C.

,qnouxr Mmuscurc

\@
,
.l I

t
@
I Pull the foot of the I
along the baseline

Use one continuous strokefor the

second and third legs oJ the rn

m with an inward sweep

or afoot (see ahernatiue n,

(llt 2
below right)

Finkh the n ,t
*
t /:
--TT- with an inward
sweep or afoot
(see alternatiue
n, below right)

2 @)'
The p could
also be drawn
in two strokes,
with the second
stroke continuing
to the stem

The stem of
the q could be
a continuation
of the second
stroke

r ,;i{( 1
"",,*-\
4Mr'
2

'ji,',t,"i.
Thb is the
traditional long
-form ofs

This alternatiye
footforh, rn,
and n can he
,r.ljrli.Eri
rr:,il
used instead
of the sweep

Alternative r

41
 Caaouxr, g*Eaau Got'urc ScRrprs

Foundational Hand
'i\Io BooK oN rHE mechanics of calligraphy is complete
t \ without a reference to Edward Johnston's Foundational
Hand and its
fTplicity and integrity. Historically, it belongs
to the early 20th century. However, the basis for the scripiis
a manuscript dating from the year 966, the Ramsey psalter. FouNnarroNAL p
'With
the pen held at
Believed to have been produced by scribes at winchester, 30o, the weight of The strokes arc drawn
the Ramsey Psalter was written in a hand now known as each Foundational with a broad-edged
letter appears to be "slanted" pen
the English Caroline Minuscule, an Anglicized version evenly distributed
befween horizontal
of Frankish Caroline Minuscule (pp. 3S-jg). and vertical strokes.

By rnn END oF the 1 9th century,

under the influence of the Arts and "q3 rqrrerc efrtr
Crafts movement in England, a whole cf rr !ffir} .-
new philosophy was emerging among
artists and craftsmen. The basis of
finc pdrfiars ffi#f-c{-rmfficf,irc. *,.
ilr-i rf-frcr"r rTrE ffr,-mrf-ei-err
this philosophy was that the honest
construction of an artifact was
nn
achieved only by the correct
interaction of tool and material.
F
& lctrr ffi 3ferrg0l6fua mr4 cfr1
Medical student Edward Johnston
frrp f?f$r:eTffi#tr? ;e_*odum
readily endorsed this idea and began,
in 1897 ,, to experiment in writing -Ev'
g

letters with a broad-edged pen. In T

7899, his work came to the attention
of W. R. Lethaby, Principal of the
Central School of Arts and Crafts in
London, who invited him to teach
classes in Calligraphy and Illumination. rncxlrfictr Onu.e.0pfm cln cln&"- ts
In 1901, Johnston also began lecturing
at the Royal College of Art, London. Lr.ud,eerdc fffi p trqlr'{[c;err-
faa??} rnflfc{"ete ., "..

In this detail, the "lumped" seriJ'on thel has

been completed aJter the stem has been drawn

T-5 #t f#Locf.urt"e cl]?d]

THs Rair,tsEy PsaLrrp
The Caroline Minuscule of the Ramsey psalter
was one of the hands on whichJoirnston's
b#Tdacaffi fu{"t a* q& dri6 . ., .:
calligraphic work was based. In Writing and
Illuminating and Letteing, he stared, "it has ,il th"
li f,I? #rrt t flarnhax*gk rLlfffi# .
"
qualities of good writing in a marked degree, and
I consider it, taken all round, the most perfect
and satisfactory penmanship which I have seen.,,

12

€tlreccscrlbtnrus
\ubisrffi,q;tl'rdcrrig"
S3rlrd{frlr}r$rrunl
Ir}'tclltttll - th"y produced was of an even weight.
rltl frlrlllltUttftrtfttlQllrltll
ffn_ttt.q(llrnltf6nttUtttitiiitttr.,i .,
tS : tltotti rt I ll Drr t.s [tN C.sf.
nr[,litr-' ul rU llolt.rt[tf rtilur.
Won rsnpEr
In 1909, in collaboration with the artist Eric Gill,
Johnston produced a series of student worksheets
on which he described the Foundational Hand as
J
"excellent for formal MS work and to develop into
later forms." On the sheets, he modified the Ramsey
Psalter script by making it lighter and more upright,
and he included his characteristic "shaqp-headed" serifi.
careJul considerat)on of text size, letter
i wei]ht, and spacing is demonstrated in
this mature work by Johnston
Sruov sHEET
The main text of this study sheet frorn 191,9 is written
inJohnston's own fully developed Foundational Hand.
The ascenders are more ordered and shorter than
those demonstrated on the earlier worksheet (aboue).
Johnston's mastery of Italics (pp. 9a-95) is also clear.
FouxotrtoNAL HdNo
'*.F'
EowanoJonNsroN
Through his calligraphy, design, writing, and
teaching, EdwardJohnston became one of the
the most influential pensmen of the early 20th
century. He is pictured here using his favorite
writing instrument, the quill.
"Slanted" p", letters
Johnston was encouraged in his work
by Sidney Cockerell, the former
secretary to William Morris, who
introduced him to the Ramsey Psalter.
It was then that he wrote to a fliend:
"And so the idea came - to make
living letters with a formal p".r." In his
great instructional work Writing and
Illuminating and Lettering, published
in 1906, he explained his preference
for "slanted" pen letters, such as
those in the Ramsey Psalter, over
the Half Uncial letters written with
a "straight" pen (pp. 3S-39). Drawn
with a broad-edged pen held at 30o,
the "slanted" letters had the greater
strength and legibility, and the text
"Sharp-headed" serifs
The most marked difference between
Johnston's letters and those of the
Caroline Minuscule is the serif on
ascenders. Regarding the "pushed"
pen strokes used for "lumped" serifs
as forced, Johnston advocated the
use of "sharp-headed" serifs made
from "pulled" pen strokes.
43
 C,qaouxr r, L E,s,nLy G orru t c ScRrpzs

