IJARIT 10 (2) Dec 2020 (Full Issue)

ISSN: 2224-0616
International Journal of Agricultural Research,

Innovation and Technology (IJARIT)
Volume 10, Issue 2, December 2020
An International Online Journal
IJARIT Research Foundation

http://www.ijarit.webs.com
ISSN: 2224-0616
Volume 10 Issue 2 December 2020
Chief Editor
Prof. Dr. Md. Shahjahan
Executive Editor
Dr. M.S.A. Mamun
International Journal of Agricultural Research, Innovation and Technology (IJARIT) is

a peer-reviewed open access scientific online journal (ISSN: 2224-0616) of agricultural research,
innovation and technology dedicated to publish high quality research works, short communications
and review articles in the field of agricultural sciences includes: soil science, horticulture, agronomy,
entomology, plant pathology, plant science, crop physiology, animal science, veterinary science,
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harvest technology, genetic engineering and plant breeding, biotechnology, microbial biotechnology,
agricultural extension, agricultural development, agricultural economics, rural development,
sustainable agriculture, organic agriculture, forestry, environmental technology, food security and
other related fields. The journal is published twice a year (June and December) in English.

Editorial Board
Chief Editor
Prof. Dr. Md. Shahjahan, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
Executive Editor
Dr. M.S.A. Mamun, Bangladesh Tea Research Institute, Srimangal, Moulvibazar, Bangladesh
Members
Prof. Dr. A.V.K. Iyengar, Kothari Agricultural Management Centre, Tamil Nadu (India)
Dr. Abu Hena Mostofa Kamal, University of Texas at Arlington, Texas (USA)
Dr. Rajib Biswas, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109 (USA)
Dr. Shofiqul Islam, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (USA)
Mr. Delwar Hossain Ripan, Edith Cowan University, Perth (Australia)
Mr. Zakir Hossain, Saskatchewan Food Industry Development Centre, Saskatoon (Canada)
Mr. Wangchuk Tenxin, Royal Institute of Management, Thimphu (Bhutan)
Mr. Cj Liyanaarachchi, Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka (Sri Lanka)
Mr. Babul Aktar, BRAC Tanzania, Dodoma (Tanzania)
Mr. Frnacis Chimpeni, University of Malawi, Mulanje, Malawi (Central Africa)
Mr. Ali Samandi, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran (Iran)
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© IJARIT Research Foundation

ISSN: 2224-0616
Volume 10 Issue 2 December 2020
Contents
Sl. No Title Page
Scope of using ICT for knowledge management on adaptation to climate change in
agriculture
01 1-6
A. Ghosh, S. Huda and T.R. Chakraborty
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51569
Soil physicochemical properties under eucalyptus tree species planted in alley
maize cropping agroforestry practice in Decha Woreda, Kaffa zone, southwest
02 Ethiopia 7-14
A. Alemayhu and G. Yakob
Application of probiotics and prebiotics for promoting growth of Tiger shrimp
(Penaeus monodon): an approach to eco-friendly shrimp aquaculture
03 15-20
J. Bir, M.R. Golder, S.K. Biswas, S.S. Islam, R. Kumar and K.A. Huq
Comparative analysis of chickpea with boro rice in drought-prone areas of
Bangladesh
04 21-28
S.T. Siddique, M. Kamruzzaman and S.C. Sharna
Various inputs applied for growing sweet potato in the tidal swamp area of south
Borneo of Indonesia
05 29-34
Y. Widodo, S. Wahyuningsih, R.D. Purwaningrahayu, Nuryati and M.J. Mejaya
Evaluation of black cumin genotypes for yield and yield related parameters in bale
mid altitude, Southeastern Ethiopia
06 35-37
G. Asefa and M. Beriso
First report on black spot disease of Phyllanthus emblica L. fruits caused by
Thielaviopsis paradoxa in Bangladesh
07 38-46
M.M. Sikder, M.S. Ahmmed, A. Sultana and N. Alam
Investigating the risk and resilience of flash flood in Sunamgonj haor region of
Bangladesh
08 47-53
M.R. Islam, M.A.H. Babu, M.J. Uddin, M.L. Khatun and M.S. Islam
Quality evaluation of commercially available instant mango drinks powder in local
market of Bangladesh
09 54-58
M.R Badsha, S. Akther, J.S. Jothi and A. Sultana
Investigating suitability of treated wastewater for agriculture in Hawassa, Sidama
region, Ethiopia
10 59-65
Kannan Narayanan and Ayele Getachew
Sl. No Title Page
Effects of organophosphate insecticide, sumithion on histopathology of common
carp (Cyprinus carpio) in the natural pond condition
11 66-75
M. Shira, P. Chowdhury, M.S. Rahman, S.M. Haque and M. Shahjahan
Effects of fodder conservation and ration formulation interventions on dairy
performance in Kenya
12 76-83
B.N. Sakwa, J.O. Ondiek, A.M. King’ori and O.A. Ndambi
Investigation of soil properties and nutrients in agricultural practiced land in
Tangail, Bangladesh
13 84-90
M.S. Islam, T. Nusrat, M.R. Jamil, F. Yesmin, M.H. Kabir and R.H. Rimi
Interactive effects of rice bran compost and chemical fertilizers on
macronutrients, oil and protein content in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)
14 91-99
M. Alauddin, G.M. Mohsin, A.H.M.Z. Ali and M.K. Rahman
Factors influencing adoption of high tunnels for tomato production in northeast
district, Botswana
15 100-109
Dandy Badimo
Study of pesticide use on bitter gourd production at Jashore district
16 P. Hajong, M.S. Rahman, M.A. Islam and G.C. Biswas 110-115
Place-based perceptions, resilience and adaptation to climate change by
smallholder farmers in rural South Africa
17 116-127
W.A. Tesfuhuney and E.H. Mbeletshie
Effect of different amounts of feeds on growth and production of fishes in pond
polyculture
18 128-136
S. Sultana, M.S. Rahman, K.A. Jackshay and K. Hasan
Bioinformatics: scope and challenges in aquaculture research of Bangladesh- a
review
19 137-145
K.M.S. Rana, K. Ahammad and M.A. Salam
Effects of feeding pomegranate peel silage on feed intake and growth performance
of Turkey bred sheep
20 146-154
A.G. Moradi, F. Rahmani, A.S. Aziz and M.F. Qiami
Economics of shifting land from field crops to hog plum (Spondias mombin L.)
cultivation in southern Bangladesh
21 155-163
M.H.K. Sujan, A.K. Ghosh, M. Sultana, F. Islam and F.T. Sadia
Mitigation of land scarcity situation through tenure practices: a study on two
selected villages in Jashore district of Bangladesh
22 164-169
A.K. Ghosh and M.H.K. Sujan
Socioeconomic characteristics and constraints of participatory pond fish farmers
in Mymensingh district, Bangladesh
23 170-176
M.N.A.S. Mithun, M.S. Kowsari and S. Sheheli
ISSN: 2224-0616
Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 1-6, December 2020 Available online at https://ijarit.webs.com
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51569 https://www.banglajol.info/index.php/IJARIT
Scope of using ICT for knowledge management on adaptation

to climate change in agriculture
A. Ghosh1*, S. Huda2 and T.R. Chakraborty3
Received 9 May 2020, Revised 26 July 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
The char land of Bangladesh is vulnerable to climate change. There are changes in extreme
weather events. Impact of climate change resulted feminization of agricultural practices.
Number of development interventions have been taken to skill the rural community to take
adaptation action on agriculture. Development interventions taken in the char land of
Dimla, Nilphamari were studied from June 2018 to December 2019 to identify the capacity
of climate change adaptation interventions using the information and communication
technology to empower women. Mobile Phone Use Index study found that nearly three-
fourth of rural female farmers were capable to manage knowledge on climate change
adaptation if their access to device was ensured. Inclusion of women in the technology
playing a very important role towards transformative leadership. Nearly 85% of the women
farmers have high environmental awareness; likely to be contributory to adaptation
knowledge management. Community themselves identified them more resilient comparing
with areas where promotion of technology is not supported. Institutes with the capacity of
information technology promotion could be the hub of resilience knowledge management
for women, but external supports are required there. Self-motivation supported by project
intervention has created notable capacity of a good number of women who could be the
mentor of women transformative leadership towards resilience.
Keywords: Climate change, Community resilience, Information technology, Women transformative
leadership.
1
Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur, Bangladesh.
2
Dept. of Agricultural Extension, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur, Bangladesh.
3
Oxfam in Bangladesh, RAOWA Complex, VIP Road, Mohakhali, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author’s email: anuhstu.ag62@gmail.com (A. Ghosh)
Cite this article as: Ghosh, A., Huda, S. and Chakraborty, T.R. 2020. Scope of using ICT for knowledge
management on adaptation to climate change in agriculture. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 1-6.
https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51569
Introduction
Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable water sensitive crops. Wang et al. (2008) has
countries to the impacts of climate change. referred adjusting irrigation practices, crop
Cyclones, floods and droughts have long been varieties and livestock species to both
part of the country’s history, but they have temperature and precipitation levels as
intensified in recent years. Climate change is adaptation strategies. Adaptive capacity is the
affecting the agriculture of the country. There are ability of a system to adjust successfully to
number of strategies, which are considered as a climate change that is calibrated to: (a) moderate
means of adaptation to climate change in damages; (b) take advantage of opportunities;
agriculture. Bradshaw et al. (2004) has and (c) cope with the consequences. Some
mentioned a number of adaptation strategy, literatures emphasize the importance of socio-
which includes, crop diversification, mixed crop economic factors for the adaptive capacity of a
livestock farming systems, using different crop system, especially the role of institutions and
varieties, changing planting and harvesting dates, governance in determining the ability to adapt to
drought-resistant varieties and high yielding climate change (Williamson et al., 2012; Engle,
International Journal of Agricultural Research Innovation & Technology An open access article under
Ghosh et al. (2020) Scope of using ICT on adaptation to climate change in agriculture
2011). Women’s adaptive capacity is determined compute the role in Mobile Phone Use Index
by their ability to cope with and respond to (MPUI) to analyze the use of mobile phone for
hazard given the environmental and cultural climate change adaptation. The following formula
settings. Because of male migration in a huge rate was used for this purpose:
due of climate change and development drive;
there is a feminization in agriculture. Moreover, MPUI = N1×2+ N2 ×1+ N3×0.
community is now cultivating new crops and new Where,
technology of farming in practices. To keep pace
with the new form of agriculture which is for MPUI = Mobile Phone Use Index;
adaptation to climate change, women farmers N1 = Number of women who use mobile phone
requires new knowledge. The current study regularly;
determines the potential of mobile phone for N2 = Number of women who use mobile phone
climate change adaptation taken by the women occasionally;
farmers. N3 = Number of women who use mobile phone
not at all;
Methodology The MPUI for each of the activity can range from
0 to 170.
The study was conducted with a community who
is using the mobile phone with an aim of For exploring the relationships between the
adaption in agriculture from a support of an selected characteristics of the respondents and
action research project. The project was being adaptation measures taken by them for climate
implemented by non-government, national and change Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation
international development organizations along Co-efficient (r) was computed. Data were
with universities of Bangladesh and abroad. The analyzed by using software named SPSS 22
community is located in the village Daskhin version.
Kharibari under Dimla upazila of Nilphamari
district. With a view to extorting the pertinent Results and Discussion
information from the study area, the study Use of mobile phone for climate change
focused specifically on the adaptation measures adaptation taken by the women farmers
taken by the farmers for climate change using
mobile phone. A set of qualitative methods were The computed MPUI of the identified 20 climate
used in this study. The practice of climate change change adaptation techniques ranged from 16 to
adaptation in agriculture was identified from 4 150 against the possible range from 0 to 170.
focus group discussions (FGD). Those FGDs had ‘Changing crop variety’ was the number one
list 20 practices that community assumes as ranked use of mobile phone for climate change
adaptation to climate change in agriculture. adaptation techniques (MPUI = 149). The result
Eighty-five farmwomen out of hundred might be due to that majority of the women
households who are female farmer and own farmers have not enough idea about various crop
mobile phone set were selected by following varieties suitable for climate change adaptation.
simple random sampling techniques for the The farming women need high agricultural
questionnaire survey and other consultations production. Mostly they are using high yielding
between the period of June 2018 to December crop varieties. They know about crop varieties by
2019. using mobile phone. The second highest use of
mobile phone for climate change adaptation
Use of mobile phone for climate change techniques was found on ‘Changing crop type’
adaptation taken by the women farmers were (MPUI = 118). This is due to that women farmers
measured by using three points rating scale as get more information about the suitable crop
‘regularly’, ‘occasionally’, and ‘not at all’ and the type. They understand that changing of their crop
weights were assigned to these responses as 2, 1, type can get more agricultural production. The
and 0, respectively. Adaptation measures taken third use of mobile phone for climate change
by the farmers for climate change using mobile adaptation techniques was found on ‘High-
phone score could range from 0 to 40 while 0 yielding water sensitive crops’ (MPUI = 112). The
indicates not using mobile phone for climate result might be due to that respondents use this
change adaptation and 40 indicates mobile phone technique because flood is common in the study
are highly using responsible for climate change area. They know this technique via mobile phone
adaptation. However, besides having calculated either SMS or call. Floating beds for cultivation’
the ‘use of mobile phone for climate change was the last ranked use of mobile phone for
adaptation taken by the women farmers’ score for climate change adaptation techniques i.e. 19th
all the 85 women, an effort was also made to (MPUI = 16).
Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 1-6, December 2020 2

Table 1. Distribution of the respondents according to use of mobile phone.

Sl. Climate change adaptation Frequency of mobile phone use MPUI* Rank
No. techniques order
Regularly Occasionally Not at all
1. Changing crop variety 70 9 6 149 1st
2. Changing crop type 43 32 10 118 2nd
3. Practicing crop rotation 21 47 17 89 6th
4. Short duration crops variety 13 40 32 66 9th
5. Reducing cultivable land 9 34 42 52 13th
6. Changing soil and water 22 23 40 67 8th
management techniques
7. Changing field location 23 27 35 73 7th
8. Shifting from crop to livestock 2 35 48 39 17th
9. Shifting from livestock to crop 11 23 51 45 16th
10. Migrating 18 13 54 49 15th
11. Set community seed banks 13 7 65 33 18th
12. Shifting to off-farm job 14 32 39 60 12th
13. Drought tolerant rice varieties 40 18 27 98 5th
14. Drought tolerant wheat varieties 24 16 45 64 10th
15. Floating beds for cultivation 5 6 74 16 19th
16. Raising plinths of houses 15 21 49 51 14th
17. Moving businesses to safer areas 18 15 52 51 14th
18. Changing planting and harvesting 43 21 21 107 4th
dates
19. High-yielding water sensitive 47 18 10 112 3rd
crops
20. Integrated rice-fish farming 18 25 42 61 11th
*MPUI= Mobile Phone Use Index
Use efficiency of mobile phone towards The use efficiency of the mobile phone set in
climate change adaptation by women adaptation knowledge management for various
farmers issues were found as below:
Table 2. Women farmers using mobile phone for climate change adaptation.
Use efficiency Range Categories Women farmers Mean SD
Possible Observed Number %
Use of mobile 0-40 0-31 Low use (≤13) 25 29.4 16.47 7.44
phone for Medium use (14-27) 55 64.7
adaptation High use (>27) 5 5.9
Organizational 0-24 1-5 Low participation (1-2) 73 85.9 1.82 0.98
participation Medium participation (3-4) 8 9.4
High participation (above 4) 4 4.7
Participation 0-30 Low (≤10) 17 20.0 15.42 5.77
in Community 1-24 Medium (11-20) 50 58.8
Activities High (>20) 18 21.2
Environmental 0-40 Low (≤13) 0.0 0.0 31.33 4.81
Awareness 14-39 Medium (14-27) 13 15.3
High (>27) 72 84.7
ICT Self- 0-32 Low (≤11) 24 28.2 15.73 6.93
efficacy 1-28 Medium (12-22) 44 51.8
High (>22) 17 20.0

