward,
usually drawn with the pen held
horizontally. The monoline serifs
are also the product of the horizontal
pen; they are generally slightly
concave and are not bracketed
to the main stem as they are in
the Roman Imperial Capital.
Embellishments
The Lombardic Capital forms the
* basis for many Versals (pp. 58-59),
s:i! *qP* ;fi : tu ,: 'y -
- . ,. _ i
,,:
and the amount of embellishment
; *:
and decoration is limited only by
Bd V hfld-# the scribe's imagination (p. 64.
However, the stone-cut Lombardic
letterform is often modified as a
result of the nature of the surface -
for instance, the fine serifs are either
thickened or omitted altogether.
The Lombardic has been used
extensively on other surfaces:
textiles, metals, glass, and ceramics.
Below the title capitals, the chapter
opening has been written in rubficated
Uncidl letters (pp. 2+-25)
Below the chapter opening, the text
script has been penned in a HalJ
Uncial hand (pp. 38 39),
recognizable by its upright aspect
63
Gorutc Scnrprs

Lombardic Cupitals
fHrnr IS No HrsroRrcAr, precedent for a full set of Lombardic
I Capitals and those shown here have been compiled from a Either of these
variety of sources. Unlike Gothic Capitals (pp. 60-61), they are twoforms of A
qanb-t u;ed
used for writing complete words and phrases and so consistency
is of great importance. Concentrate on making the weight of
stroke, the level of compression or expansion, and the serif
construction exactly th. same in each letter you draw.
"^t, Uncial
,onrorc line of the form of,4
serifs can terminate at
each end with a
decorative blob

};
'Waisted
stems Use a nartow
'Waisted
stems can be created by overlapping two broad, t?
pen nib to add
curved vertical strokes and then adding the hairline
the decoratiue
horizontals at the top and bottom (aboue left). A more
blobs at the end
precise method is to draw the whole outline with a
of the seifs
naffow nib and then fill it in with ink (aboue center).

Rounded letters
Define the form of
rounded letten by
drawing either the
outer or inner circle Either of these two
first. The latter often forms ofD can be used
proves more practical
(see letter O, opposite).

Expanded and
compressed letters
To regulate the chosen
level ofexpansion or
compression, use the
spaces enclosed within
characters as guides.
Compressed letters
have shorter serifs than
expanded letters. Bows
can be fully rounded
or pointed.
h----__ -'|i
Expanded letter
t----!
Compressed letter

Basicform
of letter
Display capitals
Since the 72th century,
Caseline
the Lombardic Capital
and
has often been heavily
shadow
elaborated when used
as a display capital.
Decoration can range
Floral from simple additional
decoration caselines to compiex
illustrations that are
gilded and iri color.
 Loruadnorc CAPITALS

1
::r--t
rT
.

r ltr [[ 4

li tl
.."ffi*.-.-..-
------'t
2

construction B-Ar
2

This l-ombardicW is a
modern construction

65
Gorutc Scnrprs

The top loop oJ the w

Bastard Secretary should not exceed

minim height

Lf rsroRrcAlI-y, THE MoRE FoRMAL a manuscript hand has become,

I lthe greater the need has been for a functional cursive script to
complement it. Just as the Insular Majuscule spawned the Insular
Minuscule in the eighth century (pp. 2 8-37) , so the prestige
Texturas of the 13th century (pp. 50-57) gave rise to parallel hands
for the less prestigious work of the duy. A series of complementary
cursive scripts evolved both regionally and nationally, quickly
developing into fully fledged hands in their own right. They are
classified under the generic title of "bastard" (bastarda) scripts, Bas.rapp SrcREraRv
The w reaches ascender height
r.r,

the term denoting a mixed cursive and Textura parentage. and is identical in both
minuscule and capital form.

Trun cuRSIvE scRIPr (pp. 3a-35) The illuminated border and

Versal are charactefistic oJ
had probably been rediscovered for 1 Sth-centuryl English
documentary use in England toward manuscript work

the end of the l2thcentury. Although

speed was the most important
consideration, the script was also The downwardflickfrom
the ascenders is known as
designed to impress, as the loops and an "elephant's trunk"
linking letters testify. The French
TheJeet oJ the
form of cursive, called Secretary minims turn upward

or Chancery, was introduced into

England and Germany at the end
of the l4th century. When Textura F=Crt"
:4i? I i,".
features were incorporated, it became :L*"
;;-r;f;t::i'
"

...,: .11
knovm as Bastard Secretary in English, The horizontal stroke over -")i-i ,
r