Foundational Hand
ALMosr
AS rMpoRTAxr in calligraphy as the letterforms is the
I L manner in which the words are laid out on the page and
t}e textural effect that they achiBve. With its regularity of ductus,
in which arches, curves, widths of letters, and internal spaces all
relate, the Foundational Hand demonstrates a perfect evenness of
texture (see Interletter spacing, below). The pen angle is about 30o,
increasing to about 45o for diagonal strokes. Minim height is four or
five nib widths, with a further three for ascenders and descenders.

i
Pull thefirst
stroke of the c
l
along th-;e baseLrne

+^.--l

-1. =
!
!

j
'- To draw the
I ) seif
l1 and stem
\__-, of the d, see

.-, ',.j
:

' itn';"- """ letter I

.-.i. .
i

tt

i;
2

,,( ,*@ ?
The key letter
As this composite character of a, d, e,
usefirl to explore the construction
of Foundational letters by drawing
frtll
ilii
4try,
sir 3
n, and 4 shows, the o is the key letter them with two pencils taped i;f: I
,-di( I
,;i;
gqt
It.9. I :::-
of the hand. Take time and care to together. The pencil points relate l$3J- . . i;B
compose its two curved strokes. It is to the comers of a pen nib. f,$a"- fP6'

Internal spaces
The elegant oval
of space within the
letter o provides the
model to which all
other spaces in the
hand should ideally
conform.

r&
ff-
riiei
:;:.::.

Interletter spacing
The spacesbefween letters should be as
consistent possible. Many scribes train
as
their eyes to study interletter spacing as
keenly as the ietterforms themselves. \4
?@{
(*r
2 I ;ber
To draw the serifs
I
i and j,
;:l ,
of the see
letter I

iil
tr/

44
 Fout'torrtoNAL Haxo

To draw the serf

and stem of the 3

\_{
Pull the second strolee of
Push the edoe of -.1
the t along the baseline
Return to the top
b the t,ft (t) 2 \t'" and pull the pen
II Make an inward curue to
downward to draw
the stem (3)
To draw the
serif oJ the
1 join the main stem (2)
L- q see letterl

To complete the letter, pull the

stroke along the baseline (3)

To draw the serf oJ the

m, see letterl

2. 3

)*1,
.:
.;.: 1.
l
.

To draw the
k
2\
f serf of the p,
see, le"tte"r 7

Turn the pen

nearer to the
horizontal to
broaden the
second strolee
of the z

,/

f
1.., --1--J .r'.V--
'''' ""qti3;il*::" '

#rii '$L ffi

This ahernatiue g may proue
2 easierfor beginners to pen

@
than the traditional form

To auoid the s tilting, 1?,*E*8s.,*.

stretch thefirst stroke
hoizontally
@ 3
Alternative g ry
45
Canouxr {Etnu Gorrurc Scnrprs

Eurly Gothic TheJlick at the head oJthe sten

can either be drawn as an initia
-frt EARLv GoTHIC script (Proto-Gothic, Late Caroline) sftoke or added on completion

I was used widely in most of western Europe from the

late 11th century to the mid-13th century, a period that fell
between the end of the Caroline era and the beginning of the The bow is quite
Gothic. In retrospect, the script can be seen as transitional compressed, givin:
it an oval aspect
between the Caroline Minuscule (pp. 3 S-ig) and the Gothic
Textura hands (pp. 50-57), for it contains characteristics of
each, including the rounded bows of the Caroline and the Eanrv Gorurc n
This Early Gothic
split ascenders of the Quadrata. letter is written witl:
the pen at an angle
ofabout 40o.
Tnr E.tnty Gorrutc script
THT"WTNcHESTER Brnre
evolved directly from the Caroline j
The illuminated initials in the-Winchester
Minuscule. It was more compressed Bible represent a high point in medieval
artistry and are the work of six different
and oval than its predecessor and ]
]

These rubricated capitals

iltuminators. This initial letter P from rcJlect the use oJ Rustic
'greater attention was
paid to such 4 the Book of Kings shows Elijah being CapitalsJor titles, (see The
details as serifs and the feet of minims. consulted by the messengers of Ahaziah. hierarchy oJ scripts, p. 16,

Its development was possibly the #

'*fglFqWwwlr#
simple result of scribes altering their .'\
pen nibs from square-cut to oblique-
cut. This produces more angular ,i,
letters and gives an upright aspect :

to a page of text. The difference i

between letters written with a
square-cut nib and those written
\ rith an oblique-cut nib can be seen
when comparing the Winchester
c motttlrbfll dffi cfu rltltttn fct:'xoljmn
Lalxurnrd. xrrn ttcl pdnt'tlth',r"ti geee,
'.|} rrftuc't'rc't'rtnr legmtmnn' pq{:rym. ?tr
I.ri'tifrtrrr.ta,tn1, rnlhnnr .,{ftrefolftr*
1n"1lsl'Ilxtx 1t1r$?'d*1 "'u't*, *ot'trm.ql nrtt'
c,iry**, "r &trnrf o$gd*t ora*uY rq*ro
tlrncru4r'r pcr bapafmrtt:r' Ii tn* uiitnt'rr
rrcttrrf.
1l{.lv(!l'qllt{ fifl6 4l-V$rtvt rtcecwr.
rtrrq ab'utmf r}l!e}}\. un*' *emi{*
fi1}srr! tt( r