Use of mobile phone for adaptation from 1 to 24 with an average of 15.42 and a
standard deviation of 5.77. Based on the PCA, the
Overall use of mobile phone for climate change women farmers were classified into three
adaptation score for 20 identified climate change categories such as ‘low’ (≤10), ‘medium’ (11-20)
adaptation techniques could theoretically range and ‘high’ (>20). Data indicated that the highest
from 0 to 40, where 0 indicating no use and 30 proportions (58.8%) of the women farmers have
indicating high use of mobile phone for climate medium PCA, while 21.2 percent have high PCA
change adaptation. However, the observed use of and 20.0 percent have low PCA. Findings showed
mobile phone for climate change adaptation that majority (above 70.0%) of the women
scores of the respondents ranged from 0 to 31 farmers had medium to high PCA.
with a mean of 16.47 and standard deviation 7.44.
The study found that above three-fifths (64.70%) Environmental awareness (EA)
of the women farmers had medium use of mobile
phone for climate change adaptation while 29.4% The scores of EA by the women farmers ranged
had low and only 5.9% had high use of mobile from 14 to 39 with an average of 31.33 and a
phone for climate change adaptation. The standard deviation of 4.81. Based on the EA, the
average mean value of the use of mobile phone women farmers were classified into three
for climate change adaptation indicates that the categories such as ‘low’ (≤13), ‘medium’ (14-27)
women farmers in average had medium use of and ‘high’ (>27). Data indicated that near forth-
mobile phone for climate change adaptation. fifths (84.7%) of the women farmers have
Unawareness of the respondents about the use of medium to high EA, while 15.3% have high EA
mobile phone in climate change adaptation was and none has low EA. Thus, in general the
observed. Lack of interest and responsiveness on environmental awareness level of the women
receiving information about climate change farmers of the study area was quite satisfactory.
adaptation techniques were also noted. Possession of comparatively high environmental
Therefore, it was necessary to encourage the awareness is likely to be contributory to
women farmers in receiving climate change understand about climate change adaptation.
adaptation information technique through ICT self-efficacy
mobile phone.
The scores of ICT self-efficacy by the women
Organizational participation farmers ranged from 1 to 28 with an average of
Organizational participation scores of the women 15.73 and a standard deviation of 6.93. Based on
farmers ranged from 0 to 24 with an average of the ICT self-efficacy, the women farmers were
1.82 and a standard deviation of 0.98. On the classified into three categories such as ‘low’ (≤11),
basis of their organizational participation scores, ‘medium’ (12-22) and ‘high’ (>22). The findings
the women farmers were classified into three specified that slightly above half (51.8%) of the
categories: ‘low participation’ (1-8), ‘medium women farmers had medium ICT self-efficacy,
participation’ (9-16) and ‘high participation’ while 28.2% have low ICT self-efficacy and 20.0
(above 16)”. Study has found that more than four- percent have high ICT self-efficacy. Findings
fifths (85.9%) of the farmers had low revealed that just forth-fifths (80.0%) of the
participation in different development women farmers had low to medium ICT self-
organizations compared to 9.4 and 4.7% having efficacy.
medium and high organizational participation. Relationship between the selected
The major reasons for such low participation characteristics of the women farmers
could be existence of few organizations in the with their use of mobile phone for climate
study area, lack of awareness and motivation of change adaptation
the respondents to participate in whatever
organizations exist. The point of this section is to explore the
relationships between each of the selected
Participation in community activities (PCA) characteristics of the women farmers and use of
Overall use of mobile phone for climate change mobile phone in climate change adaptation. The
adaptation score for 20 identified climate change selected characteristics constituted independent
adaptation techniques could theoretically range variables and the focus issue was considered use
from 0 to 40, where 0 indicating no use and 40 of mobile phone in climate change adaptation.
indicating high use of mobile phone for climate Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Co-
change adaptation. However, the observed use of efficient ‘r’ was used to test the null hypothesis
mobile phone for climate change adaptation concerning the relationship between any two
scores of the respondents ranged from 0 to 31 variables. The summary results of test of
with a mean of 16.47 and standard deviation 7.44. correlation coefficient are as bellow.
The scores of PCA by the women farmers ranged

Table 3. Correlation between focus issue and selected characteristics of the women farmers.
Selected Characteristics Correlation Value of ‘r’ with 83 df

Organizational participation 0.337**
Participation in community activities (PCA) 0.405**
Environmental awareness (EA) 0.261*
ICT Self-efficacy 0.283**
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level, * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.
Several studies, recently conducted in South Asia information services in rural India presents an
and Africa, have shown the transformative opportunity to make useful information more
potential of modern information and widely available (Fischer et al., 2009; Mittal,
communication technologies (ICTs) in 2012; Mittal and Mehar, 2015). The finding of
agriculture. Among these, mobile phones have this study is also supporting to the findings in
demonstrated their suitability to address the India. As the scope of participation in community
issue of the existing information asymmetry action and the environmental awareness was
(Mittal, 2012; Mittal and Mehar, 2015).The found to be significant that means mobile phone
overall goal of using mobile phone-enabled use in adaptation knowledge management could
information delivery mechanisms is to promote also have potential capacity towards
inclusive growth by reducing the knowledge gap transformative leadership.
between both large and small farmers and across
gender by creating awareness about the latest The problem of the lack of information is even
technologies and best practices, besides more pertinent among women engaged directly
facilitating two-way communication (Mittal and or indirectly in agriculture. Besides facing socio-
Mehar, 2012). In agricultural sector, the farmer is cultural barriers, women farmers have lower
highly vulnerable to risks because of the high levels of literacy, limited access to assets, and
variability in climatic conditions and market information as compared to their male
uncertainties. The farmer’s exposure to the risk counterparts, leading to a gender gap (FAO, 2011;
and uncertainty is often aggravated by lack of Mehar et al., 2016). Knowledge management
information about weather, inputs, farm interventions by different stakeholders could
management practices, or market prices, which bring the changes in minimizing the gender gap.
adversely impacts crop production and income Because of the feminization in farming, more
(Mittal, 2012; Mittal and Mehar, 2012). Delivery women are gradually engaging in agriculture
of the latest agriculture-related information is including crop production to marketing. A project
expected to result in (a) an increase in supported intervention found that only three-
productivity through informed decision making fifths of the women farmers have the capacity of
on crop choice, seed varieties, inputs, agronomic medium use of mobile phone towards climate
practices and plant protection, (b) a reduction in change adaptation where the intervention was
the production costs through the adoption of dedicated for adaptation knowledge
better-quality inputs and technologies and better management. Attempt should be taken for
management practices, and (c) improved increasing extent of use of mobile phone for
incomes resulting from reduced costs and better climate change adaptation purposes through
price realization for the produce. The process of creating awareness and interest among the
adoption of mobile-based information delivery women farmers. Environmental awareness of the
systems has been slow and many of the models women farmers had significantly positive
are still at an early stage of development. The relationship with the use of mobile phone for
sustainability of these models is also in question climate change adaptation. Therefore, more
as most are still funded externally, and farmers training and capacity building was recommended
are not paying the cost of receiving information. by the agricultural extension service providers in
Mobile-enabled information has the potential to and all relevant stakeholders. ICT Self-efficacy of
play an important role in improving the adoption the women farmers had positive relationship with
of modern technologies, inputs, and best their use of mobile phone for climate change
practices (Anderson and Feder, 2007; Bhatnagar, adaptation. Therefore, it may be recommended
2008). The increasing penetration of mobile that attempts should be taken by the concerned
networks and handsets, and the recent authority to build the capacity of ICT use by the
introduction of a number of mobile-enabled women farmers.

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ISSN: 2224-0616
Soil physicochemical properties under eucalyptus tree species

planted in alley maize cropping agroforestry practice
in Decha Woreda, Kaffa zone, southwest Ethiopia
A. Alemayhu1* and G. Yakob2
Received 29 August 2020, Revised 14 September 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
Different studies have shown that the effect of eucalyptus trees on soil physicochemical
properties is variable, which indicates that more investigations that focus on different
specific geographical locations and eucalyptus tree species are required. The objectives of
this study was to evaluate the status of soil nutrients under four eucalyptus tree species
planted in hedgerow system in comparison with that in its adjacent open land. To achieve
these objectives, soil samples were taken from a soil depth of 0-20 cm from 15-20 spots by
using auger and composited for respective treatments. Each soil samples analyzed at Teppi
soil laboratory following standard procedures. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and
treatments separation were made by using Least Significance Difference (LSD) at 95%
probability level. The analysis result indicated that there were no significance differences
between Eucalyptus tree species and its adjacent open land in the level of soil nutrients
(total N, available P, pH, OM, soil moisture and OC) (p<0.05). The only significant
difference recorded between Eucalyptus tree species and its adjacent open land in the level
of sand percentage whereas non-significant difference was noticed between the treatments
on the level of silt and clay percentage in the study. Finally, the results indicate that the
eucalyptus tree species established in hedgerow system on clay soil in high rainfall area have
no significant impact on soil physicochemical properties under short rotation period of the
tree species.
Keywords: Eucalyptus tree species, Soil physicochemical properties, Soil nutrient.
1
Natural Resource Management, Bonga Agricultural Research Center, SARI, P. O. Box 101, Ethiopia.
2
Natural Resource Management, Southern Agricultural Research Institute, SARI, P.O.Box-2126, Ethiopia.
*Corresponding author’s email: asratesho6@gmail.com (A. Alemayhu)
Cite this article as: Alemayhu, A. and Yakob, G. 2020. Soil physicochemical properties under eucalyptus tree
species planted in alley maize cropping agroforestry practice in Decha Woreda, Kaffa zone, southwest Ethiopia.
Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 7-14. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51570
Introduction
Eucalyptus is one of the exotic tree species and recognized socio-economic benefits. Many
most successful plant growing on different eucalyptus species are easy to cultivate for fuel
environments in Ethiopia and broadly in Africa wood, timber, construction and charcoal due to
(Zegeye, 2010). Eucalyptus was planted in Africa their ability to coppice readily, tolerance for low
initially on the southern African plateaus in the quality sites, and low maintenance requirements
early 19th century to supply fuel wood (Beinart, (Liang et al., 2016).
2003). During the time, the country has small
remnant natural forest thus the only option for Evidences on ecological, social and economic
fuel wood was eucalyptus (Bennett, 2011). In the importance of the species are emerged in most
1895, the Emperor of Ethiopia introduced the part of the globe (Bargali. and Singh, 1991;
tree from Australia to address the prevailing fuel Bargali et al., 1993; Bargali, 1995). Specific
wood and construction material demand concerns focus on potential loss of soil fertility
(Breitenbach, 1961). Still today plantation and productivity under short harvest rotations
establishment in Ethiopia is predominantly and the associated impact on biodiversity (Jagger
Eucalyptus (Bekele, 2011) outperforming other and Pender, 2003). The impact of eucalyptus tree
exotic and native species due to the fast-growing plantations upon soil resources has been very
nature of eucalyptus combined with its widely much debated and any complete consolidated
Alemayhu and Yakob (2020) Soil physicochemical properties under eucalyptus tree species in Ethiopia
views do not exist, partly because the impact is (Kindu et al., 2006). This could be due to the
much dependent on variable site and forest combined effect of fast growth and the inability to
conditions. Both positive and negative effects of fix nitrogen (Zegeye, 2010). All these studies can
Eucalyptus on soil properties were reported by give a clue on the impact of Eucalyptus species on
different studies conducted in Ethiopia and soil. However, site-specific findings on the
elsewhere. A study in highlands of Ethiopia species may mislead and draw a wrong
showed that land-use change from agriculture to conclusion. Therefore, this study examine the
E. globulus and E. camaldulensis plantation had effect of four eucalyptus tree species on soil
no adverse impact on exchangeable potassium, physicochemical properties established in
total soil nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur at hedgerow agro-forestry system in a high rainfall
least up to the age of 14.5 years (Hailu, 2002). area of South West Ethiopia.
Similarly, no pronounced changes were reported
in soil bulk density, organic matter, texture, pH, Materials and Methods
exchangeable potassium and available water Description of study area
capacity due to Eucalyptus hedgerows along
maize farmland in Amhara Region, Ethiopia The study was conducted in Modiyo kebele in
(Alemie, 2009). Liang et al. (2016) reported Decha district Kaffa zone, south west Ethiopia.
higher organic matter and nutrient levels in The district is located within the latitude of 07 08'-
Eucalyptus plantations in comparison to nearby 07o26' N and longitude of 35o53'-36o36' E (Fig. 1).
agricultural land in northern Ethiopia. Evidence The altitude and the topography of the study area
from literature suggests the potential of ranges between 500-2300 meter above sea level
Eucalyptus to reduce soil erosion (Grewal et al., consisting of a highly dissected plateau with flat
1992; Kidanu, 2004), sequester carbon in the soil and undulating terrain on areas above 1500
in long term (Silva, 2012) and restore degraded meter above sea level. The dominant soil unit in
lands through increasing the soil carbon by 37 g the study area is Dystric Nitosol (Nd). The study
m-2 yr-1 (Lemenih, 2006). A study conducted in area experience one long rainy season, lasting for
central Mozambique revealed that plantations of 8 months from March to October and the wettest
E. grandis increased total soil organic carbon months are between May and August. The mean
stocks (0-50 cm) and N stocks in the top 10 cm annual rainfall ranges from 1710 mm at Bonga
(Guedes et al., 2016). On the contrary, negative station to 1892 mm at Wushwush station. Over
effect of Eucalyptus plantation on soil TN, 85% of the total annual rainfall, with mean
exchangeable Ca and soil moisture content monthly values in the range of 125-250 mm
(Alemie, 2009), and P stocks (Alemie, 2009; occurs in the 8 months long rainy season. The
Guedes et al., 2016) was reported. It was also mean temperature is 19.4°C at Bonga and 18.1°C
reported that Eucalyptus globulus depleted soil at Wushwush station (Bekele, 2003).
nutrients in the central highlands of Ethiopia
Fig. 1. Map of the study area.

Plant material and nursery management Soil sampling

Seeds of Eucalyptus species were obtained from Composite soil sample (15-20 spots) from 0-20
National Forest Research Center, Addis Ababa. cm soil depth, were taken using auger at (before)
Seedlings for the trials were raised at Keyakela planting and end of the trial (from each plot). The
nursery site in Kaffa zone from December 2011 to collected samples were weighed and air-dried,
samples were sifted through a 2 mm sieve, and
June 2012 close to the study sites. Nursery approximately 200 g of every composite sample
sowing of the multipurpose species was done on were sent to laboratory for analysis. Samples
seedbeds and after germination; the seedlings were subjected for analysis for texture, pH, OC,
were pricked out into white polythene tubes. A OM, total N, CEC and available P at Teppi soil
bamboo shed was set up immediately after laboratory.
pricking out to provide shade and was removed
as necessary. While in the nursery, the seedlings Analysis of soil samples
were watered twice per day during the morning The soil samples were air dried under the shade,
and evening except on days when it rained. This ground using pestle & mortar and sieved to pass
was reduced to once every other day three weeks through 2 mm sieve. The soil pH (1:2.5
prior to planting. Weeds were removed on soil/water) was determined in a 1:2.5 soil to
detection and root pruning was done when ever water suspension following the procedure
roots out grew the polythene. outlined by (Sahelemedhin and Taye, 2000). The
available phosphorus (AP) was determined
Study design and planting following the Olsen procedure (Olsen et al.,
1954). Total nitrogen was determined using the
The study was conducted from 2013 to 2016 on micro-Kjeldahl method (Bremner and Mulvaney,
permanent experimental plots laid out in a 1982), while particle size analysis was carried out
randomized complete block design with five using hydrometer method (Bouyoucos, 1962).
treatments and three replications to evaluate the The organic carbon content was analyzed by wet
effect of Eucalyptus species on physical and digestion method using the Walkley and Black
chemical characteristics of the soil, which is oxidation method (Walkley and Black, 1934)
planted as a hedge. Four eucalyptus tree species while soil organic matter (OM) content was
were considered as a treatments, Eucalyptus calculated by multiplying soil organic carbon
camaldulensis, Eucalyptus citriodora, content by a factor of 1.724. The Cation Exchange
Capacity (CEC) was determined after extraction
Eucalyptus grandis and Eucalyptus saligna. In of the samples with 1 N ammonium acetate
order to establish Eucalyptus hedgerow along the (Chapman, 1965).
contour Eucalyptus seedlings were planted at the
trial sites. Three rows of eucalyptus species with Results and Discussion
10 m distance between rows and 0.5 m spacing
Initial soil physicochemical properties of
between trees along the row were adopted to the experimental sites
establish the hedgerows with a total plot area of
300 m2. Composite soil sample were taken and subjected
for analysis for texture, pH, OC, OM, total N, CEC
and available P.
Table 1. Soil physicochemical properties before planting the eucalyptus tree species in Decha Woreda
Kaffa zone southwest Ethiopia.
Soil properties Values Soil rating (Landon, 1991)