BAtarde in French (pp. 70-71). the ampersand denotes the

:;i+gJL
abbreviation of a word
#c.'
Mp,otrartoNs oN
rrup Ltpr, or CrrRrsr
. qP-L
aft'l,., ^ -

This manuscript page

shows the translation
into Middle English
by Nicholas Lowe of
a popular 13th-century
Latin work attributed
to St. Bonaventura.
One of 49 versions
of the text known to
exist, it dates from
about 1450. The
script includes the
Anglo-Saxon thorn
sign, a character that
y and
resembles a
represents a"th"
sound
(pp. 68-69). This sign KaNE MEDIEVAL MANUSCRIPT
remained in use until Dating from about 1430, this earlier translation of St. Bonaventura':
the 16th century. Meditations on the Ltf, of christ is also the work of Nicholas Lowe. In r:.
irt\'t'\",ri , 1,11q1 g{'},.r1' qr fr,.ft
<rt',i tllrt version, the scribe has made use of both the Anglo-Saxon thorn sign ;: -
#{!trtirc {', r< i't(r,r{1. rttruhrri'[i'{i.r*fr 0
The Anglo-Saxon thotn ciqrrrrf,Lofi''lo'' q, ! :. (ir(. o{iu: u siliii ir+ the modern thforwrrttng the word "the." Notice also the serifs af th-
gutaiir*rg of fi,r" *lt,it .'u'tt-t*Sih*iflt
feet of the minims, which are turned upward and not broken as thet-:.:'
sign has been used
throughout the text in the Bastard Secretary of the Adam and Eve text (opposite).

66
 Bdsrano Sr,cnrraxv

French and German features

There are certain features that
help identify a bastard script by
its nationality. The French form,
for instance, is most distinctive
,.&-nqtu t"esff* *un* $**$rJ.S*lp for the calligraphic feast made of
"tw$
ft""a1s5o=u *:Si %ry
:f dtu ryW
A{t;j#. {#q#[''s**-e-" $** *'h *t" *' the;tand long form of s (pp. 70-71).
Early German cursive scripts were
;s-ffi e[iL; w $," ; &- f,* ttte"ot
frt d'.i$
characterized by bold, expanded
ht fe*t" #'rte{" &mit: tup tam st*
E$'ffi#;&6 f;^$ttrag rnc
minims und tuli asce.rders and
t 6*h P's';Pow'-*E -[x' Pgrr
: ffi;;;&.s mntffi' P,*-;f, olm, fi0ry
fio e$- '**E descenders. When they were
* m".au"rqnhJ'q* #;n,qd'b &**"I' e$*^t-s"\srq contaminated with Textura features
) &fr0"40
e.{S d}e'stwL het Sstr' t&nr t$Ef oty}to
tn1'*calnr,frshnfuf iS-f.'TT .
9D
{
at the end of the 15th century, the
Fraktur and Schwabacher hands
drtflttse oiifr t$"f ;F'rcSatt*t {t{cfrn+ qT
ffi6*, emerged, featuring "broken"
o TI.- }*& *rrfu,tt 6bt$'e.J ffifgft.ffivne letterforms (pp. 74-7 5).

Hffil*I*, ffn{$$* ry cttttrJ,,' fl*i*^' $tS t-6f

-
English characteristics
In English models, it is the letter prz
d tr s&'ih'ff"e w{mcffiwt {f"{P4- '}gttt *flt
* gu
that attracts the most attention - the
':sn ;
qqJ""s eu'fi-; qQ$qh S F- to {h,b
""-8rymtb same impressive, looped form is
n*-s&to'{!d{q qdfinr ffient4p Fdi- bY,qn
used for both minuscules and capitals
$""* 6.S, ig *&* g,ffi. o' fl *ffipsr f-*arqdaiieac (opposite). Another English feature
f"a $x Ff*ufio
[lr*i*u'.* r-1ffi
(S* #iffi y.ffi
f*-S.,r$n r"?,r
e"{k oflo'qc
is the long, downward terminating
flick from ascenders, sometimes
hter@ f ee sa *1t${pt Hi }Y#H5ffi, called an "elephant's trunk."
Generally, the English Bastard
&fffi-frkry'se &S*r#te Secretary tends to be staid and
prosaic, lacking the subtle shifts
of pen angle that characterize its
French counterpart. As a result, it
was highly practical, and so had a
long life as a document hand. It was
used well into the 1Sth century.

Aoau aNo EvE

This text of the story of Adam and Eve was
written in English in about 1.415. A fine upright
aspect to the letters suggests that they were written
with an oblique-cut nib. In the best English
Bastard script traditions, the r.u is well pronounced
and the "elephant's trunks" are boldly drawn.