Bible with the Grandval Bibl e (p. 39). i ilrty' rrif

I-l11 .{raert tiatrrfiut thtl*lrBto
€lllElT l*nr6.q{
'ulnrctrer, '
*ql qrf*ttn
affi11tfld?Hfirild
,r{!1. qr,6rt'r Llttru

nr* iha,**.**trm 6dss,,{u.iln .rrr* b.t1x&ntrrt {igrn;tliirnrrf'ltli

The Winchester Bible
The Winchester Bible is one of
The initial illuminated P
the most outstanding books of the
is extended to jll the
Early Gothic period. Commissioned
length oJ the column oJ text
by Henry of Blois, the Bishop of
Winchester, Britain, it dates from
Sr. Attnnosr,
about 1 150. Written with a "straight" Dn Mrcrnrurs I
This page is from a
pen held at an angle close to the theological tract
horizontal, the script features short, probably penned at
Rochester Priory,
neat ascenders and descenders. These
Britain, in 1130. The
nnandam11nrd1ffl rtrn:m{: pt*chrhilc prtnrs efr,mr crtrdr1Iq u*rr*l
rreinr,rr,0srln{* q"{rnelxn"xral,tr{ metttr{ ielpl.a ttrtti"l$qrre*T lttr rniu
,ienr : qrarn fi tam lit'mo .ikqnd'pttutrtffcr. -\ i"re'"*e. 1g$11' $xlrcf ,
( bqflum odcrttn uq fa't:t$ rtl.rst .rcln"': trrr"ttttlr- Get'.rrr;;:nttrt:n
cipnc , q#.rot'r; {i$dt*1!flti;11f rrrm "1#Bonr1'cel*b$ttrcf t"r'*eflq
-
Jr*ttmuf,qlrer* , "1Jc& adapmt , trr tteftrtlt'trf n::uftufqr a,l ,:rrlin
"iri r*ffi ${.tl'omtl'
rttErof'ttt;, "1tr I d r tftrrs;1i * o't. " -' : : .r{i& dabqix"
1r * "n'soriun
co'i.:h'tirr, ry* rncu-m*{ie ficrr; {.,5q1i,i4'. rrr*r mwrft
. 'rnx\r <tfirrdr.rm.),d tit* oSft.rqfi-.,i,,,"r rn,*ri, r:nrb.rr .r.'lirtdri,
i n .rt .-.u rr.,lt irrfirl'c llno u*crf ,qltt'irw ; tn,tlrctu q.rr..- t;rc,r{ li&
'.t*rm dccb;ts, fo**** nm.{eoiirr., frSi'ee rrGtnra{urtr i {di"fu,.
r nmr-liirf *
ftqr',cr :uro-. r,.j' f,rsr :u.lurn i & ry*
;urd rrrmt't'u ;":,: t.+ .
nteqnc'&t .puJ r.r1ryida:rr " K':ntrn*ra{h &abe'ts .{ q;ei'tblrf tcr:' -
tn utt,io q tutttne e{,rr uolupr:snkrs .l ireu:r rrrr. rrt^l. ntrrr r!"i. ru
lado morruattmr 1ffi rntrlvru rrlu$r$Lrrn'\,r*i& rtirc liun*rn.
.,

udr& f**t"domr:r, ut<hfhfun,rnti {ra:r{uery, t{otr *onfidrra*

create more interlinear space than Early Gothic hand cortrlotlrn ft qr*".ur, ftd rrrrrr r$qrord qrr.im, flrrGttn buf .ffi qdLe
longer ascenders and descenders used is in complete ku#c fian fa'rpnrm rft, .prut l*ki ri.tidocrt' euifudrnt; ftffi
contrast to that of the
would, and so aid the reading of 'Winchester '' ,11,":. .;;.
Bible
the line. Many of the Lombardic (aboue). Although the
i=,-,f 1,'.-
t,t,.r-r,,r,.,.., "'
nib is square, the pen
Capitals in the Winchester Bible, is held at an angle
used both as display capitals and as close to 40o, which
results in a strong
capitals within the text, are among headline, reinforced
the finest of their kind (pp. 62-6 j). by a sturdy baseline.

46
 E,snu Gorrutc

Papsp- MAKER
The earliest European
This llersal letter I departsJrom paper was made from
':hic conventions in the extreme rags of cotton or linen,
tnJormality oJ its decorction The pen is held at a shallower angle which were chopped,
than in rfre St. Ambrose, De soaked, and laid on a
Misteriis I manus cript (opposite), sieve before being
resulting in less legible lines oJtext pressed and dried. Irr
Britain, relatively fine

ffisffiffi
,r'*"7 paper was available by
the 12th century.

Montru rNJoB
The Moralia in Job volumes were completed
in 1111 by scribes and illuminators at Citeaux,
France, one year before St. Bernard arrived

fl
e{mErars s.xxffi$*ffi€xf
dkfreyfu
Yqs
and imposed the hard discipline for which the
Cistercian order became known. The humor
and vibrant color in the illustration of this page
from the rnanuscript are in sharp contrast to the
work produced in the austere times that followed.

rae€ggg. ffiggffi # $de€"#KgdrB?# p#s$.&gxffi:-- are than rhese tetters tess compressed