% OC 3.76 High
% OM 6.48 High
%TN 0.32 High
Av. P (ppm) 12.06 Low
CEC in meq 100g soil-1 4.06 Very Low
pH soil H2O 1:2.5 5.20 Strongly acidic
Textural class clay
Note: OC-Organic carbon, OM-Organic Matter. TN-Total Nitrogen, Av. P- Available Phosphorus, CEC-Cation
Exchange Capacity.
Soil N content was 0.32%, which is higher than classify analytical results of soil fertility
0.15% N critical level for crops recommended by parameters in southern region. The soil pH 5.20
Sobulo and Osiname (1981). The organic matter showed that the soil is strongly acidic. The soil
was optimum whereas the available phosphorus textural class is clay.
was very low as ATA’s Critical levels used to

Effects of eucalyptus trees species on soil characteristics of the study area in which the area
physical properties is known with its high moisture and rainfall
obtaining up to eight months per year. This result
Soil moisture and soil texture is in line with Alemie (2013) who reported that
Surface soil moisture data were collected by using when there is sufficient rain, eucalyptus tree do
digital instrument (digital soil moisture tester) not affect the soil moisture, but only when
directly from the field during maize yield rainfall decreases Eucalyptus dries out the soil
harvesting time every year. The obtained soil faster. In contrary to this, other authors reported
moisture data across the treatment was not the decline of soil moisture near to the
significant (Table 2). The null difference of the Eucalyptus edges (Kidanu et al., 2005; Canisius,
soil moisture under the tree and open area was 2016).
recorded. Which is may be due to agro-ecological
Table 2. Top soil moisture (percentage) under four Eucalyptus tree species in Decha district Kaffa
zone south west Ethiopia.
Treatment Mean ± SD
Year I Year II Year III
Control 14.16±0.66 12.30±0.99 13.23±1.54
Eucalyptus saligna 13.60±2.08 11.60±0.88 13.30±1.21
Eucalyptus citriodora 13.50±1.13 12.10±0.96 13.50±1.24
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 14.10±1.77 12.40±1.94 14.10±1.14
Eucalyptus grandis 13.50±1.27 11.90±.89 13.50±1.71
CV (%) 11.70 11.10 10.50
LSD (0.05) NS NS NS
Note: Mean values with different letters are statistically different at α 0.05.
There were no significant differences in the total organic material available to the soil than relative
silt and total clay percentage between the soil to agricultural fields (Liang et al., 2016).
under eucalyptus tree species and the soil out of
the eucalyptus tree species (control) but the In addition, the result was in contrary to
significant difference was recorded for total sand Lemenih and Teketay (2004)’s finding who
percentage between the eucalyptus tree species indicated that growing of Eucalyptus increased
and the control (Table 3 a & b). The result was soil acidity while the base saturation declined
nearly similar to the finding by Alemie (2009) compared to native vegetation sites and adjacent
who noticed non-significant effect of eucalyptus agricultural lands.
tree plantation on soil texture in comparisons of Soil organic matter
soils at different distances and depths.
Soil analysis result indicated that Eucalyptus
Effects of eucalyptus trees species on soil trees were not affected organic matter content of
chemical properties the experiment site. Moreover, the study revealed
Soil pH the improvement of soil organic matter under the
four eucalyptus trees species as compared to
The pH value of soil under different eucalyptus before establishment (Table 1, 3 a & b). organic
species was not varied as compared to the control matter varied from 8.24-10.15% with an average
but the value of pH was varied significantly of approximately 9.18% and ranged under high
(P<0.05) as compared to soil result of before level according to (Stephanie et al., 2012), who
establishment (Table 1, 3 a & b). The pH value of
classified soil OM as low if it is less than 4%,
the soil revealed an improvement from 5.2
(strongly acidic) to the range between 5.5-5.8 medium if it is between 4% and 8% and high if it
(Moderately Acidic) with maximum improvement is above 8%. And the result was in line with Leite
of soil acidity under Eucalyptus camaldulensis et al. (2010) who found in Brazil that contents of
according to Horneck et al. (2011) classification. soil organic matter were considerably higher in
The result was in line with Cao et al. (2010)’s Eucalyptus spp. soils than in pasture areas,
finding who reported the reduction of soil pH which they attributed to the greater amount of
from 4.2 to 4.5, under Eucalyptus spp. residues produced by the Eucalyptus spp.
plantations in China. Similarly, Alemie (2009) plantation (leaves, branches, bark and especially
found reduced soil pH and strongly acidic values roots) that remained in the soil. Similarly the
ranging from 3.5 to 4.0 under Eucalyptus spp. finding was in line with Alemie (2009)’s finding
plantations in Koga watershed in Ethiopia and who noted that Eucalyptus trees did not affect
with (Alemie et al., 2013, Liang et al., 2016)’s organic matter content in the soil significantly in
report as compared to adjacent agricultural land. comparison along distance from Eucalyptus
The possible case for the improvement of soil pH stand.
may be due to its canopy cover, which may lead
to increasing volumes of leaf litter and other

Table 3a. Soil physical and chemical characteristics in eucalyptus vs. maize trial in Decha Woreda,
kaffa zone southwest Ethiopia.
Treatments %OC %OM %TN Av. P in ppm CEC in meq 100g soil-1
Control 5.24±0.80 9.03±1.38 0.45±0.07 12.84±0.40 5.48±0.75
E. citriodora 5.14±0.80 8.86±1.39 0.44±0.07 12.59±0.34 5.41±0.78
E. camaldulensis 5.54±1.14 9.55±1.96 0.47±0.10 13.07±0.66 5.78±1.13
E. grandis 4.88±0.95 8.41±1.64 0.42±0.08 12.54±0.48 5.12±0.91
E. saligna 5.62±0.93 9.69±1.60 0.41±0.05 12.97±0.42 5.82±0.90
P in ANOVA 0.59 0.59 0.18 0.31 0.43
Table 4b. Soil physical and chemical characteristics in eucalyptus vs. maize trial in Decha Woreda,
kaffa zone southwest Ethiopia.
Treatments pH soil H2O 1:2.5 Sand (%) Silt (% ) Clay (%)
Control 5.6±0.20 18±0.11b 34±3.00 48±2.30
E. citriodora 5.6±0.23 26±0.52a 20±11.00 54±6.42
E. camaldulensis 5.7±0.32 28±0.57a 24±8.08 48±5.03
E. grandis 5.5±0.25 28±0.50a 16±8.71 56±6.11
E. saligna 5.7±0.25 28±0.57a 20±6.42 52±1.15
P in ANOVA 0.43 0.01 0.32 0.60
Note: Means with different letters are significantly different at p=0.05. OC- Organic carbon, OM- Organic
Matter, TN-Total Nitrogen, Av. P- Available Phosphorus, CEC- Cation Exchange Capacity.
Soil available phosphorus and total nitrogen amounts of organic matter. The result was in line
with Yitaferu et al. (2013)’s finding who founded
The mean concentration of soil available P greater total nitrogen concentration in eucalyptus
recorded were 12.84 and 12.59, 13.07, 12.54, land use than others. In addition, in contrary
12.97 ppm for control and Eucalyptus tree with Alemie (2009) who found decreased total
species, respectively (Table 3 a) but the difference nitrogen concentration under plantations of
was not significant. The soil analysis result Eucalyptus spp. in Ethiopia and Tererai et al.
revealed that the eucalyptus trees species was not (2014) in South Africa. Results of the present
affected the concentration of soil available experiment are not in agreement with Yitaferu et
phosphorus as compared to the control and pre- al. (2013) and Alemie (2009).
cropping soil analysis in the study area.
Moreover, the study revealed the improvement of Soil organic carbon and cation exchange capacity
soil available P under the four eucalyptus trees The concentration of soil organic carbon revealed
species as compared to before establishment an improvement as compared to initial value of
(Table 1, 3 a). Similarly, there were no significant organic carbon from 3.76% to minimum 4.88%
differences in the level of the concentration of soil under Eucalyptus grandis and maximum 5.62%
total nitrogen between the soil under the under Eucalyptus saligna (Table 3 a). Our data of
eucalyptus tree species and the control. However, soil organic carbon were supported by the
the soil analysis result revealed the improvement findings of Bekele et al. (2006), who showed that
of total nitrogen concentration in the soil as E. grandis plantation, after 20 years of
compared to pre-cropping soil analysis result in cultivation and 35 years of pasture, increased the
the trial (Table 1, 3 a). This improvement could total soil organic carbon to nearly pre-
also be explained by the significantly different deforestation levels. Likewise, Ashagrie et al.
quantities of organic matter, due to the obvious (2005) found out that the bulk of soil organic
difference in leaf litter (Liang et al., 2016). carbon of E. globulus plantation at age of 21 was
as similar as with that of its adjacent natural
As organic matter input increases in the soil due forest. These findings in combination with the
to increased litter falling from the forest or prior studies can indicate that eucalyptus tree
plantation canopy, microorganisms break down species included in this study has the potential to
the organic matter, generating more nutrients, improve the soil organic carbon. Similar to OC,
including nitrogen and phosphorus (Bot and cation exchange capacity was improved as
Benites, 2005). Both nitrogen and phosphorus compared to initial value from 4.06 to minimum
are associated with the amount of organic matter 5.12 under Eucalyptus grandis and maximum
found in soil, as organic matter acts as a major 5.82 under Eucalyptus saligna and the value of
source of nutrients to the soil (Brady, 1990). cation exchange capacity in our study was an
Nitrogen and phosphorus levels were higher unusual in the soil with high organic matter and
under Eucalyptus camaldulensis than clay soil texture (Table 3 a & b).
agricultural land, where there are also higher

As our result was in line with some authors hydrological impacts of Eucalyptus in the
finding (Cao et al., 2010; Leite et al., 2010; semi humid Ethiopian Highlands: the Lake
Bekele et al., 2006; Ashagrie et al., 2005), there Tana Plain. J. Hydrol. Hydromech. 61(1):
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Application of probiotics and prebiotics for promoting growth of

Tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon): an approach to
eco-friendly shrimp aquaculture
J. Bir1*, M.R. Golder1, S.K. Biswas1,2, S.S. Islam1,3, R. Kumar4 and K.A. Huq1
Received 11 May 2020, Revised 9 September 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
The current study has been conducted to evaluate the growth performance of shrimp
(Penaeus monodon) by applying eco-friendly culture mechanism like prebiotics and
probiotics. The experiment was carried out for 95 days in different shrimp farms at coastal
district of Bagerhat, Bangladesh. Three different treatments viz., probiotic treated as T1,
prebiotics treated as T2 and both probiotics and prebiotics as T3 with a control group were
designed to conduct the experiment. The size of the experimental ponds was five acre and
the stocking density was 4/m2 in each treatment. CP NASA shrimp feed (32% protein) was
given thrice in a day during the study period. After 95 days of culture period, the maximum
weight gain was observed at T3 (33.78±0.18 g) whereas the minimum weight gain was
observed at control group (25.69±0.10 g). The survival rate was the highest in T3 (89.01%)
followed by T2 (75.51%) and T1 (53.44%) and the lowest rate was observed in control group
(50.88%). Overall production was higher in T3 (833.78 kg ha-1) compared to T2 (553.40 kg
ha-1), T1 (447.84 kg ha-1) and Control group (310.57 kg ha-1). pH value was found to
maximum in T3 (7.71±0.08) and it was minimum in T1 (7.41±0.10). In addition, the
maximum TAN value was found to be 2.22±0.19 mg L-1 in C pond and it was minimum in T3
(0.32±0.06 mg L-1). Therefore, it could be concluded that combine application of probiotics
and prebiotics might be the reliable media to enhance production of shrimp by maintaining
eco-friendly environment in aquaculture.
Keywords: Probiotics, Prebiotics, Eco-friendly, Growth, Shrimp.
1Fisheries and Marine Resources Technology Discipline, Khulna University, Bangladesh.

2Aquaculture Extension Manager, Community Development Centre (CODEC), SAFETI Project, Bangladesh.
3Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS), University of Tasmania, Australia.
4Senior Upazila Fisheries Officer, Department of Fisheries (DoF), Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author’s email: joy@fmrt.ku.ac.bd (J. Bir)
Cite this article as: Bir, J., Golder, M.R., Biswas, S.K., Islam, S.S., Kumar, R. and Huq, K.A. 2020. Application
of probiotics and prebiotics for promoting growth of tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon): an approach to eco-
friendly shrimp aquaculture. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 15-20. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51571
Introduction
and/or freshwater fishes (Ghosh et al., 2016). M.
The shrimp sector in Bangladesh is very unique rosenbergii is mostly (over 95%) produced by
compared to other fisheries and supported large small-scale farmers, who harvest only a few kg of
coastal fishing industrial development (Howlader large shrimp per day. Shrimp exports total over
et al., 2020). More than 95% of shrimp and 40,000 tonnes of P. monodon, M. rosenbergii
prawn in Bangladesh are produced in extensive and some smaller volumes of other species in
polyculture ponds that were formerly used as rice 2016 and 2017 (Azad et al., 2019). Over 80% was
ponds and are locally referred to as ‘Ghers’. The exported to the EU market in 2017, especially to
culture of Penaeus monodon (black tiger shrimp), the Netherlands, Germany and Belgium. There
locally referred to as ‘Bagda‘, is mostly combined are more than 70 factories approved by the
with the culture of other shrimp species that are Department of Fisheries (DoF) in Bangladesh,
trapped in the gher when water is taken in (DoF, but only 40-50 are operational (FAO, 2013;
2017; Ghosh, 2018; Howlader et al., 2020). The Hossain et al., 2013).
culture of Macrobrachium rosenbergii (Giant
freshwater prawn) takes place in smaller ponds Shrimp and prawn together represent the second
and is mostly combined with the culture of rice largest exportable items contributing to foreign
Bir et al. (2020) Application of probiotics and prebiotics for promoting growth of tiger shrimp
exchange earnings of Bangladesh (Ghosh et al., through maintaining pollution free environment
2016; Azad et al., 2019). Shrimp farming has (Kumar et al., 2016; Fernandes and Kerkar,
significant impact on environment and economy. 2019). On the other hand, prebiotics acts as free
Although the country has a great history of carbon source that helps heterotrophic bacteria to
shrimp/prawn farming, the productivity of digest ammonia. It also ensures enough oxygen,
shrimp is very low compare to the other shrimp stabilize the pH and balance the density of algae-
producing countries of the world (Rahman and bacteria ratio.
Rashid, 2013). One of the major causes of poor
productivity is the extensive or traditional Considering that aspect, current study was
method of farming (90 percent of total farms), conducted to focus the effect of probiotics and
whereas developed countries brought their farms prebiotics on shrimp production in the southern
under intensive or semi-intensive methods of coastal region of Bangladesh. The current
farming (Azad et al., 2019). Bangladesh has great research focused on assessing growth
potentiality to increase productivity of shrimp performance of shrimp through eco-friendly
and prawn by introducing intensive and semi- culture practices with the application of
intensive methods of farming (Rahman and probiotics and prebiotics.
Rashid, 2013). Methodology
Although shrimp industries having a great Experimental site and size
contribution in the economy of Bangladesh as
well many developing countries (Alam and Field experiment was carried out directly on the
Ahammad, 2017). But, the industries have facing farmers’ commercial shrimp farms. A total 12
lot of challenge in recent decays. As a result, commercial farms were selected. The average
production and quality of shrimp commodities area of the pond was with 1.5 m depth and the
are also declining gradually (Ghosh, 2018). Now farmers mostly practices conventional shrimp
a day the current aquaculture moved to eco- farming without the application of probiotics and
friendly culture system (Shingare et al., 2020). prebiotics.
Different types of environment friendly culture
Experimental species
methods have been developed. Probiotics and
prebiotics are one of the most popular eco- The experiment only focused on Shrimp
friendly culture systems around the world monoculture techniques. Specific Pathogen Free
(Kumar et al., 2016; Shefat, 2018; Shingare et al., (SPF) shrimp larvae Penaeus monodon was
2020). Probiotic are heterotrophic beneficial cultured and observed their growth performance
bacteria that remove deleterious nitrogenous by applying different probiotics and prebiotics.
compound from the aquatic system (Fernandes Shrimp post larvae (PL) of 15 days old was
and Kerkar, 2019). The principal mode of action collected from a commercial hatchery located at
of probiotic bacteria is through competitive Cox’s Bazar district of Bangladesh.
exclusion mechanisms in which pathogens are
replaced or excluded through the development of Description of probiotics and its application
a beneficial microbial population on the intestinal Three different commercial probiotics were
surface which leads to a reduction in disease, selected considering on their function,
better health and thus better growth of the host compositions, mood of application such as soil,
(Jha, 2014; Azad et al., 2019). water and gut probiotics and obviously on their
Thus, probiotics act as the alternatives of economics aspect (Table 1).
antibiotics and chemicals reducing diseases
Table 1. Information about applied probiotics with its composition and mode of application.
Type of Microbial Manufacturing Marketing Mode of application
probiotics composition company agency
Rhodobacter sp. Kyushu Medical Co. Fish-Tech 7 days prior of PL stocking at dosage
Soil and Rhodococcus Ltd, Japan 150 ml/decimal and continue with
probiotics 10 days interval during the culture
period at dosage 100 ml/decimal.
Bacillus subtilis INVE (Thailand) INVE 7 days prior of PL stocking at dosage
Water and Bacillus Ltd Aquaculture 0.5 g/decimal and continue with 10
probiotics licheniformis days interval during the culture
period at dosage 1.0 g/decimal.
B. mensentericus, Murdoch UniBioCare Mix with daily feed for shrimp at
Gut Bacillus subtilis University, (BD) dosage 1-2 g/kg feed.
probiotics and Licheniformis, Australia & Inje Corporation
Nitrobacter sp. University