The text includes a set oJ capital letters

written with the same ductus as the
lowercase text (pp. 78-79)

The impressive height and loopingJom oJthe Bastard

uy w make it the most striking letter in this page oJ text

Dnran FRoM Aoam aNo EvE

In this valuable detail, a split in the quill
allows us to see very clearly both sides of
each stroke. Notice particularly the letterf
this is constructed with a single stroke, the
pen beginning at the vertical, then turning to
about 30o at midstem before returning to
the vertical for the descender (pp. 68-69).

67
 Gorurc Scarprs

Bastard Secretary
FUNCTIONAL, cuRSrvE
script, the Bastard Secretary is
At ^
,{ Lwritten with
few pen lifts as possible, with letteis linked
as
wherever practical. consequently, the hand can be penned far
more quickly than the formal Gothic scripts, such as the Gxtura
Quadrata (pp. 52-53). Ascenders are complemented by strong,
downward diagonal strokes known as "elephant's trunks,,, drari,n
to the right of the stem at an angle of about 45o. These echo
the downward diagonal strokes of the minim feet.

.The angle of the

"elephant's trunks"
should be consistent
throughout the text
#
.The tail of the h k usually Complete tht
draged to the leJt of the hairline looy
letter, almost at a parallel of the d in .;
to the baseline single strokt

Key letter
Thehisauseful
letter with which to
start practicing the
The e is almost
Bastard Secretary.
circular and can
2 Th, tail of the e
It includes both the
haue the appearance could join tli,
"elephant's trunk" that
sweeps from the head ofalettero ,,
second stroki

of the ascender almost

to the headline and
the characteristic The secori.:
downward pull of stroke oJ the i
the pen at the foot For thefirst stroke retraces thejr::
of the stem. of the f, gradually to the headlir.
twist the pen and curues slight:
to the vertical to the rigr.:

Drawing an upward loop Adding a downward diagonal

With its sweeping hairline loop, the 'Without
lifting the pen, make a
d is one of the most distinctive letters strong downward diagonal stroke,
in the hand. After drawing the bowl, curving it to the left to join the bowl Make a hairli':.
create a large arc by pushing the pen
upward in one sweeping movemint.
at its midway point. This stroke will M%
---*ffin*'
strokefrom t,:,
echo the shape of the loop. foot ofthe sten :.
the headline, be_ic,.

ffliE),
*ry/
starting the jt:.:
downward stror:..
Basic elements
The pen angle for the and r,:,
"*.*.s //
hand is about 40-45o 1-"'
l:
and a square-cut nib is i.,
generally used. Minim i,-i
rl
l': The letters i an.:
height is four pen i_-l _

I can be dotr::

$
widths, with the
ascender equal to a
further four widths.

68
 Btsrtao Sp,cnnranr

The boul and

ightfoot of the
k are drawn in
a single stroke

Slightly extend
thel
the foot of
along the baseline
w
The top
stroke of
the v can
be omitted

l1
,e
t +4,
A separateffth stroke is not
requiredfor the w if the second
orJourth stroke is extended

Twkt the pen f Drag the hairline

to the uertical ./ | tail of the ! with
to produce /,1 the corner of the
the tapered. ' -/ I pen nib
descender / t I
of thep r
/
Twist the pen
to the uertical
to finish the
descender of the
qwith a hairline

Conjoined letters
Conjoined letters are less a

ft al^ ..',,
ffi rn,n,u,i,u,,,d,i*-
feature of the Bastard as the
Quadrata, but this form of

{ {
Fullr Halfr
,1
1-\-t .- *ii";k" Abbreviation
of "what"
p-p ligature is quite common

Y-t and w-t (featuring the

Anglo-Saxon thorn sign, p. 66)
(<'' were common abbreviations of

r) the words
respectively
"that" and "what"

69
 Scarprs

BAtarde
(Lettre
Bourguignonne) is the French equivalent
T:".,PoT*"n
r of the English Bastard Secretary 66-67). It wasier,eloped
at the end of the 1 3th century and-(pp. until
the mid- 15th
century, evolving from a lowly cursive "r"a
bastard hand into a This baseline cross
formal, prestige script in its right. BAtarde achieved its most stroke can be extende:

sophisticated appearance in "r

The tail oJthe p when the letter begtn,
the .i"a- 15th century, an era when is pointed and
can be drawn
a word

the popularity of the printed book was either upright or

slightly slanted Barapop p
new section of society. In this deluxefflf:i1-;I1i:i*"" In constructing the
Bitarde p, a series ::-
flavored by Burgundian court circles, hence Iifts and angle char:-
_

its alternative name. required (pp. ZZ--,

.