tvpicatJor Eartv is Gathic script

esr effeB"yaxfqa p#rffif &argd# gga4gggrm,
#r'
Esasgae s*drql E*ss?a sg dflsg-cessffi#ssd
.#'tl &*g*&{*
d$#ff rsfas#ffi , s,aqi Development of Early Gothic
$*flsB*g&ss f,€ffip#s- gga#s
The Early Gothic script originated
tr$fl fls"adsd# e*cflaeaqssw""lffix#ry-qssetr
in the areas that were subject to
pr e.sffi @
#snsfl f,deeffixsffiS' Norman and Angevin influence -
6# x? fdffiffi #{B# ffixerr gxmxa rdg lrrr$@ mainly England and France - before
spreading to northern Germany,
ees a# fof,arra -ffirgdk#- hrfu?€d ysffi,* Scandinavia, Spain, Sicily, and part of
ffxdtasesffiep{}{i g$ts{r$*$dts[ &"sssr, Italy. As a result of English influence,
more attention was paid to the feet
E3srpxesxf{g*rerw s€ffi ffi$"$mre&r
fl##ff
, of the minims, which were formally
mgfl esx$kg"ss$s.fltrffi,"66"6: $t e$axrflffi$ fl"fu applied, as opposed to the upward
flxrx$-p*xeffiBffir# d#ffi dr$ffiffi ? arx#ryaarM flick favored on the Continent.
As the script developed, minims
Eee'f, Es?fln{:sttuffi:tEdh*c
fibx wX qlrlafl generally became more compressed.
fusrfl [s] #{.rrsaxx r,3& $fu x?ddr{ The demise oJ the hand
ryffid#. &r* The hand is perhaps best regarded
rffi qff#ry: spes.ffilrss?# &rf&r:xc4 pff* as the midpoint of the pendulum
f ?gte rfrcarron# drrxmrx : Tbffifrnf,- lacs& swing between the Caroline
Minuscule, with its clearly defined
3{f ry"r P #p ssrffi .f, #;x-;d€.eama gda,- letterforms, and the Gothic Textura
[es?*ES #_#e-F[amEes{, e parffi dtrm. hands, in which the overall textural
trfficdss sr m$*cfcesmem&, effect is of the greatest importance.
so*crbsrfiffip
htflqup ftrF#[Eaffi f,*u** caEsdc?- Although influenced by the Caroline,
scribes quickly realized that if they
#$j$)-ts"{8ffi"
:-s-
\ s**
o*sil',I [ffi^e
rra4s- *€ qryf,XXBg1ffi"ffi". #ffiq',
ee qryfiss?r#A?"c #TffiS" increased the Compression of letters,
sEErEdtu rffi-a_pefiru-egrer.'ary; gg?&s{F?c th"y could alter the textural color of
.,, \i rffi#d&. the page. This reached its extreme
coflffi. *$f,fC&g{ {, #.n{rrrErfr#er
form in the Gothic Textura hands,
* ^*_'ig fxs&de{xsr, Fcf?ra:rry: ffi{Esadcs?dfs&; which quickly grew in popularity
and displaced the Early Gothic.

47
C,qnouvp, 8t*EanLr Gorrutc Scarprs

Early Gothic The bowl on tlt.

a should be lary.

E Gornlc scRIPT is written with a "straight" pen and

ARLY
l upright, compressed aspect. The wedge serifs on
an
"has
the headline of the minim characters help create a strong
horizontal stress to the text. The minim height varies between
( ,-s
approximately four and six pen widths, and ascenders and The ascender height
of theb can equal
descenders frequently equal the minim height. Because of the
that of the minim
great variation in pen angle - between 10o and 40o - various ['
types of serifs are included in the hand. The most distinctive of
all is the split serif on the ascenders of letters b, d, h, ft, and 1.

(,,
9
t1.
II

IJ
tt

IT
1t
IL*
lt
II
tl
llii
tt

td
ic @>,
"r J
Lrl

Split serifs "Filled" ,,#_

&-
serifs
Create the split ascender with a pen angle of 40o, A third method involves
drawing the left serif and main stem first, then "filling" the split serif (Q.
Omit the crossb,t
adding the thinner right serif (,,4). Alternatively, The pen is held at a constant

r
extend the thin serif into the stem (B). 30o for the whole letter.
o '. ti' of the f to cre(ile .

iEii] longform o_i

E
t'-l
rl
l{-
llIr-
lr
lq
ti
II

Itl L-,
l-
I i". \
\-.\----,
n:W' Alternatiuel
ll
t-
LJ
4
the g could
completed
three strok

.l The h cou
alternatiuely ha.
a serfedja

t
Early Cothk Flat-headed and wedge serifs
letters should be A fourth serif variation is the flat-headed fype (D),
written with an
obliqwe-cwt nib
created by overlapping two strokes, with a pen angle
of about 10o. A fifth serif rype is the wedge serif (,Q,
fnr,:*ir*)
modern
<;*
which appears on the letters i, m, n, p, r, and z, as well constntction
as the modern letters j, u, and r.u. This can be drawn
in one or two strokes, with a pen angle of about 40o.

48
 EdaLy Gorrutc

b Thefirst stroke of the ---.---'

r t could extend above
the headline

Pull thefirst
stroke of the 7
along the baseline

\/

\
Thewisamodern
construction

The second and

third strokes oJ the
x can be combined
The x has a
distinctiue tail

._+ 1

This ligature between

This half r can be used The half r is constructed the long s and the
lfter letters b, o , and p with a single stroke 3 tisadistinctiue
Jrot"r, of !_l!.!1?_4

S-l ligature

C-l ligature

49
Gorutc Scnrprs

Textura Quadrata
rHE BEGINNIxc of the 1 3th century, the Early Gothic
DY
L, script had evolved i+to a noncursive, angular hand knornm as
the Textura Quadrata (Black Letter, Old English). The name
indicates the woven appearance of the lines of text, "Textura"
meaning "u, even effect in weavirg." The script represented
a revolutionary change in calligraphy - after centuries of
emphasis on clear letter recognition, individual letters were TExruRR Quanzurr-r
suddenly subservient to overall textural effect. The script's most distinctive feature is tr-,
diamond-shaped terminals of the minim strok;,

Wnru rrs DENSE, angular strokes and

diamond-shaped heads and feet, the
Quadrata letter is to many people a
graphic embodiment of the Middle
Ages. In northern Europe, it was used
into the 15th century for high-grade
liturgical manuscripts, second only in
prestige to its twin script the Prescisus
@p. 5a-55). The Quadrata's decline
as a deluxe bookhand may have
been partly due to its large size; the
demand for smaller, handheld books
meant that more modestly sized
scripts such as the Schwabacher
@p. 7a-75) and Humanist Minuscule
(pp. 90-91) were more suitable.
,* ufr mmw ilurufrW uttrtt[ t ftnu
However, the Quadrata did survive ,,:i,i nttts ilnnufln . fltffrttstt$ ct tts tT0
into the 20th century in the form
of cut letters, stained glass letters, i I
mltttrilqtfl "p, $Befu ffisaffitBffTaB.
and titles on deeds, as well as
being much favored in Europe
i i i..;' \ iriuulgutt"0utrnoniry,
'' '. 'i,nr**.J,.r*.r.t'A.l,*{i{.trrrr
i i jf'; ' .tfftry
by signwriters, shop owners, and
, ,'. -l.jlItmd imn qffiunubt offi
designers of newspaper mastheads.