Preparation of prebiotics
Then the mixture is kept in a plastic drum or
Prebiotics was prepared by using locally available other jar that must have lid to cover and it needs
ingredients such as rice bran/auto polish, at least 24-72 hours to ferment. After the
molasses, yeast powder these are the major fermentation the solution must be filtered with
component that is very available near the hand small meshed cloths or net and collect only the
(Table 2). In this process rice bran, molasses and water that should be sprinkled all over the farm
yeast powder is taken in required amount and water. Each time of application, newly prepared
mixed in water. The amount of water should be prebiotics should be applied.
10 times more than the total mixture weight.
Table 2. Ingredients used to prepare prebiotics and their specification with functions.
Ingredients & support materials Amount/Acre Specification
Rice polish (Auto Polish) 4 kg Source of carbohydrates.
Molasses 4 kg Fructooligosaccharides.
Help to increase microbial and plankton number.
Yeast Powder 100 g Single cell micro-organism of the Saccharomyces
cerevisae used for fermentation and important
source of carbon-di-oxide.
Water 10 times than Help to mix all ingredients properly with pond
the mixture environment.
Experiment set up analysed to determine the proximate composition
according to the standard procedures given by
The experiment was conducted with four Association of Official Analytical Chemists
treatments including a control. The treatment (AOAC, 1980). The average percentage of protein,
group were expressed as T1 (with only prebiotics, fat and moisture was 31, 7 and 12%, respectively
T2 (using only probiotics), T3 (using both in the feed. Feed was given according to the body
prebiotics and probiotics) and C as control pond weight and the age of shrimp. At first month, feed
using none of these. All other management like was given at 10% of total shrimp body weight, and
stocking density (4/m2) feed, feeding methods, then up to five months feed was given at 5% of
liming etc. were similar throughout the body weight, and last two months the feed was
experimental period. given at 2% of the total body weight of shrimp
Feeding management (the average weight of shrimp was multiplied by
the total number of shrimp to calculate total
Commercial supplementary feed formulated by weight) (Table 3). Feed was spread over the pond
CP India Ltd for shrimp was used containing fish surface three times in a day at 30% (6.00 am),
meal, shrimp head meal, cod liver-oil, squid meal, 30% (12.00 pm) and 40% (6.00 pm) of the total
broken rice, soybean meal, wheat flour, feed allocated for the shrimp.
cholesterol, phospholipids, vitamins and minerals
(Leaflet of CP Feed). Before feeding, the feed was
Table 0. Feed Chart followed in treatment (CPF-2017, India) for 1000 individual.
Feed used/1000 biomass

Age Average body Weight of Feeding ratio Daily Total feed Feeding
(Days) weight (g) 1000 shrimp (% body feed (g) (kg)/week frequency/day
(kg) weight)
1-7 0.8 0.8 10.0 0.080 0.560 3
8-14 1.5 1.5 9.0 0.135 0.945 3
15-21 4.0 4.0 5.5 0.220 1.540 3
22-28 6.0 6.0 5.0 0.300 2.100 3
29-35 8.5 8.5 4.4 0.374 2.618 3
36-42 10.0 10.0 4.1 0.410 2.870 3
43-49 12.0 12.0 3.8 0.456 3.192 3
50-56 15.0 15.0 3.4 0.510 3.570 3
57-63 18.0 18.0 3.0 0.540 3.780 3
64-70 21.5 21.5 2.6 0.559 3.913 3
71-77 24.0 24.0 2.4 0.576 4.032 3
78-84 27.0 27.0 2.3 0.621 4.347 3
85-91 30.0 30.0 2.2 0.660 4.620 3

Sampling and growth measurement Results and Discussion

The culture was done for 95 days. Sampling was
Growth, survival rate and production of
done regularly at every week. The water salinity
of the pond was measured by using a hand P. monodon
Refractometer (Erma-Japan). The pH, alkalinity,
total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) of the pond water There were significant differences observed of the
was recorded by using pH test kit, alkalinity kit final mean body weight of shrimp among all
and ammonia test kit, respectively (Advance treatment (p<0.05) (Table 4). After 95 days of
Pharma, Thailand). Water temperature was culture period the highest mean body weight was
measured by using a standard centigrade found at T3 (33.78±0.18 g) in which both
thermometer. probiotics and prebiotics were applied combined
Statistical analysis whereas lowest mean growth was in T4
(25.69±0.10 g) the control group (Table 0).
All data were analysed statistically using SPSS Similarly, Significant effect of prebiotics and
version 16.0, Chicago, SPSS lnc. Normality test probiotics also observed on survival rate of
done by Shapiro–Wilk to check for normal
distribution and homogeneity of variance. Only shrimp among all treatment (p<0.05). The
percent data had to be arcsine transformed before maximum survival rate was found at T3 (89.01%)
analysis; however, non-transformed data are whereas at control group the rate was almost half
presented in tables. Least significance difference of the initial stocking. However, the overall
(LSD) post hoc test on a one-way ANOVA was production at T3 almost three time more than the
used to examine treatment effects on weight gain. control.
All statistical analyses were considered at 5%
(p<0.05) level of significance.
Table 0. Body weight, % survival rate and production (mean ± standard error) of P. monodon treated
with three different prebiotics and probiotics.
C T1 T2 T3
Initial Weight (g) 0.74±0.01 0.77±0.01 0.81±.01 1.08±0.01
Final Weight (g) 26.43±0.10 27.81±0.10 30.91±0.13 34.85±0.18
Weight gain (g) 25.69±0.10a 27.04±0.11a 30.10±0.13a 33.78±0.18a
Survival rate (%) 50.88±2.66 53.44±0.95 75.51±2.06 89.01±1.90
Production (kg/ha) 310.56±81.20 447.84±21.08 553.40±50.81 833.78±87.96
Different superscript letters (effect of prebiotics and probiotics) indicate significant difference among the
treatments (One-way analysis of variance, p<0.05).
It is clearly observed from this experiment that Observation of probiotics and prebiotics
the probiotics and prebiotics enhanced overall interaction effect on individual growth
shrimp production. Although the combine variables
application of probiotics and prebiotics
dramatically help to get higher production. The LSD post hoc test on a one-way ANOVA
Similar scenario production performance by revealed that there was a statistically significant
probiotic application also observed by Shingare et difference in body weight gain between the group
al., (2020) in Maharashtra India in shrimp of the control and all the treatments (p = 0.00)
polyculture, Ghosh et al., (2016) at Khulna region (Table 5).
of Bangladesh in Prawn monoculture and Shefat,
(2018) at shrimp farm in southern part
Bangladesh.
Table 5. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).
ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
IW Between Groups 2.107 3 0.702 83.728 0.000
Within Groups 0.973 116 0.008
Total 3.080 119
FW Between Groups 1257.900 3 419.300 748.789 0.000
Total 1322.857 119
WG Between Groups 1163.272 3 387.757 677.350 0.000
Total 1229.678 119

Water quality parameter in experimental pond was ranged from 7.41±0.10 to 7.71±0.08, which
were favorable for fish and shellfish culture
pH value was found to be maximum in T3
(Ghosh et al., 2016). At farm level, Ammonia level
(7.71±0.08) and minimum in T1 (7.41±0.10)
should be less than 1 ppm (Soundarapandian et
(Figure 1). In addition, the maximum TAN value
al., 2010). In the present study, total ammonia
was found to be 2.22±0.19 mg L-1 in C pond and
nitrogen was 2.22±0.19 and 0.32±0.06 in control
minimum in T3 (0.32±0.06 mg L-1) (Figure 1).
and prebiotics probiotics treated ponds,
From different earlier studies the normal pH of
respectively. Thus, maintaining the ammonia
brackish water ranged between 7 to 9 for
level probiotic and prebiotics help in maintaining
culturing shrimps and less than 7 or higher than 9
good water quality and thereby keeps the shrimp
often found harmful to shrimp, even is
disease free (Hossain et al., 2013; Azad et al.,
detrimental to the health of the shrimps (Muthu,
2019).
1980). In the present study, the pH concentration
Figure 1. pH and TAN values in all ponds during the 3 months experimental period. The error bars
indicate the standard error of the treatments.
Most often economic analysis is an important shrimp farm can be a profitable and ecofriendly
issue for this kind of study. Along with the culture techniques for coastal shrimp farmer.
production we also conducted cost benefits
analysis and we found that our profit if almost References
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Comparative analysis of chickpea with boro rice

in drought-prone areas of Bangladesh
S.T. Siddique1*, M. Kamruzzaman2 and S.C. Sharna3
Received 12 May 2020, Revised 2 August 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
The study is conveyed to compare the profitability of chickpea and boro rice in Rajshahi
district, which is one of the most drought-prone areas of Bangladesh. In this study, a total of
180 farmers (90 chickpea growers and 90 boro rice growers) are used as sample
respondents, and data were collected by using a structured questionnaire in 2019. A probit
regression model is used to find out the determinants that affect the cultivation of chickpea
and boro rice. The important finding of this study is that the Benefit-Cost Ratio for chickpea
and boro rice production is 1.88 and 1.05, respectively. The results indicate that chickpea
cultivation is more profitable than boro rice cultivation. Besides, the study reveals that
occupation, farm size, and seed have a positive impact while family size, human labor, and
irrigation have negative effects on farmer’s decision to cultivate chickpea cultivation rather
than boro rice. It is, therefore, concluded that the farmers should be encouraged to grow
more chickpea rather than boro rice as a means of increasing farm income through crop
diversification program.
Keywords: Benefit-cost ratio, Boro rice, Chickpea, Drought-prone areas, Probit model.
1National Science & Technology Fellow, Department of Agricultural Economics, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
Agricultural University, Gazipur- 1706, Bangladesh.
2Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University,
Gazipur- 1706, Bangladesh.

3Research Associate, Department of Agricultural Economics, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural
University, Gazipur- 1706, Bangladesh.

*Corresponding author’s email: saima.aerd@gmail.com (S.T. Siddique)
Cite this article as: Siddique, S.T., Kamruzzaman, M. and Sharna, S.C. 2020. Comparative analysis of chickpea
with boro rice in drought-prone areas of Bangladesh. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 21-28.
Introduction
Agriculture in Bangladesh is primarily of the low probability of the required amount of
characterized by a rice monoculture, and boro rainfall after mid-October, about 80% of the
rice is one of the major cereal food grains in region remains fallow in the rabi season (Riches
Bangladesh (BBS, 2018). Boro rice contributed et al., 2008). These circumstances make the area
more than 55% of the total rice production where drought-prone, as well as no residual moisture is
total pulse production was only 2.44% (BBS, available for crop emergence but it can support
2018). However, boro rice is one of the most short-duration crops such as chickpea. Because
costly crops, the return from HYV Boro rice has chickpea is a suitable crop for the farmers that
declined because of low market price and high can be grown on residual moisture without
cost of production (Ahmed et al., 2009). On the irrigation, following the harvest of transplanted
other hand, pulses fit well in the existing cropping main season (aman) rice.
systems of Bangladesh due to their short
duration, low input, minimum care requirement, As boro rice is an irrigated crop, a study showed
and drought-tolerant nature (Elias et al., 1986). that 78.7% of the lifted water was important for
Among the pulses, chickpea is the third most boro rice production which increases irrigation as
important food legume crop worldwide (Ali, well as production cost (Dey et al., 2013). Also at
2017) and it is one of the important cash crops for the time of considering individual inputs, human
Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, The High Barind labor was found as the largest contributor of
Tract of northwest covering larger parts of expenses of HYV boro rice production in the
Rajshahi, Chapai Nawabganj, and Naogaon Bhola district (Sujan et al., 2017; Majumder et al.,
districts where rainfall is nearly low, considering 2009). However, in opposition, chickpea is a
the zone is semiarid and drought-prone. Because profitable crop, which has low water
Siddique et al. (2020) Comparative analysis of chickpea with boro rice in drought prone areas of Bangladesh
requirements and it reduces labor requirements prone districts of Bangladesh. The data were
compare to boro rice (Kumar, 2007; Saha, 2002). collected from the Rajshahi district where rainfall
The water requirement of pulses is about one- is comparatively lower than any other region of
fifth of the requirement of cereals, thus effectively Bangladesh. Geographically this region is situated
save available precious irrigation water (Reddy, in the Barind Tract and hence it has a dry climate
2009). In addition, its residue is used as animal and low fertile soil. The region experienced high
feed and it improves the fertility of the soil temperature with limited soil moisture storage
(Shiferaw et al., 2007). Since the production is along with low and erratic rainfall (Ali, 2000).
not sufficient and consumption demand is so
high, that Bangladesh needs to import a large The data
amount of chickpeas from foreign countries. Villages were purposively selected from Rajshahi
Bangladesh imported 1,86,000 tons of chickpea district and then the farmers were selected
worth USD 127 million in 2013 (BBS, 2014) and randomly from the village levels. A complete list
this was a huge volume of import which shows of chickpea and boro rice-growing farmers was
the importance to enhance the scope of chickpea prepared with the help of renowned village
cultivation in Bangladesh. Hence, in drought- farmers and DAE personnel from the study areas.
prone areas, the fallow land can be brought under The primary data related to socio-economic
chickpea cultivation due to its high yield on characteristics of the farmers, input costs, and
residual moisture as well as its low input yield were collected from 180 farming households
requirements. So, it is better to create scope for where 90 farmers grew chickpea and 90 farmers
crop diversification and therefore, chickpea can produced boro rice. The data were collected from
be a better start in these drought-prone areas to March to June 2019. Secondary data on the area
compete with the current situation. and production of chickpea and boro rice were
In the context of Bangladesh, only a few studies also used to supplement the information.
were found about the economics of chickpea but The analytical framework
on the other side, many kinds of research were
done for boro rice. Rahman et al. (2018) found Financial profitability analysis for
that the adoption of improved pulse productivity chickpea and boro rice cultivation
was significantly influenced by land, fertilizer, To estimate the financial profitability both for
mechanical power, pesticides, and labor in chickpea and boro rice cultivation, Benefit-Cost
Bangladesh. Saha (2002) found that chickpea was Ratio (BCR) were calculated as well as gross
recognized as a low-cost, highly profitable crop margin and net return analysis were done (Dillon
that can be cultivated without irrigation in the and Hardaker, 1993). The undiscounted BCR was
High Barind Tract area of Bangladesh. He also worked out using the following formula:
found that chickpea was more important for
small and medium level farmers. Sujan et al. 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
(2017) stated that the boro rice cultivation was a BCR =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
profitable crop in Bogura district and the most
important factors for boro rice cultivation was The performance of chickpea and boro rice
human labor, seed, urea, insecticide, and cultivation was also compared based on gross
irrigation. Hoque and Haque (2014) studied the margin analysis, which was the difference
economic profitability of boro rice production by between gross return (GR) and total variable cost
using the Cobb-Douglas production function and (TVC).
found that factors like cost of irrigation, GM = GR-TVC
insecticide, seed, and human labor showed a
significant effect on profitability. Where, GM = Gross margin (BDT ha-1), GR =
Gross return (BDT ha-1) and TVC = Total variable
Keeping in mind the scarcity of research, this cost (BDT ha-1).
study will help to find out the benefit and costs of
the two crops, which will assist the individual Net return analysis was done by deducting both
researchers in conducting further studies in this variable and fixed costs from the gross return.
particular field. The study will also help to Return from by-product was also included with
estimate the determinants that affect the the net return. To calculate the net return for
chickpea and boro rice cultivation so that we can both the crops, the following formula was used in
improve our understanding of decision-making in the study:
𝑛
the production of chickpea as well as boro rice.
𝜋 = 𝑃𝑦 𝑌 + ∑ 𝑃𝑥𝑖 𝑋𝑖 − 𝑇𝐹𝐶
Materials and Methods 𝑖=0
The study area Where,  = Net return (BDT ha-1), 𝑃𝑦 = per unit
Based on the area, production, and yield, the price of the product (BDT kg-1), 𝑌 = Amount of
present study was conducted in one of the highest product per hectare (kg), 𝑃𝑥𝑖 = per unit price of
chickpea and boro rice growing and drought- the ith inputs (BDT), 𝑋𝑖 = Amount of the ith inputs