By rrur um-1Srru century, book

lllu.rtration in France was moving
a\\ av from medieval stylization
rp. jJ-55), becoming less intricate
and more naturalistic. The BAtarde
hand used for manuscript books was
shedding its own Gothic ancestry _
itrtters \\-ere lighter, seeming to
lance on the page. This effect was
.;hieved partly by making several
.-hanqes of pen angle during the
,--,1;rstruCtion of each letter. In
:cturning to the major key after each
,-ianqe, the scribe corld create a
:i., t[p1i6 harmony across a page of
:-\t. This is particularly noiiceable
.:- ihe Froissart Chronicle (opposite).
jj -,,,r-ever, in other BAtarde ,triptr,
. *.-h as that in the
Book of Hours
:. * 1i r. the harmony of the text is
.-leled instead by the maintenance
- ,,De constant overall angle.

The split ascenders arc one oJseveral

Gothic Textura characteristics that
have survived in this bastail script

Boor on HouRs
Thrs page is from a small prayer book
',.':rri.n tor the wealthy poligny
family in
.irout 1170. The script,s Clotni. origins
=:: clear: ascenders are split, d.escenders
Ii-,::!r. and minim strokes terminated with
:'::: :::rriniscent of the euadrata (pp. 5O_51).
- . --,'::all terrural effect is closer io th. d"rrr.
.,... :::. ot rhe Gothic Textura scripts than to 5*

. .: :-:::.mton\- of a true Bntarde,

such as that
:---.-=-,'.1 :n rhe Froissart Chronicle (opposite).