The outlines oJ Vercals and illustrations werc

ru qro f,ilmtus fltu$ o b 0 t0n nt
,Y
tltto ms ut$litTtts cs llultuttftt
drawn in the spaces provided by the scribe. Herc,
they have been outlined in metalpoint, with the
gold and color still to be applied

uo ftun mrrftttrrflf ff,ffifuml',

rhis b eauti*r, . J#.loTil'*1Hil'llii
14th-century French manuscript shows Textura
Quadrata at its finest. The even, textured effect of
ohrms 0rflsplamrusempffitr
the page is created by the scribe's meticulous
regulation of spacing and minim height. The
scribe may have used an oblique-cut nib, which
would have made the production of fine hairlines
particularly easy (pp. 1+1r. Note the rubricated
capitals S and 1, preceded by the capital P. The
stroke through the stem of the P denotes the
contraction of "par," "pat," or "por."

50
 Trxrun,E @raoant

ParNuNc rN CnrcnpsrER CaTSEDRAL

This painting shows Bishop Sherboume
asking King Henry VIII to confirm the
charter for Chichester Cathedral. By the
time the work was painted in 1519, the
Quadrata would have been obsolete as a text
hand, appearing only occasionally in brush-
drawn form..The artist has padded out the text
on the top line with awkward word breaks.
The inelegance of these breaks is possibly
exacerbated by the requirement to place
the word'oRex" above the King's head.

The text on the book

-ne split ascenden includes the alternative
-:J descenden have G othic a, which
Jeatures
:-:n exaggerated, a double crossbar
. :rticuarly on the through the counter
,: .:ender oJ the p

Drratr FRoM ParNrrNG rts Dotting the i and j

CHrcHEsrpR CATHEDRAL
The split ascenders and descenders are
particularly developed in this brush-drawn
version of Quadrata, but they have caused
the artist difficulties - the ascenders of letten
d and t clash with the descenders of the ps.
:1r
strokes, such as those .i
The characteristic uniformity of the
Textura Quadrata letter produced
an interesting innovation that remains
in use today. Having been easily
mistaken for other letters, the i was
distinguished from other letters by a

:n the s, terminate with flick (by the late 14th century, this had
hairlineJlourishes
developed into a dot). The letter i also
evidence oJthe suibe's
virtuosity doubled up as a j, acquiring a tail
"dt,,m,fu.fl"ffi. when so used. This change, along with
, -runtu oJthls large the late medieval inclusion of the nz
-
-,' P is used to dtsplay and the differentiation of y and u, gave
,'t oJ arms oJ the
us our 26-letter modern alphabet.
-
a
rgemontJamily
Script status
,Gorutc The status of a script is generally
ALPHABET
This page from a determined by the number of
':rhination calendar,
separate strokes and pen lifts used in
'-.,'rnnal, and prayer
book belonging its creation, a distinction particularly
to Guillaume discernible in the Quadrata.
J'Orgemont dates
- 'm about 1386. lt B&ffiffim. Generally, the more angular and
shows an almost compressed the letters, the more
:-rplete alphabet of qeqB fl$ strokes will have been used in their
Tertura Quadrata
i "::rs, including two
-::ons Of a, f , and
BSB ffl
SHi\ ruB
construction. A useful indicator of
: S.
the status of a script is the bowl of
llose examination
'
.:e letters suggests the letter d, which can range from
: :he pen may have ffiHBffiqflBffiftseg.BBs a low-status, almost cursive form
- .-n cut obliquely.
'.'.'ould explain the (see the Painting in Chichester
. ---<ness of the stem Cathedral, above) to a high-status,
. ies, compared to
:he diagonal and
rigidly geometric form (see the
iiamond strokes. Gothic alphabet , brt).

51
 Gorutc Scnrprs
?
'uf,,',,
Gxtura Qrudrata rct
ffi12
L,". _:
ffi fh, bowl oJ the
ffit
ffi: ,lm ffi a can be more
rounded
-faTt
I
ESSENCE oF THE Quadrata is the formal, upright
with strokes differing as little
possible from one another.
as
letter
s* .-:ry &'
5
s:a
Curves are practically eliminated and the formality is only
{(, '\W {
broken by the use of hairlines. These include the skating strokes
ilI-* ffit
that occur on letters a, e, andr, created by dragging the wet
ink with the corner of the nib. The Quadrata's other distinctive
features are the split ascenders and the diamond feet on the
minims, applied wit} only a small space between each one.
\2
tffit'
"

Basic elements
A "slanted" pen
(square-cut nib) is
-. {T tiiTiiit str*
used for the Quadrata. of the c can bi
The pen is held at I, finished with
a h(-r_line
an angle of between \"er" "
35o and 45o for stem 2
strokes, adjusted to
a shallower angle for
connecting strokes. a_
Minim height is
generally about five
pen widths. The
,I
i'i
"ry]
I
x.
relatively large size
of the letters makes \2
the use of a reed
pen ideal.