per hectare (kg), TFC = Total Fixed Cost (BDT), i The relationship between a specific variable and
= 1, 2, 3… n (number of inputs). the outcome of the probability is interpreted
through the marginal effect, which accounts for
Here, the gross return was calculated by the the partial change in the probability. The
following algebraic formula, which was the sum marginal effect associated with continuous
of total return from the main product as well as explanatory variables 𝑥𝑛𝑖 on the probability P (Yi
from the by-product of the crops. = 1 | X), holding the other variables constant, can
𝑛 𝑛 be derived as follows (Greene, 2011):
𝐺𝑅𝑖 = ∑ 𝑄𝑚𝑖 𝑝𝑚𝑖 + ∑ 𝑄𝑏𝑖 𝑃𝑏𝑖 𝜕𝛲𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 = 𝜙 (𝑥𝑖 ′ 𝛽)𝛽𝑘
𝜕𝑥𝑛𝑖
Where, 𝐺𝑅𝑖 = Gross Return from the ith product
(BDT ha-1), 𝑄𝑚𝑖 = Amount of the ith main product So, the functional specification of the probit
(kg ha-1), 𝑝𝑚𝑖 = Average price of the ith main model in this study is given below:
product (BDT kg-1), 𝑄𝑏𝑖 = Amount of the ith by- Ai = α + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + β4X4 + ………….Ui
product (kg ha-1), 𝑃𝑏𝑖 = Average price of the ith by-
product (BDT kg-1), i = 1, 2, 3... n (number of Where, Ai = Farmers’ selection of crops (if
inputs). Chickpea = 1, Boro rice = 0), α = Intercept, X1 =
Family size (number of family members), X2 =
Probit model for identifying the Age (year), X3 = Education (year of schooling), X4
determinants of chickpea and boro rice = Experience (year), X5 = Occupation (score), X6
cultivation = Farm size (unit), X7 = Human labour (score), X8
To identify the determinants, which were = Seed (score), X9 = Training (score), X10=
responsible for chickpea and boro rice, cultivation Irrigation (score).
in the study area, the probit model was used Besides, it is important to note that since the
because this model was the best-fit model due to socio-economic characteristics of farmers may
its binary nature of the dependent variable. The vary from region to region, so the observational
probit model used in this study is similar to the results across various land locales are liable to
models which were widely used for estimating give a few variations.
technology adoption in earlier studies (Kehinde
and Adeyemo, 2017; Alabi et al., 2014; Uaiene et Results and Discussion
al., 2009; Zavale et al., 2005). The probit model
assumes that while only the values of 0 and 1 for Financial profitability analysis of
the dependent variable Yi are observed, there is a chickpea and boro rice cultivation
latent, unobserved continuous variable Yi* that Table 1 shows per hectare cost and return of
determines the value of Yi (Sebopetji and Belete, chickpea and boro rice production where the
2009). So, the probit model which is also known gross return was higher for chickpea than boro
as the normit model, determines the effect of Xi rice. Table 1 also indicates that chickpea cultivars
on the response probability, experienced lower costs than boro rice cultivars.
Pi = (Y = 1|X) = Ф (β'xi), Besides, chickpea cultivation needs comparatively
lower labor and less irrigation cost than boro rice
where Pi indicates probability, Y indicates binary (Table 2). As boro rice is a labor-intensive crop,
dependent variable where (1 for farmer’s choice the most important factors for boro rice
for chickpea cultivation and 0 for farmer’s choice cultivation were human labor, seed, urea,
for boro rice cultivation), X indicates the insecticide, and irrigation (Sujan et al., 2017;
independent variables, Ф is the cumulative Nargis et al., 2009). Ultimately, the cultivars of
distribution function (CDF) of the normal chickpea crop earned higher gross return, gross
distribution and β is a vector of the unknown margin, and net return per hectare than the
parameters. cultivars of boro rice crop. Therefore, the benefit-
cost ratio of chickpea, which was 1.88, claimed
So, the probit model of identifying the higher than the benefit-cost ratio of boro rice,
determinants for both the crops is obtained from which was 1.05. Based on the above discussions
an underlying latent variable model, which is
in Table 1, it could be said that the cultivation of
expressed as: chickpea was estimated more profitable than that
𝑁 of boro rice. Consequently, the cultivation of
𝑌𝑖∗ = 𝛽0 + ∑(𝛽𝑛 𝑥𝑛𝑖 + 𝑢𝑖 ) chickpea other than boro rice would help growers
𝑛=1
to increase their income. So, chickpea has a head
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑌𝑖∗ > 0 start in this agricultural race (Merga and Haji,
Yi = { 2019), and in the drought-prone area, chickpea
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Where, 𝑥𝑛𝑖 is a vector of regressors and ui cultivation is comparatively more profitable for
represents the error term and β is a vector of the farmers.
unknown parameters to be estimated.

Table 1. Per hectare cost and return from chickpea and boro rice production.
Items Chickpea (BDT) Boro rice (BDT) t-value
Value of main product 84975(314.15) 80340(423.19) -9.772
Value of bi product 1908(7.11) 5700(11.08) -4.643
A. Gross Return 86883(320.48) 86040(431.38) -9.703
Human labor cost 12051(46.23) 39552(227.26) -13.548
Power tiller 4944(133.29) 4944(1456.49) -3.416
Seed cost 5018.16(122.85) 2163(81.76) 5.056
Fertilizer cost 2088.84(35.82) 5722.68(218.95) -13.964
Insecticide cost 1236(24.08) 1854(68.49) -10.918
Herbicide cost 2472(33.26) 370.8(13.42) -3.066
Irrigation cost 0(0) 8652(375.27) -16.889
B. Total Variable Cost 27810(97.15) 63258.48(491.33) -10.925
Land use cost 18000(78.14) 18000(77.80) 6.322
Interest on operating Capital 331.22(4.76) 672.12(34.40) -6.365
C. Total Fixed Cost 18295.48(78.11) 18672.12(76.87) 4.100
D. Total Cost (B+C) 46105.48(125.44) 81930.6(494.19) -9.724
E. Gross Margin (A-B) 59073(238.57) 22781.52(400.03) 0.607
F. Net Return (A-D) 40777.52(246.66) 4109.4(344.85) -0.349
G. Undiscounted BCR (A/D) 1.88(0.06) 1.05(0.05) 3.656
Note. ( ) indicates standard error.
Summary statistics of independent family. Besides, chickpea growers are involved
variables used in the econometric model with other occupations along with agriculture
where maximum boro rice growers are only
This section aims to find out the summary involved with agriculture. Following the
statistics of explanatory variables used in the estimation, boro rice cultivation required more
probit model for chickpea and boro rice are labor and irrigation than chickpea cultivation in
shown in Table 2. The table shows that the mean those drought-prone areas. As the proportion of
difference between chickpea and boro rice labor and irrigation requirements are
cultivation respecting occupation, farm size, approximately 2 and 1.6 times higher than
human labor, seed, training, and irrigation were chickpea cultivation, respectively. The growers of
statistically significant. Chickpea growers had chickpea received more high yielding variety of
completed more years of schooling than boro rice seeds from government organization where it is
growers. However, the farming experience was found low for boro rice farmers.
around 20 years for boro rice growers and family
size consisted of around five members in one
Table 2. Summary Statistics of explanatory variables for chickpea and boro rice farmers.
Variable Chickpea Boro rice Mean Difference
(N=90) (N=90)
Family size 4.26(0.202) 4.54(0.179) 0.29(0.270)
Age 44.30(1.354) 42.97(1.229) 1.33(1.821)
Education 7.14(0.435) 6.63(0.443) 0.51(0.621)
Experience 19.53(1.273) 19.59(1.293) 0.06(1.815)
Occupation 1.38(0.052) 1.11(0.037) 0.28(0.063) ***
Farm size 2.72(0.146) 3.93(0.228) 1.22(0.271) ***
Human labour 1.63(0.076) 3.16(0.101) 1.52(0.127) ***
Seed 0.87(0.036) 0.38(0.051) 0.49(0.063) ***
Training 0.80(0.042) 0.61(0.052) 0.19(0.067) **
Irrigation 1.54(0.063) 2.51(0.053) 0.97(0.083) ***
Note. ( ) indicates standard error. *** Significant at the 1 percent level; **Significant at the 5 percent level;
*Significant at the 10 percent level.
factors. Table 3 shows that family size, human
Determinants of chickpea and boro rice labor, and irrigation have negative influences,
cultivation whilst occupation, farm size, and seed have an
The cultivation of chickpea and boro rice is likely affirmative impact.
to be influenced by different socio-economic

Table 3. Parameter estimates of variables determining chickpea and boro rice cultivation among
respondent farmers.
Explanatory variables Coefficients z-statistic Marginal effect
Family size -0.36(0.148)*** -2.42 -0.022***
Age 0.09(0.062) 1.42 0.006
Education -0.01(0.062) -0.10 -0.0004
Experience -0.01(0.057) -0.13 -0.0005
Occupation 0.99(0.506)* 1.96 0.062*
Farm size 0.82(0.228)*** 3.58 0.051***
Human labour -3.29(0.839)*** -3.91 -0.205***
Seed 2.30(0.657)*** 3.51 0.144***
Training 0.59(0.516) 1.15 0.037
Irrigation -1.43(0.406)*** -3.54 -0.089***
Constant 2.50(2.011) 1.24
LR chi-square (10) = 208.68
Log likelihood = -20.43
Pseudo R2 = 0.84
Note. *** Significant at p < 0.01; ** significant at p < 0.05; * significant at p < 0.10; ( ) indicates standard error.
According to Table 3, the adoption probability of chickpea varieties in India. Another reason for
chickpea cultivation is negatively affected by the that is, water logging is harmful to the chickpea
variable of family size. If the family size increases, field by decreasing productivity of grain yield
the farmers would be shifted to boro rice (Palta et al., 2010; Cowie et al., 1996).
cultivation to meet up family consumption, as Sometimes, water can be passed from the
rice is the staple food of Bangladesh. It occupies adjacent land so that the small and marginal
nearly 90% of the total net-cropped area of the farmers cannot ensure dry land for their chickpea
country and more than 99% of the people eat rice field. Rather, it is easy for large farmers to
as their main food, which is 416 gm/person/day monitor their chickpea fields properly.
(Niaz et al., 2013). So, family size is an important
factor concerning the production of enough food The coefficient of human labor is negatively
grain for farm households. Those farmers, who significant which indicates the probability of
are involved with other occupations such as adopting boro rice over chickpea if enough
business or different services accompanying human labor is available in the study area (Table
agriculture, have the probability to adopt 3). Because at every stage of land preparation as
chickpea cultivation more than boro rice well as for harvesting period, boro rice requires
cultivation (Table 3). Because, getting higher more labor than chickpea cultivation and occurs
scope to involve with off-farm activities, farmers higher labor cost than chickpea (Table 1).
provide less attention to rice production and Additionally, several studies have shown the
ultimately it tends to be less efficient (Asadullah positive effect of human labor upon boro rice
and Rahman, 2009; Rahman, 2003; Wang et al., cultivation (Rahman and Nargis, 2015;
1996; Ali and Flinn, 1989). Nonetheless, the Chowdhury, 2012).
farmers with off-farm income are indolent to The variable of seed has a positive effect on the
adopt modern chickpea varieties due to their probability of cultivating chickpea rather than
more priorities on non-agricultural activities boro rice. Since seed cost is higher for chickpea
(Sharna et al., 2020a). than boro rice (Table 1), chickpea farmers rely on
The variable of farm size has a positive and government organization through which they get
significant effect, which means that one unit high yielding variety chickpea seeds with
increased the size of the farm increases the minimum or free of cost. Furthermore, Sharna et
probability of chickpea cultivation by 5.1%. It al. (2020b) found that governmental institutions
indicates that small farmers normally used their in Bangladesh, for instance, the Department of
land for rice cultivation both for earning income Agricultural Extension (DAE) and Bangladesh
as well as to meet their household consumption Agricultural Development Corporation (BADC)
demand. On the other hand, larger farmers subsidizes chickpea production by providing
attempt to use their additional land for chickpea improved chickpea variety seeds with resistance
cultivation for extra income. Some studies found characteristics, which are more profitable than
that farm size influences adoption of agricultural traditional varieties. Meanwhile, more than 50%
technologies, as it is easy for large farmers to be of the rice farmers in Bangladesh use seeds from
acquired with agricultural inputs and other the harvested products (Shelley et al., 2016). A
services (Mariano et al., 2012; Chirwa, 2005; study showed that Bangladesh Agricultural
Isham, 2002; Zegeye et al., 2001). However, Development Corporation (BADC), the main
these results are contrary to what Shiyani et al. government organization in charge of producing
(2002) found on the adoption of improved and marketing quality seeds, contributes only
about 25% of the rice seeds planted (Hossain,

2012). The coefficient of irrigation is negatively chickpea cultivation in this drought-prone area.
significant on the probability of chickpea The paper suggests employing proper policies to
cultivation (Table 3). If availability increases for increase the production of chickpea in drought-
irrigation supply, the growers in the study area prone areas to reduce the demand for irrigation
would prefer to cultivate boro rice more than water and human labor. Thus, soil quality and
chickpea. Farmers, whose fields are located near groundwater level can be maintained through
the irrigation system, easily adopt boro rice widening the cultivation of chickpea, as it
cultivation. Because drought is one of the major requires less water and fertilizer than rice
abiotic constraints for rice grown under rainfed cultivation.
conditions in Bangladesh and causes a substantial
reduction in yield (Shelley et al., 2016). Hence, Acknowledgment
the growers who are not capable to manage The study was carried out by the grant from the
irrigation facilities are eager to cultivate chickpea National Science and Technology (NST)
more than boro rice. So, irrigation variable is an Fellowship given by the Ministry of Science and
important factor to influence the adoption Technology of Bangladesh.
decision of crops (Mottaleb et al., 2014; Rahman,
2008). References
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Appendix
Table A.1. Description of explanatory variables used in the probit model.
Variables Measurement Technique
Family size Number of family members
Age Farmer’s age (year)
Education Farmer’s passing year(s) of schooling
Experience Farmer’s year(s) of experience
Occupation Agriculture = 1; business along with agriculture =2; otherwise =3
Farm size Farm size in hectares
Human labor Labour required below 18 man-days/ha = 1; labour required between 18-21
man-days/ha = 2; labour required between 21-24 man-days/ha = 3; labour
required above 24 man-days/ha = 4
Seed Dummy, getting high yielding variety seeds from government organization
= 1; otherwise = 0
Training Dummy, received training = 1; otherwise = 0
Irrigation Higher distance from irrigation facility = 1; moderate distance from
irrigation facility = 2; Lower distance from irrigation facility = 3