L..r.il)r,trr,tifar. t(, i; i, .,i
tit{ltr:t* at }ili'ttr{-li tt}rttilrt{
\l1l{ritt::af i .ltr!ti:l1{l!,!ii\r ;ari,'
)|!*rit d(.)rrc.{li turt}il.lrlil
t( }! t$< tr\:/Asitri,:titr tl!1.\i"rtri
lrrtffit *t,r l':rl#ixt .r'f,)r{{t'
,+*,. i;t.it,t:rer+ i't.tfi "tli'
.\t( r\!11'rit ** furrt" .rrtt/tlr,.
ltx:rrrtrr,: .. !lrr'rqtii.rlrt.'
' rr *,lltt{: {)[{ ttlrulr $ttlrtt i'l
i:ttf{ t f {!1tt i t!trr rtrllll'-':t ll
J
r!|!lalrr\ll 1:ar r!fH;, "i-.It},ll;
1 t!rt{lq irrirlt\B
r,r,,:t f ft riltil,, , tr,' r"'i'
fiir!arttitrl tlri!!t lr f,t rltli:
'trr it'lrh i'+ t +r *i'ttl !t{lli{: lh!
flr'!'{ }:rllt; tiltl{tt 1i t!rlr'+1lr'
fr;r: l. rrt 'tii l\ll'rtrrdl!I"
-t
!.lr {a' llril,lir*Lr'.-}!rl \"ai
ftttfl rri i( rltifltt! /.'ltlra'
ar1lt\rl. rtC f \,'rr{rr':,r I'1{rr:
1r (t 4lt{\1}i{* lf l4 ll.'i" i}}rlf
-trtl, 6rt t$rrrtl*imtx tltrfi*
lir lrnr rt' 'l;rtu rt+.1{cr'}11;{c-
t:l firrtt{.rr artrrl {t fitll.{{"
:tlr t$t'11'lrlri 8' ]lurrc r'f Io:
i'l
ftsrlrl*trri tql;;rtilti, lt'
ftrtrtnr.rtt," llsllr trrtr!' t t'
itttr't trkrte tlthtult.t nrlrtll
t{lfcrrr*la .t t orlt tc'- I{nttmr":
tltiiu(f (nrtrta{l {{\\t{{' r}14.'
ltrll+ trtr' l+inrl(r'"' rta sr.I
trttdilil(ttr l#rrrtrt ; follir
rfte tt tlfittpi trrta {ieh.trr
, g, tc\rt'
Pri il ttf('t rtr dl tt'!t{
{. lrl{
"}rlfl$tc tt t?'"1*t(at!'
rt{{art 4rt{{1fl rll*( &'lttsplrrr
Tnp FxoIssART CHRoNICLE
This is a copy of the 14th-century chronicle
ofJean Froissart. A delightful book, it has
a modern appearance, owing partly to the
relationship of text to margins and partly to the
restraint shown in the decoration. The feet of
the minims end without elaboration and the
script is generally more cursive than that
used to write the Book of Hours (opposite).
lx(tf,r?iaff
Bar,q,nor
r {,,. }**,16 i.t, -r! r :r!,,i,u. \
,rri .ltrltl,trtir*rt "..ilir{- rl rr rtr
,"ihrr r' ,t r tri-,rtl;4, t$i * *{ tflisr'
{t,trtit }*d ttI;!i $lin',,ttilr,rtn
ii j{r{-B!iif i!ll#.h:1tf, idbr (ft
il *
if f ti!gii .ir!e. urlrfiturl
Itfrrti
1ri",ii,:r1Y$r.ir:t* tiitrn{t{ r'r{$
lf ilrtr lf !irltf, ,lrarrf l! : ri,t.\ri
!,rta. . f,tll(r- tttl' lt t /i\1'rtr
. i.trf tin-,r r ['ritrtr({ i.r I\ttrli' {
l{i ;rfi r\1{t'.il.t.rrtilir ii r{tl,f
:!ii h.,:lI,il,r' .
lirt t *tol . p,'{rtllttlrtiart{ \rV
::t f*t{tts'rl r rl: lttt {; llr tlltr :':
ttitil, r f ( i\!.?llll(lII tltf .t lr llrl
lut,{}'tlrti \a'ftr: tarrl',rlll
Ixilr t\ ltlrlt{ (l it f.!ttlr1 it
.} rlfu fittliY llilttlli* Ja {lll$rri{'}r
i**- Sf (irr* lirtrlilrf r6ln'i;
\rcnlx r"; lrlrtt i tr'l*tahtrtt::'
tr ,rtrff 1r'rr.lrrn,r jlr'Ilrit\E
t\ ll$tle llf filttteu'sfrrr-rlrl'
(arr.!rl( all{'s (tEi/ir'\rtrs f,
!rftl ft r tltillti{l{(i; rllll 'ltrts
':sil*{itlt*}t1 r{r*llkrlsrlr -
Vita Christi
The scribe of the Vita Christi page
from La Vengeance de la Mort lhesa
:'
(\rh had arguably lesser skills than
his two contemporaries featured
here. He does not achieve the
harmony of the Froissart Chronicle
or Book of Hours, his pen angles
are inconsistent, and he is unable
to return to any constant Pen angle.
CommonJeatures
In some examples of BAtarde, the;[
Dpran FRoM THE FRoISSART CHRoNICLE and long form of s lean forward at
The initial C is decorated with a Cadel an angle. By keeping the angles of
(pp. 80-81). The horns on the letterg are
similar to those on the g of another Gothic these two letters absolutely constant,
script, the Fraktur (pp. 76-77). Both the the scribe can create a counterPoint
half r and full r forms are used in the text.
to the main harmony. This textual
the letter f effect - knornrn as "hot spots" - is
TheJorward lean oJ
is one oJthe most distinctive a common feature of BAtarde.
characteristics oJ the Bitaile Other frequent characteristics
Vrra CunISTI PAGE of Lettre Bourguignonne are the
This page frorrr Ia Vengeance de la Mort lhesa overlapping strokes reminiscent
includes the rubricated prologue to the main
text, which opens with a Versal. The book dates of Fraktur (pp. 74-7 5), and the
from 1479 and was written by David Aubert delicate hairlines used to join strokes;
of Ghent, scribe to Philip the Good, Duke
of Burgundy. In the illustration, we see the
these seem to add a further sense
scribe presenting the book to his patron. of movement to a Page of text.
71
Gorrutc Scarprs I

BAtarde Finish th.

first au.:.
third stroke .

most successful BAtarde letters, the use of a

ACHIEVE THE
fo oJ the a wir:

I quill is recommended. A sharply cut oblique nib is required a haiilit.

4
4

to produce the exquisitely fine halrline strokes. The clubbed;tand flit::

long s are frequently written more boldly than other letters and l1
I

have a forward slant (the two letters have the same basic form,
with a crossbar added for thefl. This produces'hot spots" \ rithin i.'*t
!,
ttii
the vwitten text and makes for a distinctive textural pattern.