.@y
a{ / Join the third strok
,l; P { of the e to the stan
;t &_,,r0.-. of the minim
-'"*{,
#:

2
j
\_t
,.-
l ffi
+r
'i:,i
4

l'
\
/,

Drawing a right serif Adding a left serif

The ear oJ
The split ascender is drawn in two The pointed left serif should be a
the g could ,i..
strokes. Begin the right serif above the little shorter than the right one. Turn
be drawn as .:
headline, pulling the pen down to the the nib onto its left corner and use
left to complete the stem in one stroke. the wet ink from the previous stroke.

i
i

i
I

I
t
l*r
:
J

i..a

I t" "....-..
The upward strok.
aboue the i and I :.:

ff
Textural effect be substitutedJor .;
To achieve the ideal textural effefuB.f Quadrata, Intenaord space should full diamond strok.
innerletter interletter spaces should
spaces and be equal to about two
each equal the width of one stroke. nib widths

52
 Tnxruna @uoa,ra

,": ( 3

i{ l,
p.l
*;Y -**
\
(, ,D 3

r \
2
J
I

6
Make sure that
a small space is
left between the
two diamond
N{ake sure
heads ofletters
that a small
uandv
space is left
between
eachJoot
ffiM
of the rn

4- Make sure
that smdll
spaces are
left between
t, the three
diamond
XI heads of
the w

m' m, Drag the tail of the

x with the wet ink
of the second stroke

Drag the ink

with the corner
of the nib to
complete the
split serifs at
thefeet of The.hairline diagonal
letters p and q ry of the z can be iraurn
2 * as a separate stroke
{/1w"
.---, ---.-
5
Skate the hairline
;e'h:;trT-
of the r wilh the
can be used
corner of the nib
I, tofollow a
ight-hand

O-r
ligature

ffi
The right-hand

;iffi-*- bow of the p ilii

$* ffi,wt **i:::,,,,)." be joined with

the leJt-hand
bow of the e

7
Conjoined p and. e

53
 Tnxrua.,s, PRrscrsus

Textura Prescisus
T TsE oF THE Trxruna Pnpsclsus (Textualis Prescissa, Black
LI Letter) paralleled that of the Quadrat u (pp. 50-5l ), both
in its duration as a bookhand and in the development of its.
rextural style. The two scripts even used the same Capitals
and versals (pp. 58-59). The chief difference between them is
indicated by the adjunct to the Prescisus's name, vel sine pedibus,
TExruRa Pxrsclsus ,iz
nr-hich translates as "with its feet cut off." This refers to the The square-ended
The flat Get of the
Prescisus feet contrast
Prescisus are the script's
square-ended bases of the minims and descenders in the hand. with the diamond -feet
of the Quadrata most characteristic feature.

. WtNpnrtrl Psar.rsn rm
. Windmill Psalter was written in England in about
Borru @I,IDRATA and the
- . In this folio from TheJudgement of Solomon, the Prescisus evolved from the Early
. :iligree work is done with a sharply pointed quill. The Gothic script (pp. a6a7) and date
:: pen angle used for the text produces typically angular
' ::r \\rith strong diamond heads and narrow minim from the end of the 12th century.
' :::s. Stroke width and inner letter spacing are equal. Paleographers are uncertain which of
the two came first. It is possible that
- -';
.arll,Illllrri r h r. ,r
the Prescisus originated in southern
f -,;-
f,tftttt$il England und ,prJud to France, where
i .: Hffi,br ffi #sns ffifr ff rnr qrffi $$rndhffi rnf scribes were inspired to develop the
ffiii'fi-drr mprlo osrnnrtsttffil?qffir [$ 6 Quadrata. The arrival of the Prescisus
&.-"'&m EffiLrfl i$a*t[m ntmtnrrftrs dtlll[tfr ttt q was most likely the result of a creative

ffiwffiFffiffiFwI burst from a calligraphic virtuoso.

i rtl{ffi{mffiFffihffiFmp
But, whatever its origins, the script
$-ffittr fi ffi mtffitr ff mmrrmrfnr ffi nfi e rapidly became a more prestigious
pi$Mnsmrffi tuutt! i qurm funu bookhand than did the Early Gothic.
:cllmsflrnmfuilftrsM A precise hand
As a script, the Prescisus was a
iffi**gb uq rffi r g {$rn sgmr us ? pdu
tour dejorce.lt was as precise as its
fffiffi flffi ml :t rffi ffi rurm mirnrrtn name suggests and scribes needed a
ffiffifr{tffifrrtmrffi TuE On vmssv PsarrPR
The Ormesby Psalter, written in particular dexterity to use a "slanted"
East Anglia in about 1300, reveals a
#il rut urrr hffi flffi Osdrnnt nhfn, more relaxed form of Prescisus than
pen to produce the artificially
oiqfurm;ufnolf,rs fsrffi frmtlo - that used in the Luttrell Psalter. constructed feet that imitated the
work of a "straight" pen (pp. 56-57).
THp Lurretn Psarllr,n-
The length of time it took to write
r$ffi ffird rffifirn?firs fsrtlrn r The Luttrell Psalter, written for
wealthy Lincolnshire landowner in
about 1325-35, is Prescisus writing at
a

the script meant that it could be used

its finest. The lines of text are uniform
only for large, prestigious books.
and condensed, each stroke neat and Use started to decline during the late
precise. The thickening of minims
Gothic period, and the introduction
toward their base may indicate a
cwisting of the prn (pp. 56-57). of printing saw its final demise.

used when e a ds
sf m i n i m s a r e
Dnratr FRoM THE

urved stroke , S' , ol!:,!::,:,',"!1h ,xtura scripts

,a LutrRrrl PsRlren
I I

r sxffixtr$$$B frfi$firffi* qffif;il flsr#fi

55
 Gorutc Scarprs

I
I
Gxtura Prescisus Drag the ink with the
corner of the nib to
*

,re,;Iffi
- -sih-

complete the foot of the a

!
t -l-HE eRINCIeAL DIFFERENCT between the Quadrata and Prescisus
I i, k,l,
is the latter's absence of diamond feet on letters o,J, h,
n, r, f, and u. The split ascenders on b, h, k, and l are reduced
D,
(,
or flat-headed (square-ended) and, in the extreme form of the
The split serf of theb I

script, letters a, c, d, and e are even deprived of a baseline stroke.