ISSN: 2224-0616
Various inputs applied for growing sweet potato in the tidal swamp area
of south Borneo of Indonesia
Y. Widodo1*, S. Wahyuningsih2, R.D. Purwaningrahayu2, Nuryati3 and M.J. Mejaya3
Received 23 May 2020, Revised 14 September 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
In South Borneo, sweet potato baking is very good market and has to be shipped from Java
for fulfilling the demand of the people. Preparation of sweet potato as additional food is only
simple by put in oven, so it is sold fresh from the oven. In 2015, description of area mainly
physical and chemical aspects were undertaken to provide adequately data. Analysis of soil
sample was done for the parameters of pH, C organic as well as N, P and K. Based on this
analysis, the treatment was designed based on practical work. Apex vine cutting of several
sweet potato varieties were taken from ILETRI to Borneo during 2016 and 2017. In 2017,
two varieties were used as the main plot, and five inputs were determined as subplot.
Therefore, ten combination treatments were laid down in three replications, in the plot size
of 6.0 m x 5.0 m. Planting distance of sweet potato was 100 cm x 25 cm. During 2017,
planting was done at February and harvesting was undertaken on July. Growth and yield
components were analyzed by statistical procedure by using MSTATC. Statistical analysis
indicated that there was not significantly affected by interaction between variety and
agronomic inputs as well. However, both main and subplot were separately affected growth
and yield. ILETRI variety Beta3 gave better yield with agronomic input1 able to obtain 15.39
t ha-1. However, the increase of agronomic input did not follow the increase of tuber yield.
Keywords: Sweet potato, Tidal swamp area, Farming in south Borneo.
1
Senior Agronomist of Indonesian Legume and Tuber Crops Research Institute (ILETRI) P.O. Box 66 Malang 65101, Indonesia.
2
Junior Agronomist of Indonesian Legume and Tuber Crops Research Institute (ILETRI) P.O. Box 66 Malang 65101, Indonesia.
3
Junior Agronomist and Professor Research of Plant Breeder at ILETRI P.O. Box 66 Malang 65101, Indonesia.
*Corresponding author’s email: yudi_atas@yahoo.com (Y. Widodo)
Cite this article as: Widodo, Y., Wahyuningsih, S., Purwaningrahayu, R.D., Nuryati and Mejaya, M.J. 2020.
Various inputs applied for growing sweet potato in the tidal swamp area of south Borneo of Indonesia. Int. J.
Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 29-34. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51573
Introduction
Among the food crops, sweet potato is the fifth harvested for vine cutting as vegetables. However
important source of carbohydrate in Indonesia in Negara sweet potato can be grown for tuberous
(BPS, 2017). Aside roots with various diversities root yield after four months. It is grown in the
of colors indicating different qualities, namely area of swamp after water dried, so land occur
yellow till orange high in Beta carotine and purple then sweet potato is planted on the huge of ridges
high in antocyanine, as well as vitamin C and any smeared by mud. The local cultivar produced a
other minerals (Firon et al., 2009). Sweet potato higher yield one or two tuberous root per plant.
is additional food very popular in Indonesia, However, farmers did not grow in larger area, due
including in South Borneo. Sweet potato baking is to limitation of planting material as well as it was
very good market and has to be shipped from done merely by their own labor.
Java for the people in Borneo. Preparation of
sweet potato as additional food is only simple by Indeed in South Borneo is a lot of land available,
put in oven, so it is sold fresh from the oven. however most of abundaned lands are catagoried
Generally the price of sweet potato fresh is into tidal swamp area. Consequently sweet potato
around Rp. 27.500/kg. This price is consider was not grown in the area, due to assumption of
interesting for the people around South of unsuitability. However, in Papua New Guinea
Borneo. Therefore growing sweet potato in South sweet potato is grown by farmers in the big
Borneo is an opportunity, because market is mound or higher ridges to save from tidal, and
really available. Moreover, sweet potato in South able to have tuber yield approximately 1-2 kg
Borneo is developing in the levees of canal to be plant-1 harvested in 6 to 8 months after planting
Widodo et al. (2020) Various inputs applied for growing sweet potato of south Borneo of Indonesia
(Bayliss-Smith et al., 2017). In the swamp of Sweet potato grown in tidal swamp land
Papua New Guinea, sweet potato is grown for
Apex vine cutting of two sweet potato varieties
human food as well as pig feeding for non edible
were taken from ILETRI to Borneo in 2016,
tuberous root and vines. Sweet potato vines in
namely Antin2, Beta3 and compared to Local. In
some growing areas are prunned, then picking up
2016, the split plot design at three resplications,
to be used for planting material and the
main plot were three canopy management
remaining are used as animal feed. However, in
tidal swamp area of South Borneo water and soil (C1=mulching and canopy did not care,
are sometimes very acid at pH 2.5-3.5 so very C2=canopy lifting twice and C3=canopy were
difficult to grow food crops including sweet prunned 30% at 2.5-3.0 months) sub plot were
potato in such areas (Anna et al., 2015). The four fertilizer application (F1=5 t ha-1 manure,
vigorous vines are indicated by several varieties F2=300 kg ha-1 Phonska, and F3=500 l ha-1
which indeed the yield is still questionable until KNO3 and F4=F1+F2+F3). The site was in lower
harvesting. To build higher and bigger ridges are water regime of Kolam Makmur and Sidomulyo
possible in order to provide aeration so well district of Wanaraya type C. In 2017, the site was
drainage resulting water logging can be avoided. at village Simpangjaya, a split plot design, two
Hilling up properly was undertaken to protect varieties were used as the main plot, and five
sweet potato from weevil. By intensive inputs were determined as subplot (Table 1).
management of agriculture, the tidal swamp area Therefore ten combination treatments were laid
will be more important and preparation of land is down in three replication, in the plot size of 6.0 x
more difficult compared to ordinary lands 5.0 m. Planting distance of sweet potato was 100
(Alvernas et al., 2014; Virendra, 2014). cm x 25 cm. During 2017, planting was done at
February and harvesting was undertaken on July.
Materials and Methods Land preparation was done by hand tractor.
Plowing twice were undertaken horizontal and
Site description physical and chemical vertically to provide adequate growth. Ridging
properties then was done by hoe to obtain height standard.
The three consequtive years since 2015, 2016 and At two and half months after planting hilling up
2017 were the vintage of growing sweet potato in was done to avoid from sweet potato weevil.
the sites were villages under subdistrict of Insecticide in a form of Furadan 3G 25 kg ha-1
Wanaraya district of Barito Kuala province of was applied at 2 months after planting. Harvest
South Borneo, Indonesia. In 2015, description of was done at 4 months, and observations were
area mainly physical and chemical aspects are made during harvest. Growth and yield
undertaken to provide adequately data. Analysis components were analyzed by statistical
of soil sample, manure and liquid waste as procedure by using MSTATC, if it was
fertilizer were done in pH, C organic as well as N, significantly different then continued by mean
P and K at laboratory of plant & soil of ILETRI. separation test by using Least Significant
Based on this analysis then treatment are Difference at probability 5%.
designed based on practical work.
Table 1. Treatment structure of tehnological inputs of sweet potato in Batola South of Borneo, 2017.
Technological Technological Inputs
items Farmer Input1 Input2 Input3 Input4
Weeding Farmer Applying Contact Systemic Systemic +
practice mulch Herbicide Herbicide Contact
(Gramoxone) (Roundup) Herbicide
Soil Tillage Farmer Ridging Ridging Ridging Ridging
practice
Manure Farmer 10.0 t ha-1 7.5 t ha-1 5.0 t ha-1 2.5 t ha-1
practice
Lime (dolomite) Farmer 500 kg ha-1 1000 kg ha-1 1500 kg ha-1 2000 kg ha-1
practice applied at top applied at top applied at top applied at top
of ridges of ridges of ridges of ridges
Phonska Farmer 100 kg ha-1 200 kg ha-1 400 kg ha-1 600 kg ha-1
(NPK=15+15+15) practice
Pest and disease Farmer As As As As
control*) practice recommended recommended recommended recommended
Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 29-34, December 2020

30
Results and Discussion after rice harvested by utilizing straw from rice to
be kept as mulch as well as to build into the
Site description, physical and chemical ridges. According to Widjaja-Adhi (1986), based
properties on tipe of tidal swamp can be catagoried into four
From the field survey of 2015, basically soil type type namely A= land always submerge
of Batola was dominated by Alluvial and the eventhough by minimum tidal. B= land only tide
remaining was Organosol around one third by maximum tidal, C= land never flooded even by
portion. According to Anna et al. (2015) based on minimum tidal, and land area was 50 cm above
their exploration of Batola Soil by Map with scale water, D= land never flooded by tidal and land
of 1 : 100.000, showed that there are two types of area was >50 cm above water. In Table 2
soil, Organosols 101.900 ha (34%) and Alluvials indicated chemical properties of three sites
191.390 ha (64%). The Alluvials had almost namely Kolam Makmur, Sidamulya and
largely utilized for cultivation, and the some Simpangjaya as well that mostly pH were 4.4; 4.3
Organosols Glei humus were continuously and 5.1, respectively. In case of Simpangjaya, in
inundated areas. The soils in general has high 2017 soil pH was 6.0 and higher than did in the
clay content (57.8% clay). This land is a great area same site 2015 namely pH was 5.1, due to
for tidal farm in Batola. The results of application of lime regularly. The increase of soil
overlapping maps of land use and land capability pH was not affected merely by application of
map showed that Alluvial was generally cultivated lime, but it was from ash coincided with manure
area for rice farming. Other than agricultural applied. In term of C organic the site of
lands, there were also land overgrown with shrub, Simpangjaya >3% was higher than did of Kolam
including keramunting, ferns, trees Galam, tall Makmur 1.15 and Sidamulya 1.00. The reason of
grass, acacia, rush (Eleocharis dulcis), and other Simpangjaya as site for sweet potato due to pH
creeping plants. Those plants were usually found was 6.0 (Anthony and Ramkisson, 2011). So far
in all tidal swamp area of South Borneo, precisely tuber yield of sweet potato in tidal swampland
in areas that were not used for agriculture. Tidal was very easy to deteriorate, although in a week
swamp of Barito Kuala (Batola) is flat area, with after harvest some of tuber performing poor
easily logged by water from river and sea. storability. This phenomenon was not common in
Consequently tidal swampland was very suitable the other area, due to might be grown under high
for growing rice, with potential to landraces moisture content with low pH as well.
(Purnomo et al., 2008). Sweet potato is grown
Table 2. Results of soil analysis in study area of Barito Kuala (Batola) South of Borneo during 2015-
2017.
Treatments pH H2O N P2O5 K C-Organic
1:5 Kjeldahl % Bray 1 ppm NH4OAc pH W & Black (%)
7.0 Cmol+/kg
Kolam 4.4 0.38 61.7 0.54 1.15
Makmur
Sidamulya 4.3 0.34 31.8 0.49 1.00
Simpangjaya 5.1 0.23 41.4 0.38 4.06
Farmer 2015
Simpangjaya 6.0 0.37 222.0 1.10 3.33
Farmer 2017
Input1 5.9 0.35 115.0 0.56 3.23
Input2 5.9 0.36 136.0 0.60 3.13
Input3 6.2 0.36 130.0 0.62 3.59
Input4 5.8 0.36 92.5 0.40 3.27
Note: Soil samples were taken out from Kolam Makmur, Sidomulyo and Simpangjaya.
Regarding to organic manure in the form of solid manure as solid waste, the liquid waste from
waste as well as liquid waste from factory were seaweed alkali treated is used in this trial. The
analyzed in ILETRI Soil Laboratory. Organic chemical used is KOH, KCl and urea. As the liquid
manure used in this trial was Manure2, due to it waste KNO3 was selected to be applied at 500 l
was chicken dunk with N Total was 2.59%. In the ha-1. Aside better chemical composition KNO3
chicken farm mostly farmers used lime and ash as was also higher in N organic, N-NH4, N-NO3, N-
well to avoid from flies, which have good effect Total as well as C Organic and pH was 12.4 under
for additional supplement of organic manure. alkaline criteria. In the acid soil Kolam Makmur
While manure1 was originated from cattle, which and Sidamulya which pH is only around 4.3
mostly was fed by weeds. So, farmers worried that additional of alkaline KNO3 with pH 12.4 is
weed from seed would be grown after adequate better due to acid reduction. However this liquid
environment. Seed of weeds are still alive under KNO3 was heavier (specific gravity is 1.1) than did
digest process of stomach of cattle. Unlike organic of water 1.0 (Table 3).

Table 3. Manure used for experimentation in Batola South Borneo during 2015-2017.
Sample pH N- N-NH4 N-NO3 N- C- Organic P K

H2O Organic Total Kurmis Total Extraction
1:5 HNO3-HClO4
Solid ...........................................%............................................
Manure1 10.5 0.00 0.43 0.371 0.80 13.0 1.39 6.20
Manure2 7.8 1.96 0.17 0.462 2.59 23.8 5.75 3.22
Liquid ...........................................%............................................
Fertilizer 12.2 0.01 0.00 0.028 0.04 0.30 0.70 7.22
KNO3 12.4 15.37 1.32 1.799 18.49 0.44 0.70 1.56
Note: KNO3 was from the factory of seaweed processing.
Sweet potato grown in tidal swampland produced 9.85 t ha-1. However, when manure 5 t
ha-1 was applied with Phonska 300 kg ha-1 as well
Of the total area in Barito Kuala (Batola) was
as 500 l ha-1 KNO3 yield did not increase (Table
motsly submerged by water especially in the type
4). In addition for Sidamulya, the highest tuber
of A and B, therefore sweet potato can be grown
yield 7.19 t ha-1 was obtained by manure 5 t ha-1
at tidal swamp of C and D. However, in 2016 due
with Phonska 300 kg ha-1 as well as 500 l ha-1
to huge of rainfall and in C type was submerged.
KNO3. Tuber yield of sweet potato was related to
Especially at the early growing period, flooding
soil pH in Sidamulya 4.3 and Kolam Makmur was
was submerged crop until 3 days. Under such of
4.4 and Simpangjaya was 5.1 till 6.2 (Table 2).
condition, growth of sweet potato was very
suffered. Fortunately after flooding period the From the results of 2017 revealed that growth of
excessive growth of sweet potato was occur sweet potato very normal. There was not water
particularly variety Antin2. Consequently the vine logging in the area such as in 2016. Unfortunately
growth was able to cover the area quickly. at the end of growing period, the drought due to
Unfortunately variety Antin2 was not able to was no rain from Mid of May till June 2017.
indicate root yield as its potential. Because, under Although crop was treated by Furadan 3 G at 25
such condition growth was only produced from kg ha-1 however weevil was seriously attacked and
roots differentiated into pencil roots, not the was not applied for more insectiside due to period
tuberous root. Until harvest variety Antin2 was of time at near harvest. Among the insects, weevil
only produced the pencil roots. While Beta3 is serious pest for sweet potato in tidal
tended to normal, and tuber formation was not swampland. In the longrun Intergrated Pest
severely inhibited by the moisture content of soil. Management should be practiced, so farmers did
Due to excessive soil moisture content, therefore not depend on chemical control. Difficulty in
weevil (Cylas formicarius) infestation was not controling weevil due to the larvae inside of tuber
seriously occur. Weevil symptom was also is felt by scentists, therefore research on this field
revealed at the foliages of sweet potato that was is required. In this research, indeed weevil is
attacked by weevil. Fortunately, due to wet and seriously tackled by spraying spore of Beaveria
saturated condition therefore weevil was not basiana to infect the weevil into inside of
moved to attack the tuber inside of underground cracking of soil. B. basiana is soil borne fungi
portion. Moreover, Furadan 3 G at amount of 25 which also effective for acid soil of sweet potato in
kg ha-1 was applied so it was absorbed to the crop Batola. In Papua New Guinea sweet potato is less
and distributed to whole of tissue. damage due to weevil (Kapal et al., 2010). Kreuze
et al. (2009) by genetic engineering weevil
Indeed the effect of organic fertilizer was very
resistance can be developed with better culinary
good, tuber yield of Local variety was able to
need.
attain 9.72 t ha-1 while with Phonska 300 kg ha-1