2
Preltare to add the uossbar )
to the f by tuming the
The curue of the :
quill to 10"
terminates witlt ..
hairline J1i;,:

The key letters f and long s

should lean slightly to the ight

Drawing the.f and long tum the pen from 30o to the vercical L The hairli,

9
s
stroke of the e .
The many changes of pen angle as you pull the pen downward,
drawn at dt1. dn!.:
required to draw the B6tarderfand finishing with a hairline. Retrace the of about 4-'-
long s are typical of this sophisticated first stroke, looping outward to the
hand. Begin about half a minim right to create a thickened stroke, and
above the headline and gradually retum to the original angle of 30o. 4
Omit the crossbar of -----.,
the f to create the long 3
Jorm of s (left)

The curued hairline stroke at

-, Draw the hairlt.
the top of the letter q can be
crossbar of the t ,;

an angle of 1[t'
continuous with the descender
The letter f can lean The clubbed shar ,

forward at d more of the f can't,

pronounced angle than exagserat.'
Descenders this (pp.70-71)
The descenders of letters p and
q are made by turning the nib
counterclockwise from the
horizontal to the vertical, finishing
with a hairline. The descenders
may alternatively slant to the left,
echoing the forward lean of
the f (aboue) and long s.

1
.The height of the
Bdtarde minim is
aboutJour pen widths
rt,'i iLiiii"s iiii,
of the hfinkhes
with allltfoot A hairline at ri:.
Flat feet top and tail .

Flat feet occur on all leading the letterh

tt .-
minims in the script, such characteris::

II
as the stem of the f and the

l_ first leg of the n. In a more

cursive version of Bitarde,
The
j
i
can be
and

v
the minims may terminate
dotted
with a flick at the end of
the downward stroke, as
on the second leg of the n.

72
 B.rdaor

The stem and

leadingfoot of
thek can be
drawn in a
single stroke
1/ffi

{%
Y
tffi
tffi

2
/&

t*ffi
Iffi

/ rSr
1
t The stem and foot
of the t can be drawn
in a single stroke
,(
I

\T2
2V
atl
ffi
S-;-i
I t;tr
II 11Y:
*ffffi* ,

r
2
#

w
----f
1 I rl:'
,",*
I ffi
Thefrst ond ,rron,l l$t. 7l#sq
strokes of the I can I ,l;l ffi The foor of the 1 can be
\7
\ffi'
be combined l$"t @ extended slighrly

2
)
/-----{

'h*
{m
lffi
jry,
2
I

5
$ F
The

can be drawn
first
strokes of the

single mouement
two

in
v
a
":s
'wf,,
'*-"" - -q
,wr/ -'

6
./------\
,k 3 /
/ ,,,*%\

4:-..: t \

n re
\
l'
2
ffi 3 Thew
from two
is anstructed
conjoined vs
/@
f i-r;
.+foffi x /
e, -*/.--\
4r

,( .m\
gs' Bi
**H"".
..-t
rI 1)
$&. al
gffi E>
I
I
ttlt
-l .-
/ Drag out the hairline /
tail of the x with the
corner of the nib
-*6,M
1ffi
1,ffi/ /l
, 1lY
tffir
twtst the pen.
I

to a near uertical I #t
/ffi +

angle toform the lffi

hairline descender //
of the p

./", "

1/#
(*ffi
\ tffi.
\%r
\7 Th, lle,tttejr , ,o*
akernatiuely be
drawn in a single
stroke

l#
Where practical, Bdtarde
letters can be connected
with hairline strokes

"n,
t,|&w \ th*
'a 2

#"
ffi/r' t The p andh are the
The ight bow of the h
and the left bow of the
o can be conjoined

W, only letters notjoined

here by a hairline stroke

-'t
/J
 Gorrutc Scarprs

Fraktur & Schwabacher

RAKTUR (Grnuax LErrEn) is a marriage between
German cursive scripts and Gxtura Quadrata(pp.50-51).
Manuscript examples of the hand date from about 1400 and it FRarrun a
The distinctive
first appeared as a typeface about a century later. Early typ" spikes of many
Fraktur letters
versions of Fraktur, and its more cursive, vernacular cousin, are the product
of overlapping
Schwabacher, remained close to their pen-written origins. strokes (pp.76-7;
They were designed by the leading German calligraphers
of the duy, including Johann Neudorffer the Elder. The two
scripts continued to influence calligraphy and typ. design
until the mid -20th century, and had a formative influence on
the work of eminent practitioner Rudolf Koch (opposite).
The Fraktur a is always a single-story
letter with an enclosedbowl