Prescisus has a more clearly delineated base than the Quadrata and
can be replaced with
theJlat-headed type
I
interlinear spacing is approximately equal to the minim height. \2

&z-
m fl'
3

A hairline can k
jiifu"
*EBS

*::
'"n*:n" "
,/\,,\,r"
,/ \
__*
I

The Quadratafoot
is diamond-shaped
The Prescisus foot
is square-ended
i'
\
Comrnon elements approximately five pen widths and 2
The Quadrata and Prescisus have a both are written with a "slanted"
number of elements in common. pen (square-cut nib). A pen angle of

r
Both have a minim height of 45o is usual for both Textura scripts. I
@it
Outline Twist the pen
ffilr
{ffiH
a9g I
I
The hairline o{
the e should tourt
ltaff{ Y
w.-. the main strok
thefoot by
drawing along
the baseline
45o at the bottom
of the stem x
"" s6#.Fi

z
and up to join 2

**-#@*
the stem

Filled feet Pen twist 1

"**- Omit the qw
ink with the ffiffi-+
stroke to te
To make the square A second method

f*rr,,
the nib to
this lettu s
foot, draw the stem at involves twisting the the foot of the f
an angle of45o, then pen from 45o to the ffi' a longs

add the outline of the horizontal in a short,

foot by dragging the swift movement (aboue).
ink with the corner Alternatively, begin Numerous tools are suitable
of the nib. This is twisting at the top of for writing Prescisus letters,
The sixth aJ
then filled in with ink. the stem (aboue right). including the reed pen ffil; seventh strob
ffii gunb
.---I *r"\V, k
*"*Y
of the

!:v!.:e
n
lt
2
tL-
tt
tl a"
lr

rL
lt Use the cona
lL- i,p ui,l,n
It
lJ
"i,i,i,
the corner oJ the
nib to complete the
of the nib n
cnmplete the $h
itIt squarefeet oftheh
ascender 9-f 141\
tt
IJ
lt j
II
ti
LJ ,/ ,/
Flat-headed serifs nib before filing it in with ir'k (aboue

ll
Like the square feet, the flat-headed left). Ntematively, add the serif by
can be ud
^r,r*))uv;;rr,1y,-r-fa
diamond

Il, i anli

seri$ are created artificially with a
"slanted" pen. One method is to
oudine the serifwith the comer of the
w
to dot the
twisting the pen downward from the
horizontal of the ascender line to the
45o angle of the stem stroke (aboue).

56
 Trxrua,q Pnrsctsus

-u\r
\i
Complete the
split serif of
thek with the
corner of the nib t 1

/-*
.l
It
I

@1 Itave spaces
The I could alternativelY lffi between the
feature an elongated
diarnond
,JM heads of t, v,
foot w, qndy
x
*
I
2t
L-r

t ,MM
_3
4
3- 6

Pull out the tail

ffit1
ffi{trffire xmdl+ x with the
ffit
ffiE#r sffi ql of the

W ffiffir
W
corner of the nib

1 3
x*.} The y should be
Thefoot oJ the p ,,;ffi dotted with afull
I fnkh
could
ended
square- " li\t
l,'rt
l*ti
diamond stroke

-l l;i::
I i';
l/
+
I

\ l '7
-@d " -' f -_i6ws"e!./ ffi
""*{
"Th,ehairtii;a
stroke of the z can
* . //
or 36@
, *J
b
be rhkkened by
y' -;ffi twisting the Pen
I
,"
I

+l t

ln this extreme form of

Prescisus, letters lose
their baseline strokes

of Prescisus

Ittters d and o are among the

bowed Presckus letters that
can be easily conjoined

Two forms of half r Conjoined il and o

57
 Gorrurc Scarprs

I
Gothic Cupitals & Versals
-f-rr pRrNCrpAL DTFFERENCE between Gothic Capitals and Exuberunt fl ourishes oJ this
I Versals lies in their construction: Gothic Capitals are written kind are limited to opening
letters or letterc on the top
single strokes, whereas Versals are composed of several line of
-*i+
built-up strokes. A Versal is a single initial lettlr, drawn larger
a page oJ text

Gorslc Caprrar P
than the text script and used to lndicate a title, chapter, ; Decorative diagonal
strokes and hairlines
PalagrlPh opening. The size of the Versal and the amount of gold reduce the amount
and color used to decorate it is directly proportional to tf,e of white space in the
letter's counter and
perceived status of the initial within the tex1. Although less enhance its status in
a page of text. In this
impressive than versals, the Gothic capital is far f.om plain, fl the thick diagonal
with elaboration in the form of hairline verticals and diagonals. is complemented
by hairlines above
and below it.

Ir wts tN Gorntc text that capital

and minuscule letters of the same
Bi.'1
,,%ffi
#-r
,M
hand first appeared together. Gothic
Capitals, which used the same ductus
6 e4, s"4&-
asthe minuscules (pp. 50-57), were
used within text script to begin a
sentence or denote a proper noun.
In important sentences or verses,
Gothic Capitals were frequently
usurped by Versals. In its simplest
form, a Versal can be an outline
letter filled with a splash of color.
In more sophisticated forms, it can
be historiated (see the Winchester ,.',..-"i r'tli,+"
.a"'t ; l ,.,,.M
Bible, p. 46), zoomorphic (see the ::h$fr iit.i-,.,_,t. l5
El')
i: i rl,/r !\'|
Book of Kells, pp. 28-29), or J.*:;
:J:l {f
I 111' .r.,, "{t
6:i t
#fi i.,, I ),, ,,J ilf::
floriated (see the Book of Hours, , l-
. l.*{?d/
i9 ttr
i.J '{,;.:l; :
.. . {r'

p. 84). Alternatively, the decoration

,....1'.
can be abstract, with spirals, frets, l',l
i,'t..
and interlaced knots (see the ji $:.
".t.', !:t.
rf ii.',ti -t.',
Lindisfarne Gospels, pp. 30_31,). r
il'"J' ''
ii!
.1
':!