Table 4. Effect of canopy management and fertilizer application on sweet potato vine length, fresh
vine weight and tuber yield at Tidal Swamp of C type. Batola South Borneo 2016.
Treatment Kolam Makmur variety Local Sidamulya variety Beta3
Vine Fresh Tuber Vine Fresh Tuber
length vine yield length vine yield
(cm) weight (t ha-1) (cm) weight (t ha-1)
(t ha-1) (t ha-1)
Canopy management
C1= mulching and canopy 98.92b 10.54ab 10.01b 61.03a 16.12a 6.82ab
did not care
C2=canopy lifting twice 93.85ab 8.87a 8.86ab 60.10a 16.14a 5.15b
C3=canopy were prunned 92.83a 11.54b 8.45a 62.10a 15.58a 4.74c
30% at 2.5-3.0 months
LSD at 5% 6.04 1.57 1.52 NS NS 1.14
Fertilizer application
F1=5 t manure ha-1 91.07a 9.61a 9.72b 59.51a 15.71a 5.03bc
F2=300 kg Phonska ha-1 93.13ab 10.67ab 9.85b 59.31a 15.69a 5.35b
F3=500 l KNO3 ha-1 99.98c 9.63a 8.84ab 62.33a 16.80a 4.75c
F4=F1+F2+F3 96.62b 11.17b 8.00a 63.15a 15.59a 7.19a
LSD at 5% 5.47 1.39 1.36 NS NS 1.26
CV (%) 16.84 33.80 13.19 14.36 15.70 22.01
Note: Value in same colomn & factor followed by the same letter did not differ significantly by Least Significant
Difference (LSD) at 5% level.
Vine length, fresh vine weight as well as tuber variety Beta3 gave better yield 14.66 t ha-1 with
yield of sweet potato were different due to canopy agronomic input1 able to obtain 15.39 t ha-1.
management. Mulching with weed till 5 t ha-1 to However, the increase of agronomic input did not
cover the ridges, then canopy of sweet potato follow the increase of tuber yield, except to vine
leave out spreading was the most effective crop fresh weight. In Israel the productivity of sweet
management. Vine lifting was not suitable due to potato in large area able to attain 40 t ha-1 with
overlap of vines, and immature leaves drop then very good acceptance to market in Europe.
produced new sprouting. Thus in producing the Tuberous root will not deteriorated eventhough
new sprouting means photosinthate goes to non keep in storage till 3 months (Loebenstein et al.,
tuberous root. Prunning is commonly done to 2009). Unlike sweet potato in Israel, results of
manage the canopy of sweet potato, due to this research indicating poor quality of tuberous
contact to soil and induces adventitious root, root, easy to rotten as well as deterioration.
therefore prunning is done practically efficient. Nakazawa (2001) degeneration of sweet potato
Unfortunately, yield of prunning as well as vine was also found in Japan due to virus. Smith and
lifting is differed with sweet potato canopy did Villordon (2009) tried to modify fertilizer
not care (Table 4). Statistical analysis indicated particularly N (Nitrogen), indeed the excessive N
that there was not significantly affected by could be the cause of rotten in an acid soil of
interaction between variety and agronomic inputs South Borneo.
as well. However, both main and subplot were
separately affected growth and yield. ILETRI
Table 5. Effect of variety and agronomic input on sweet potato vine length, fresh vine weight and yield.
Batola South Borneo 2017.
Treatment Vine lenght (cm) Fresh vines weight (t ha-1) Tuber Yield (t ha-1)
Varieties
Local 108.0a 8.64a 10.72a
Beta3 172.9b 17.42b 14.66b
LSD at 5% 2.4 1.71 3.92
Inputs
Farmers 115.9a 9.28a 10.23a
Input1 156.3d 16.72c 15.39b
Input2 143.4bcd 13.83bc 13.72ab
Input3 151.1bc 12.31b 11.50a
Input4 135.7bcd 12.90b 12.49ab
LSD at 5% 7.9 2.10 3.54
Coefficient of 15.83 27.49 21.12
Variation (%)
Note: Value in same colomn & factor followed by the same letter did not differ significantly by Least Significant
Difference (LSD) 5% level.

Conclusion BPS. 2017. Statistik Indonesia 2017. Badan Pusat

Statistik. Tanggal Rilis 2017-07-04. Ukuran
Based on the three years results, the conclusion Jakarta. https://www. bps. go. id/site/resultTab
can be presented are as follow: (in Indonesian)
• In Barito Kuala South of Borneo most of land Firon, N., LaBonte, D., Villordon, A., McGregor,
is tidal swampland, and soil type is C., Kfir, Y. and Pressman, E. 2009. Botany
dominatedly Alluvial and Organosol. Texture and Physiology: Storage Root Formation and
of soil is clay with loamy. Soil organic matter Development. In: G. Loebenstein and G.
is ranging form 1.00-4.06. Thottappilly (Eds). The Sweet potato.
• In the year of 2016 due to high rainfall water Springer, Demand Germany. pp. 13-26.
logging was severely submerged the sweet https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9475-0_3
potato trial till 3 days. Fortunately, yield of Kapal, D.B., Taraken, I.T. and Sirabis, W. 2010.
harvest in Sidamulyo (pH 4.3) Beta3 was Soil fertility management option in sweet
able to attain 4.75-7.19 t ha-1 and in Kolam potato based cropping in the highland of
Makmur (pH 4.4) Local was able to reach Papua New Guinea. In: 19th World Congress
8.00-9.75 t ha-1. While Antin2 from Breeding of Soil Science Soil Solution for a Changing
Program was not able to produce the World, held on 1-10 August 2010. Brisbane,
tuberous root yield. Australia. pp. 144-146. (Published on DVD).
• Both in producing high yield mulching with Kreuze, J.F., Valkonen, J.P.T. and Ghislain, M.
canopy not care was able to attain 10.01 t ha-1 2009. Genetic Engineering. In: G.
in Kolam Makmur (pH 4.4) and 6.85 t ha-1 Loebenstein and G. Thottappilly (Eds). The
for Sidamulya (pH 4.3). Producing tuber Sweet potato. pp. 41-63. Springer, Demand
yield of 9.85 t ha-1 with 300 kg Phonska ha-1 Germany. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-
in Kolam Makmur, however in Sidamulya 9475-0_5
300 kg Phonska + 5 t organic manure + 500 Loebenstein, G., Cohen, J. and Dar, Z. 2009.
l KNO3 ha-1 resulting 7.19 t ha-1 tuber yield, Sweet potato in Israel. In: G. Loebenstein
respectively. and G. Thottappilly (Eds). The Sweet potato.
• In Simpangjaya 2017 tuber yield of Beta3 pp. 483-487. Springer, Demand Germany.
was higher 14.66 t ha-1 than Local 10.72 t ha- https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9475-0_21
1. However, to produce high yield 15.39 t ha-1 Nakazawa, Y. 2001. Report on the international
Input1 was adequate. workshop on sweet potato cultivar decline.
Sweet potato Research Front. Kyushu
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Growing sweet potato in the Sacramento E., Wahyuni, M., Saidy, A.R. and Osaki, M.
area. UCCE Master Gardener of Sacramento 2008. Local rice cultivars grown on tidal
County. University of California. USA. pp. 2- swampland near costal area in south
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Anna, M.M., Kurnain, A., Ratna and Wahdah, R. Smith, T.P. and Villordon, A.Q. 2009. Nitrogen
2015. Pioneering agriculture bioenergy:
Management in Lousiana Sweet Potatos.
Geospatial analysis and soil quality
Lousiana State University Agricultural
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Center. Pub 3138. September 2009. 4p.
swamp. Acad. Res. Int. 6(2): 1-9.
Virendra, M.V. 2014. Sweet potato cultivation
Anthony, S. and Ramkissoon, A.N. 2011. Sweet
potato nutrient requirements. Reference guide. Micronesia Plant Propagation
Materials Module 3. Project Consultant. 12p. Research Centre Kosrae Agricultural
Bayliss-Smith, T., Golson, J. and Hughes, P. 2017. Experiment Station Cooperative Research
Phase 6: Impact of the sweet potato on and Extension. College of Micronesia-FSM.
swamp landuse pig rearing and exchange 17p.
relationship. In: J. Golson, T. Demhan, P. Widjaja Adhi, I.P.G. 1986. Pengelolaan lahan
Hughes, P. Swalding and J. Muke (Eds.) Ten rawa pasang surut dan lebak. J Penelitian
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in the highland of Papua New Guinea. ANU Indonesian).
Australia. pp. 1-28.
https://doi.org/10.22459/TA46.07.2017.16

ISSN: 2224-0616
Evaluation of black cumin genotypes for yield and yield related parameters in
bale mid altitude, southeastern Ethiopia
G. Asefa and M. Beriso
Received 11 June 2020, Revised 29 September 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
Fourteen black cumin genotypes were evaluated against standard checks for two consecutive
years during 2018 to 2019 at Sinana, Goro and Gindhir to investigate high yielder and stable
black cumin varieties. The mean total seed yield of genotypes across environment ranged
from 24.54 to 16.07 Qt ha-1. The highest total seed yield was recorded from genotypes
242826-2 followed by 242826-2 (24.54 and 23.32 Qt ha-1) while the lowest total seed yield
was obtained from local checks. These two genotypes have yield advantage of 22.41 and
14.96% over standard check Derbera. Based on their performance across location over
standard checks these two genotypes will be promoted for variety verification for Bale mid
altitude and similar agro ecologies.
Keywords: Black cumin, Genotype, Oleoresin content.
Department of Horticulture and Seed Spice, Sinana Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 208, Bale Robe, Ethiopia.
*Corresponding author’s email: fenetgeach@gmail.com (G. Asefa)
Cite this article as: Asefa, G. and Beriso, M. 2020. Evaluation of black cumin genotypes for yield and yield
related parameters in bale mid altitude, southeastern Ethiopia. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 35-37.
Introduction
Black cumin, Nigella sativa L. is an annual viz., black cumin, fenugreek and coriander are
herbaceous plant belonging to the family produced widely. About 42,000 ha of black cumin
Ranunculacea (Hammo, 2008). Its seed produced per year both in “Gena” and “Bona”
constituents have unique chemical properties cropping season in Bale districts (Goro, Ginnir,
with more than one hundred different chemical Golocha and some part of Sawwena and Sinana.
components (Bardideh et al., 2013). The Due to increased demand of black cumin seed for
Ethiopian variety of black cumin seed accumulate local consumption and other importance, such as
up to 50% thymol, a monocyclic phenolic oil and oleoresin for medicinal purposes, its
compound which make valuable source for export market, its potentiality in crop
healthcare (Merga Jibat et al., 2018). Black cumin diversification, income generation and its
is used principally to flavor food, either as whole importance to reduce the risk of crop failure and
grain, in powdered form or as an oleoresin extract others made black cumin as a best alternative
(Black et al., 2006). Within Ethiopia, its main use crop under Bale mid altitudes. But, the yield of
is as a spice, which is typically ground and mixed black cumin in these areas is not as much as the
with other spices. There is also some use in potential of the crop due to many factors among
traditional medicine (Aminpour and Karimi which lack of high yielder and stable varieties are
2004). The vast majority of Ethiopia’s black the majors. Hence, developing an improved
cumin exports go to Arabic countries, which variety, after screening of lines/accessions with
together with other predominantly Muslim desirable traits, of these crops is one of the
countries. immediate measures to be taken. Accordingly,
this activity was initiated to evaluate and identify
Moreover, the production and land coverage of the genotypes of black cumin that are high
black cumin in Bale mid altitude have been yielding and tolerant to major disease in mid
increasing while the productivity is still less than attitudes of Bale, southeastern Ethiopia.
national average 1.7 ton per hectors (Girma et al.,
2008). In Bale mid altitude, highland seed spices
Asefa and Beriso (2020) Evaluation of black cumin genotypes for yield in southeastern Ethiopia
Materials and Methods 14.96% over standard check Derbera. The mean
for capsule number per plant, biomass and
Fourteen black cumin genotypes were evaluated primary branch was ranged from 10.72 to 6.96,
against standard (Derbera, Dirshaye and Eden) 63.74 to39.79 and 4.67 to 3.33 (Table 2). The
and local checks for two consecutive years during highest number of capsule per plant (10.72),
2018 to 2019 under rain-fed conditions at Sinana, biomass (63.94 t ha-1) and primary branch (4.67)
Goro and Gindhir. The areas possess a bimodal were recorded from genotypes 242826-2 followed
rainfall type. This bimodal rainfall system has by genotype 205167-2. This implies agronomic
created favorable condition to produce crops parameters were contributed directly or indirectly
twice annually or double crop production season. to total seed yield for black cumin. Similar
The experimental trial was laid out in a findings were reported previously by Girma et al.
Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with (2016) and Fufa (2016) who indicated black
three replications. Each variety was planted in cumin seed yield is positively correlated with
four rows at spacing of 30 cm between rows 2.4 plant height, number of capsules per plant,
m2. Fertilizer application was made as per the number of primary branches per plant, and
national recommendation made for the crop number of seeds per capsule. Days to maturity
which is 100 kg ha-1 and the whole rate was and days to flowering were ranged from 144.83 to
applied at planting. Mean yield and disease score 128.00 and 90.00 to 80.00, respectively.
of genotypes will be computed using GENSTAT Genotype 242826-2 has two weeks early
15th edition. maturing which is used for scape forcing maturity
due to shortage of rainfall mostly occurs in the
Results and Discussion study area.
The mean total seed yield of genotypes across The highest means of total seed yield was
environment ranged from 24.54 to 16.07 Qt ha-1. recorded from Ginnir (23.57 Qt ha-1) followed by
The highest total seed yield was recorded from Sinana (21.77 Qt ha-1). This may be due to
genotypes 242826-2 (24.54 Qt ha-1) followed by potential of the district for black cumin
242826-2 (23.32 Qt ha-1) while the lowest total production than both sampled environment.
seed yield was obtained from local checks. These
two genotypes have yield advantage of 22.41 and
Table 1. Means of seed yield (Qt ha-1) of 14 black cumin genotypes across location and years.
Ginnir Goro Sinana
Genotype 2016 2017 2016 2017 2016 2017 Grand
Means
205167-2 26.55 26.60 18.60 19.35 24.05 24.80 23.32
207540-2 22.63 22.68 14.68 15.43 20.13 20.88 19.41
208688-1 24.99 24.94 17.04 17.69 22.49 23.14 21.72
242826-2 28.46 27.13 20.51 19.88 25.96 25.33 24.54
242842-1 20.92 22.94 12.97 15.69 18.42 21.14 18.68
90510-2 24.41 24.46 16.46 17.21 21.91 22.66 21.18
90514-2 21.66 23.57 13.71 16.32 19.16 21.77 19.36
90516-2 23.16 23.88 15.21 16.63 20.66 22.08 20.27
90575-2 23.45 23.50 15.50 16.25 20.95 21.70 20.23
910619-2 17.78 23.28 9.83 16.03 15.28 21.48 17.28
Derbera 22.48 22.81 14.53 16.39 19.98 21.01 19.53
Dirshaye 19.62 22.00 11.67 14.75 17.12 20.20 17.56
Edan 21.83 21.74 13.88 14.49 19.33 19.94 18.53
Local 18.16 20.49 10.21 13.24 15.66 18.69 16.07
Mean 22.58 23.57 14.63 16.38 20.08 21.77 19.83
CV 4.3 9.5 6.7 14.1 4.9 10.3 18.70
LSD 1.79 3.75 1.63 3.88 1.63 3.75 2.43