\
,,
!,
ii:
%d:4
.i+ '-'*n{*
* "e&{*$'*

*P
'Wop.rssp,Er
Tru orcpnRENCEs between Fraktur
This portion of a
and Schwabacher are difficult to worksheet (aboue) is
define precisely. Both feature the possibly the oldest
surwiving example
swollen body and pointed tail of the
of Fraktur-related
BAtarde;land long s (pp.70-71), as lettering. It was
well as curved strokes on the bows written in about 1400
byJohannes vom
of letters a, b, c, d, e, B, h, o, p, and F{agen, who reGrs to
g. Diamond strokes reminiscent of the hand as " Nottala
Fracturarum" ("broken
Textura letters are a distinctive feature notes"). It is from rhis
of the hand, but there is a tendency term that the name
"Fraktur" is believed
for terminal strokes to be curved. All to have been derived.
letters have a rigidly upright aspect.
Generally, the Schwabacher has a
The tail oJthis p, and
broader, more cursive form than the that oJother letters on the
Fraktur, and does not have the forked bottom line oJtext, may
have been added by hand
ascenders and excessive elaboration of aJter the book was printed
that hand. Some of the most striking
versions of Schwabacher were
penned, centuries after the script first
appeared, by the calligrapher and
designer Rudolf Koch (opposite).

74
 Fa,qxrua LScTwaBACHER

MarrnAus EvaNcprrutr
In this German text of the Gospel
of St. Matthew from 1921, Rudolf
Koch combines the features of Fraktur
and Textura Quadrata to the ultimate
degree - the lines of text appear to
have been knitted. Koch classified
this style as a version of Schwabacher,
and explained: "The page should seem
to be stacked with finished rows of
lines...especially the space between
words must not be broader than that
berween lines." The Versals have been
treated in an equally robust manner,
resulting in two beautifully designed
pages oftext.

In Koch's ten, the interlineor spoce

has virtually disappearcd, allowing
just sulJicient whitefu the eye to
scan along the lines horizontally

't
*J.

Dsrarr FRoM German Letter

MarrHAus
EvaNGr,lruna
By the early 16th century, a further
The controlled form of Fraktur and Schwabacher
freedom of Koch's
had developed that has since come to

,, ; i,,i" . i #m[t*tg$t &mttP letterforms is shown

in this detail from
Matthdus Evangelium
typify German scripts. It featured
"broken" letters created by the
(aboue). Radical in its
time, such work gave overlapping of strokes (pp. 76-77).
new meaning to the Used only in German-speaking
term "Black Letter"
(pp. s0-s1). areas, this broken letter is frequently
referred to as a "German Letter."
The rejection of Italian scripts
flfi. The straight, comprcssed
aspect oJ the hand betays Fraktur and Schwabacher enjoyed
€ntre eruftcntutlootltt its Textura origins: even the
longer lives than any other bastard
letter f has an uprightJorm

ng;rubrlcnuffiDeolrttu script in Europe; in the early 20th

Pn-avpR BooK century, half the books printed in
r,rtf fr olirs:prstolp$tttr$f $1, These pages from
Germany still featured Fraktur-based
the prayer book of
nfiu eu$ il} fortftfit*tl( I # trr Emperor Maximilian
were published by
typefaces. This longevity was a direct
\5
EJ
Schonsperger of result of the German rejection of Italic
Niiremberg rn 1,51,4. and Humanist scripts (pp.90-101).
The Fraktur rype was
There were two important factors in
designed byJohann
Neudorffer the Elder this rejection: first, the Reformation
father of three caused Protestants in northern
generations of
calligraphers. The Germany to reject Italian hands as
border decoration is a political gesture; second, it was
equally outstanding,
being the work of widely believed that a Humanist
Albrecht Diirer. script did not suit German text.

75

l
Gorurc Scarprs

Fraktur Either oj il:,.

forms of a catt,:".

-1r HE ueRIGHT, coMpRESSrn letters of Fraktur are closer in

I appearance to the Gothic Gxtura scripts (pp. 50-57)
than either the Bastard Secretarf (pp. 68-69) or the BAtarde
(pp. 72-73). The hairline spikes, such as those on letters b, g,
fi, and Q, are a distinctive feature of Fraktur and do not tend to
occur on the rounder Schwabacher letters. The pen angle of
about 40o is altered only for drawing the pointed descenders.

2-----r
i-l The
with
ascender can be drawn
a single rounded

iiti stroke or with a split

The minim height k about

serf

i|.J fiue pen widths, with

ii two moreJor ascenders
Curl the ascendt, '

lt and descenders
d back to the ,,.
auoid the letrc, :

ii /o :'

II
L*r
The pen nib should be
square-cutfor drawing
Fraktur letters

Rounded strokes
Despite the Fraktur
letter's upright aspect,
many strokes are
actually rounded. Here,
the ascender of the letter
b has been drawn with
a curve to echo the
3
rounded stroke of the
'Whether
bowl. you
Thefirst and sd
choose straight or
strokes of thef n
rounded letten or split
be drawn withil
or pointed ascenders,
itis important to be as
lifting thep
consistent as possible
Twist the penfrom 40"
throughout the text.
to near verticalfor the