,i...:1.,._
.'' i'

t:
-:,
., .,;-.-rIl!.:,.

ii
Rounded bulges have been added to the
stems to give extra emphasis to the letter

The counter oJ each letter has been decorated

with vertical and diagonal haiilines
1)

Sauprp ALpHABET
Two sets of Gothic Capitals have been drawn
on this incomplete sample alphabet, which "*r"X.1ffi;m*-*r
dates from abour 1400. Although the letten are i'i,y ;,::"iI.:,, .!l
.l "(
i ,t-,'i.:i ir '
not the finest examples of Gothic Capitals, each .*{;;i.J.....
i.rrt;s:;,A .'

stroke is clearly shown, making tliem useful

models for the modern calligrapher to follow. ,.,;-rir
1 t.l f:i::'
Note how the scribe has created extra weight on '
some bowed letters by adding an exrra siroke. ,tt-' i
o'lr.r,'
i
 G orrurc C.qprreu &t_Vrasarc

Tne Sr. Vaasr Bters

'Written in
northem France
in the early 11th century,
the St. Vaast Bible is a
product ofthe Franco-
Saxon school, which had
been producing books
of the highest order since
the mid-ninth century. At
first glance, the manuscript
looks ahead of its time,
so sophisticated is the
page design. However, the
plait and knot decoration
'tq
I 3,i" il' around the Versal betrays
$ \",f ,3 the manuscript's Saxon
pedigree (pp. 28-31).

The suggestion oJ a bracketed

seri,f shows that these capitals
were modeled on Impetial
letters (pp.108-109)

1: ;Illltl \.{.i"r i In this Veral, the initial letters

f ( i 1i \r- :-
E and T have been combined
(this combination is the origin

"f oJ our modem ampersand)

i >Fr FjRf.l,t {trr,.{
Sruprp VpRsars
GYrFI&.$e&.&(B Cs.l$?t
'. ?'Yl1'r Fq.(rst tn *mtrL{.fr j
:}]l rt'i l ; ;{}:a:r.},'u-,,,, tt
These Versals may be
by the scribe responsible
F6'f,11 lr-F$@f ?eRRr@./
BE rr*nvx,*.x:*i'r* for the sample alphabet
k lL :.-,:-11 r.1i '. i. t i"r-i' '1:
:,., 1 I, f !rl ) !. "*il
i J. i i
(opposite). They have been
-t IR!(,' lBd{rty$pf c.ro ! I s$.-:
f...ly penned, with
the letten drawn first
and the decoration
added afterward.
'l' tdels for Versals
er the centuries, Versals have
:n modeled on a variety of
:erforms. During the Gothic
,:iod, they were generally based
- Lombardic Capitals (pp. 62-63).
:he Caroline and the Renaissance
-:s. Imperial Capitals were often
.=d as models (pp. 105-109).
ssibly the most ornate Versals
:r drar,m were those in the deluxe
- rthumbrian manuscripts of the

.:1r'medieval period (pp. 2S-31).

-.ise were derived from Roman,
,:iek, and runic models.
- tdels
- -.e other important model for Versals
,s the Bastard Capital (pp. 7S-79).
- "-larged and embellished by a series
-:nterlacing strokes, this type of ParrtRN BooK
Designs for Versals were chosen by
-:sal is known as a Cadel (pp S0-Sl). the patron from pattern books such as
'dels were later revived for use with this one from the 12th century. This
page shows a final working pattern, in
.:lic (pp. 94-95) and Copperplate
which the interrwining stems have
- 102-103) scripts. been accurately worked out.

59
 Gorrutc -ScRrprs

I
t
Gothic Capitals
;
/^!orHIC captrals use the same ductus as the minuscules
\I (rp. 52- 53, 56-57) and are written with the same ,,sranted,,
pen. However, the capitals have a wider, rounder aspect than the
rigidly formal minuscules, and the two forms contrast strikingly
wh3n_use-d together. The number of calligraphic flourishes
in
each. Gothic capital make it an unsuitabre-script for
writing a
whole word or a full page of text. For this, Lombardic capiti'ls
provide a less flamboyant alternatiye (pp. 64_65). be strengthened wir:
an additional strok.
r*i
ll "+
tl
tt
IL
For the ser.:
il
t-J
of the C

il
tt
twist the n::
counterclockut:.
Iti *--1 and drag ti..
tl
iltil
ink downwar..

ll
I *-1
tltl
,ryw),
ilLJIJ
II The bowl of
-
lh;D-m;ii
strengthened with .:'
additional stro':
Letter height
The letter height of the Gothic Capital
is approximately seven pen widths, two
higher than the minusiule height.

Hairlines
The inner-letter space is reduced by
Alternative D
the use ofhairlines, drawn with the
corner of the nib. There are usually
one or two vertical hairlines, and a
single diagonal hairline on either side
The curue of
the Ecan be
of a thicker diagonal stroke.
strengthened
with an
additional
stroke

Create
the bulges by
I) The pointed
beaks ofthe
weauing the
pen in a single t hacleles are drawn
with a jaged
downward
downward stroke
stroke
Alternative E
J

Thefirst
Bulges and hackles stroke of the F
The vertical strokes [Jse a pen angle of
of extends below
Gothic Capitals can be about 35o to draw
the baseline
given additional weight the spiky hackles
and interest in the form
of bulges or hackles, which
protrude to the left of the
stem. use only one or the To dru
other and always make the sedi-
them consistent. Generally, twist the nfi
calligraphers add three countercl&
bulges or hackles. wise and ,t,,.:

the .

down,,,.-."

60