The crossbar is a common feature

descender of the f
of the letter g in both Fraktur
and Schwabacher s cripts The second and :'.",
strokes of the e :
Spike strokes Abematively, the hairline be drawn ur :
The distinctive can be drawn as a contirt;...
Fraktur spikes are continuation of the first mouell"-.
made by extending stroke (see g, opposite)
one stroke over the
previous one. The
more pen lifts there The spike stroke ouerlaps
are in a letter, the the bottom of the rounded
more spikes stroke of the bowl
are created.

rt tI,

t
Fraktur descenders are
restrained, except on the
a backward sweep;
alternatiuely, it can be
looped (see g, right)
bottom line of a page
text, where additional
Jlourishes can occur
of
tr,,l
76
 Fa,Exrua

*b A *
Begin the t ,-ffi
JffiA
with an
upword stroke &"
ffi

t Thefinalfoot
of the m can
terminate with a
diamond stroke

Thefinalfoot
of the n can terminate
with a diamond stroke

,\''
Either of these two
forms of o can be used

Use the corner of

the nib to draw the
hairllne tlt
of the x

Alternative o

3
*f*,lrt -" /\
penfrom
tin
w7
w//
Use the corner of
the nib to draw the
40o to near
/, hairline tail oJ the y
uerticalfor
the descender Y/
of the p f+
Gradually twist the
The third stroke
penfrom 40" to
of the z can
near verticalfor the
ahernatiuely be
descender of the q
penned in two
separate strokes

1ld
/&
..,./.ffi..
,ffi
Jffi
tffi This "elephant's
lffi trunk" can be used on
l&,*- '
tw

*'****-"--
letters b, h, k, andl
Full r Half r ,v
On the s, the sequence Alternative h This cur
curling hairline
can be ahered, tail can be used on
cat
" with the top stroke letters
rs th, m, and n
draum second

77
 -:-
Gorutc Scatprs

Bastard Crpitals
D -..T\RD CRptrRI-s Havr the same ductus as the minuscules
l) tlrat thev accompuny (pp. 68-77),and are penned with the
. ,:-rt nib, In most instances, the)r tend
to be wide, expanded
. . iirr-s, The thick stem strokes are often supported by a
thin
-::ical slash to the right, and the addition of a diamond stroke
, ::r. center of the counter is also common. Like the bastard
hands, the capitals were subject to a range of
:-.'..:-.-rscule
:. :r',ldual and regional variation. Because of this diversity, the

' r :-:lret shown here should be regarded only as , g"r..ui guide. The C could
alternatiuely take
theform of the
Basic elements
The pen angle of
E fielow), but
without the cross
the Bastard Capital is
about 40o or the same
as the minuscule that
it accompanies. The
letter height is about
six pen widths. The
characreristicaily wide
letters, such as the B,
,I
are a direct product
of downward and
horizontal arced
sweeping strokes. 2

The hairline
uertical ort
the E can
be omitted

C-onns6fing hairlines
On leters H, M, and
\-. hairlinestrokes are
,otien used to connect
This double stem
rrro main downstrokes. F k reminiscent oJ
This hairline should the Cothic Capital
lpring from the right (pp.60-61)
uire of the baseline serif \
Spurs
N-eight can be added Alternatiuely,
to rerrical stems in the the G can be
tbrm of diamond- constructed
*i-p*d spurs. Each spur Jrom a series
e-an be sharpened with o;f composite
a shon hairline flick. strokes

Limit the number

t'f diamond-shaped
-*@
4

The upward linking

spurs to two or three
I hairline snoke of the
Hk made with the
"Elephant's trunks"
The "elephant's tmnk"
I corner of the nib

so characteristic of the

I
Bastard Secretary (pp.
68-69) also occurs
on capital letters H,
K, L, and X.
the diagonal trunk
Draw
;tr #a

with the full width

of the nib. finishing
with a short hairline.
 Btsr,tno C,,s.ptrALs

I
I
1l
J:"
t" :

\2

\
lr
/
I
Draw the hairline strokes of the
1
,/
,.-----.,1

\5
)
J

),ffi
/lw ,tr
Twist the pen almostt$
the yertical to taper
descender

Draw the hairline

linkinp stroke
k with
c0rner This ahernatiueform of h
the nib
features a long hairline tail

Alternative

In this R form of .EI

ampersand
theE b
stressed
r{} fieT is -t't.r't-ic'/

t
Alternative form of ampersand