Asefa and Beriso (2020) Evaluation of black cumin genotypes for yield in southeastern Ethiopia
Table 2. Summary of mean yield and other agronomic traits on the two promising black cumin
genotypes selected as candidate for release and checks in regional variety trial over the six
environments.
Genotypes DF DM PH PB SB CPP BMTH SY
205167-2 81.58 135.50 50.90 4.44 2.17 9.22 58.89 23.32
207540-2 88.25 140.17 58.90 3.33 0.61 7.17 51.48 19.41
208688-1 82.58 133.50 51.23 3.72 2.61 7.17 55.14 21.72
242826-2 90.92 144.83 58.90 4.61 3.44 10.72 63.94 24.54
242842-1 80.58 128.50 49.90 4.28 1.44 8.56 39.79 18.68
90510-2 89.58 133.50 55.57 4.61 1.44 8.61 43.06 21.18
90514-2 80.58 129.50 50.23 4.67 1.78 8.56 50.33 19.36
90516-2 81.58 134.50 56.57 3.78 1.50 8.67 48.50 20.27
90575-2 86.58 143.50 57.57 4.56 1.17 8.61 49.28 20.23
910619-2 86.58 138.50 58.90 4.28 0.94 7.28 44.51 17.28
Derbera 81.58 138.50 48.57 4.17 1.72 8.94 43.17 19.53
Dirshaye 83.58 137.50 49.23 3.72 1.50 8.78 42.55 17.56
Edan 83.58 133.50 50.90 4.22 0.56 6.94 49.94 18.53
Local 84.58 133.50 49.90 4.11 2.11 7.33 43.21 16.07
Mean 84.44 136.07 53.38 4.18 1.64 8.33 48.84 19.83
CV 6.90 4.90 7.60 22.00 35.00 14.00 11.10 18.70
LSD 3.80 4.33 2.70 0.60 0.37 0.80 3.55 2.43
Note: DF=days to flower, DM=days to maturity, PH=plant height, PB= primary branches/plant SB=secondary
branches/plant, CPP=Capsule/plant, BMTH= biomass mass ton per hectare, and SY= seed yield Quintal per
hectare.
Conclusion and Recommendation Fufa, M. 2016. Correlation studies in yield and

some yield components of black cumin
The yield performance of two genotypes 242826- (Nigella sativa L.) landraces evaluated at
2 and 205167-2 across environment and yield Southeastern Ethiopia. Adv. Crop Sci. Tech.
advantage of both genotypes over standard 4(5): 239.
checks were 22.41 and 14.96%, respectively. This https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-8863.1000239
suggested that, both genotypes were promoted for Girma, H., Digafie, T., Edossa, E., Belay, Y.B. and
variety verification for Bale mid altitudes and Weyessa, G. 2008. Spices research
similar agro ecologies. achievements, revised edition, Ethiopian
Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis
Acknowledgements Ababa Ethiopia. pp. 7-25.
The authors are acknowledged Oromia Girma, H., Habtewold, K. and Haimanot, M.
Agricultural Research Institute and Sinana 2016. Spices research achievements,
Agricultural Research Center for financing and challenges and future prospects in Ethiopia.
facilitate this research work. Acad. Res. J. Agril. Sci. Res. 4(1): 9-17.
Hammo, Y.H. 2008. Effect of high levels of
References nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizer,
pinching, and seed rate on growth and yield
Aminpour and Karimi. 2004. Underutilized components of Nigella sativa L. 1-vegetative
medicinal spices. Spice India. 17: 5-7. growth and seed yield. Mesopotamia J.
Bardideh, K., Kahrizi, D. and Ghobadi, M.E. 2013. Agric. 36: 1-8.
Character association and path analysis of https://doi.org/10.33899/magrj.2008.26581
black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) genotypes Merga Jibat, Wakjira Getachew Ommit A,
under different irrigation regimes. Not. Sci. Habetewold Kifelew and Abukiya Getu.
Biol. 5: 104-108. 2018. Survey and identification of black
https://doi.org/10.15835/nsb518968 cumin (Nigella Sativa L.) disease in
Black, M., Bewley, J.D. and Halmer, P. 2006. The Ethiopia. Int. J. Res. Agric. Forest. 5(11): 31-
Encyclopedia of seed science, technology and 34.
uses. Wallinoford. CABI, UK. p. 763.
https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851997230.0000

ISSN: 2224-0616
First report on black spot disease of Phyllanthus emblica L. fruits caused

by Thielaviopsis paradoxa in Bangladesh
M.M. Sikder, M.S. Ahmmed, A. Sultana and N. Alam*
ABSTRACT
Fruit spot disease of Phyllanthus emblica L. is one of theproblems, which reduce the quality
of the fruits at pre-harvest period. Fungal pathogen was isolated using tissue planting
methods during November 2016 to December 2017. The fungus, Thielaviopsis paradoxa
was identified using both morphological and molecular characterization based on internal
transcribe spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA (rDNA). Mycelial growth of the isolated
fungus was evaluated on six different fungal culture media viz, potato sucrose agar (PSA),
Richard agar (RA), carrot agar (CA), potato dextrose agar (PDA), honey peptone agar (HPA)
and Hansen’s agar (HA) in which RA and HPA media provided the utmost growth. The
optimum temperature of the fungus was recorded at 25 to 35ºC. Alternate cycle of 12h/12h
light dark and neutral to basic pH was preferred by the studied fungus. Aqueous crude
extracts of three plants (garlic, black cumin, and turmeric) were evaluated against the
isolated fungus in which the highest inhibition was recorded due to garlic extract. Two food
preservatives (sodium benzoate and vinegar) were also tested in which sodium benzoate
(100 mM) was most efficient for the inhibition of T. paradoxa. Therefore, garlic and food
preservative-sodium benzoate could be used to control this fungal growth associated with
amla fruits. To the best of our knowledge, occurrence of T. paradoxa on amla fruits is a new
record in Bangladesh.
Keywords: Amla, Fruit spot disease, Fungal biology, Thielaviopsis paradoxa, Molecular
characterization.
Department of Botany, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka-1342, Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author’s email: mnabotju@yahoo.com (N. Alam)
Cite this article as: Sikder, M.M., Ahmmed, M.S., Sultana, A. and Alam, N. 2020. First report on black spot
disease of Phyllanthus emblica L. fruits caused by Thielaviopsis paradoxa in Bangladesh. Int. J. Agril. Res.
Innov. Tech. 10(2): 38-46. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51575
Introduction
Amla known as Phyllanthus emblica L. belongs produce several toxins that may concern to
to the family Euphorbiaceae. This plant is human health. Pre-harvest fruit diseases
originally native to India but also found in generally occur in colder month January. Fungal
Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia diseases of amla fruit causes rot, blue mould,
China, West India, Japan, Madagascar and green mould diseases. These rot diseases
Malaysia (Krishnaveni and Mirunalini, 2012). In occurred due to attacked of some pre-harvest and
Bangladesh, it is cultivated in dry forests of post-harvest pathogens, such as- Pestalotiopsis
Chattogram, Chattogram Hill Tracts, Cox’s Bazar, sp., Aspergillus sp., Penicillium sp.,
Sylhet, Dhaka-Tangail Sal forest, Dinajpur and Cladosporium sp., Acremonium sp., Fusarium
homestead forest. It has an important position in sp., Rhizopus sp., Mucor sp., Curvularia sp.,
Ayurveda- an Indian indigenous system of Paecilomyces sp., etc. Among these,
medicine, which prevents innumerable health Pestalotiopsis sp. was discovered as pre-harvest
disorders and used as a possible food additive or pathogen, which creates rot disease of amla fruit
in nutraceuticals and biopharmaceutical (Verma and Verma, 2015).
industries (Dasaroju and Gottumukkala, 2014).
Fruits contain high levels of sugars and nutrient In Bangladesh, there was no record on
elements and their low pH value make them association of genus- Thielaviopsis (family
susceptible for fungal attack and are being rotted Ceratocystidaceae) on amla fruits. However, this
(Singh and Sharma, 2007). Fungi not only notorious fungus has been known to having wide
blemish or cause rot to a number of fruits but host ranges and causes disease on different plants
also reduce their market value. Fungi also such as pineapple black root, cacao wilt, kiwifruit
plant wilt and responsible for economic losses
Sikder et al. (2020) First report on black spot disease of Phyllanthus emblica L. fruits in Bangladesh
(Engelbrecht et al., 2007; Piveta et al., 2016; The primer ITS4 (5-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATG
Oliveira et al., 2018). Paulin-Mahady et al. C-3) and ITS5 (5-GGAAGTAAAAGTCGTAACAA
(2002) reported Certocystis adiposa in Prunus; GG-3) were used for the PCR reaction (Sikder et
C. albofundus in Acacia; C. coerulescens and C. al., 2019). PCR was performed using a thermal
pinicola in Pinus; C. eucalypti in Eucalyptus; C. cycler (Veriti thermal cycler, Applied Biosystems,
paradoxa in Ananas; and C. radicicola in USA) with an initial denaturation stage of 5 min
Phoenix. Ceratocystis manginecans was found as at 95°C, followed by 35 cycles of denaturation for
responsible for destructive monga wilt disease in 30 sec at 94°C, annealing for 30 sec at 52°C,
Oman and Pakistan (Wyk et al., 2007). extension for 1 min at 72°C and a final 10 min
Plants extracts and essential oils perform extension at 72°C. Amplification products were
antifungal activity against an extensive number of analyzed by gel electrophoreses on a 1.5% agarose
fungal diseases (Javaid and Iqbal, 2014; Javaid gel with a 1 kb DNA ladder as a marker. The
and Rauf, 2015). The antifungal activity of garlic purified PCR products of approximately 650 bp
extracts applied directly and through volatile were sequenced by using 2 primers in First BASE
release was tested against the growth of Laboratories SdnBhd (Malaysia). Sequencing
postharvest pathogens (Daniel et al., 2015). data were BLASTn searched on NCBI Genebank
Turmeric used against fungal activity helps to database. The phylogenetic analysis was
control fungal spoilage and fungal growth. conducted using MEGA 6 software.
Extract of turmeric reduce fungal activity and
most effective against Fusarium sp. Six different fungal culture media i.e. PDA, CA,
(Moghadamtousi et al., 2014). Moreover, several PSA, RA, HPA, HA was used to assay the mycelial
preservatives are known to use to reduce the growth of the pathogen. The effects of
fungal activity. Many preservatives such as temperature on the mycelial growth of
sodium benzoate, sodium bi-carbonate, sodium Thielaviopsis paradoxa, experiment was
chloride, sodium nitrate, potassium sorbate, conducted according to Alam et al. (2010).
vinegar are used for reduction of antimicrobial Different temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30 and 35ºC)
activity (Stanojevic et al., 2009). Vinegar is used was maintained for the mycelial growth of the
as protection of fungal pathogens in indoor pathogen on PDA in an incubator. The mycelial
micro-organisms (Rogawansami et al., 2015). growth was recorded at 7 days post inoculation
Sodium benzoate and acetic acid are the most (dpi). The effect of light on the mycelial growth of
advantageous preservatives used as safe- the pathogen was done by exposing the
pesticides of fruit fungi (Nair, 2001). So, consider inoculated culture to three different light regimes
all of the above facts the present study dealt with i.e. 24 h light, 24 h dark and 12 h light and 12 h
the accurate identification based on dark in an growth chamber at room temperature
morphological and molecular characterization, (25 ± 2°C) was maintained (Singha et al., 2013).
growth characteristics of the isolated fungus and The effect of pH on the growth of the pathogen
the eco-friendly management practices. was assayed on PDA medium. Different pH levels
viz., 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0 and 9.0 were used (Alam
Materials and Methods and Rahman, 2020).
Diseased samples were collected from trees A total of three extracts of plant parts namely,
located at Wildlife Rescue Centre (WRC) of rhizome of turmeric- Curcuma longa L., seeds of
Jahangirnagar University (JU), Bangladesh. black cumin- Nigella sativa L. and bulb of garlic-
Collected diseased fruits were separately packed Allium sativum L. were selected for the
in sterile polyethylene bags to avoid secondary evaluation of the efficacy of aqueous plant extract
infection. These samples then kept in the against Thielaviopsis paradoxa. The desired part
Laboratory of Mycology and Plant Pathology, of each plant was thoroughly washed in tap
Department of Botany, JU for further water, air dried and then used for fresh extract
investigations. The method involved in studying preparation. Rhizome, seeds and bulb of that
the symptoms of amla fruit spot was conducted plant parts were prepared by crushing known
weight of fresh materials with distilled water ratio
during the months of November 2016 to
of 1:1 (w/v). The pulverized mass of a plant part
December 2017. Tissue planting methodwas used
was squeezed through fine cloth to remove
to isolate fungal pathogens; subculture was particulate matter. The supernatants were
maintained on PDA medium; the pure culture filtered through filter paper. Finally, the requisite
was stored in refrigerator at -40C. Isolated fungus amount of the filtrate of each plant extract was
from the infected tissues of amla fruit samples mixed with PDA medium to get 10, 20 and 30%
was identifiedbased on colony morphology, concentrations. Medium was prepared with plant
morphological characteristic of conidia. For extract and poured into sterilized Petri plates and
molecular characterization, fungal genomic DNA allowed to solidify. Then, test fungus was
samples were extracted using DNA extraction Kit inoculated into Petri plates. Inoculated Petri
(Promega, Madison, USA). DNA concentrations plates were incubated at 25± 2ºC and measured
were measured using Nano Drop Spectro- the radial growth after 7 days of inoculation.
photometer (ND2000, Thermo Scientific, USA).

A total of two preservative chemicals namely- temperature, pH, hydrophilic plant extract,
sodium benzoate and acetic acid (vinegar) were chemical preservatives on mycelial growth and
selected for evaluating their effects on the growth inhibition of the mycelial growth of isolated
of test pathogens associated with amla fruits. pathogens were found to be normal and were
Three different doses of these chemicals (50, 75, analyzed using statistical package R.
100 mM) were mixed with PDA, poured into
sterilized Petri plates, and allowed to solidify. Results and Discussion
Inoculation, incubation, data were taken as Black colored spots with black margin appeared
similar to plant extracts. Inhibition percent was in the diseased amla with slightly sunken. Slow
calculated by the following formulae- growing vegetative growth was found on PDA
medium (Fig. 1). Mycelium is greyish in color on
PDA. Conidiophores are straight, hyaline to light
brown in color. Conidia are cylindrical-oval to
in which I= percentage of mycelium growth ellipsoidal, light brown in color and in chain
inhibition; C= growth of mycelium in control; forms or scattered (Fig. 1). Once isolated, the
and T= growth of mycelium in treatments. fungus was identified as genus- Thielaviopsis,
based on its morphological characteristics. The
Data generated during the experiment were teleomorph of genus- Thielaviopsisis known as
checked for normality and homogeneity of genus- Ceratocystis.
variance. Data on effects of culture media, light,
Fig. 1. Symptoms and morphological characteristics of black spot disease of amla fruits caused by
Thielaviopsis paradoxa. A: Symptoms of black spot disease of amla fruits collected from trees; B:
Vegetative growth of T. paradoxa on PDA medium, and C: Microscopic view of conidia and mycelium.
We received NCBI accession of the studied formed cluster with T. paradoxa (telomorph: C.
fungus- MH368110 Thielaviopsis paradoxa paradoxa) group with bootstrap value of 94.
which showed 99% sequence similarity with Second clades consist of T. thielavioides group;
KC415073.1 Ceratocystis paradoxa, KR183792.1 third group having T. resinifera group and forth
Thielaviopsis paradoxa and GU567771.1 groups with T. basicola group. ITS sequences are
Ceratocystis paradoxa. Once phylogenetic trees genetically constant or show little variation
were generated after retrieving sequence data within species, but vary between species in a
from NCBI, we further confirmed the homology genus (Alam et al., 2009).Genetic diversity
with previously identified fungus (Fig. 2). In within a group is probably due to an efficient
maximum parsimony tree, there was four gene flow and to a high genetic compatibility
different clades found in which our organism within the strains tested.
Fig. 2. Maximum parsimony tree of the 18S rDNA sequence of the studied organism with bootstrap
value. Our organism (MH368110) market with this study.

The association of Thielaviopsis paradoxa was HPA medium at 7 dpi. There was difference
confirmed by pathogenicity test through Koch among six different culture media based on the
Postulates.In our experiment, detached fruit color and pattern on mycelial growth. The color
inoculation technique was used. The inoculated of the studied fungus was greyish on PSA, RA, CA
fruits were kept in laboratory conditions and PDA; on the other hand, it was whitish in
(25±2°C) for seven days and pathogens were re- color on both HPA and HA media. The fluffy
isolated. Earlier workers had described similar pattern of the mycelial growth was observed in
technique. The pathogenicity of the isolated case of HPA and HA media (Fig. 4). Present
fungus was tested following modified “detached results in partially agreement with the findings of
leaf technique” and inoculated fungal block as Javaid and Rauf (2015), which tested six different
described by Aktar and Shamsi (2014) in their media (solid and broth) in which malt extract
experiment. agar media supported the best growth of
Ceratocystis manginecans, followed by carrot
The effect of six different culture media viz., PSA, juice agar. In another study, potato dextrose agar
RA, CA, PDA, HPA and HA on mycelial growth of amended with streptomycin (SPDA) media and
Thielaviopsis paradoxa was evaluated and the carrot discs technique were used for isolation of
statistical differences among the culture media Ceratocystis fimbriata during their research
was found at 7 days post incubation (dpi) (Fig. 3). work (Masood et al., 2010) in which carrot
The greatest mean vegetative growth (79.83 mm) provided the significantly higher frequency of C.
of the tested fungus was found on RA medium fimbriata growth. Our results are contradictory
which is statistical significance compared to with the findings of Bijaya (2005) who tested ten
others media evaluated at 7 dpi. The second different fungal culture media in which PDA was
mycelial growth of the fungus was obtained on found as best media for the growth and
CA media. Most extensively used media-PDA did sporulation of T. paradoxa.
not supported profuse mycelial growth and the
lowest mycelial growth (50.67 mm) was found on
Fig. 3. Effect of culture media on mycelial growth (mm) of Thielaviopsis paradoxa. Value represents
in box-plot as mean, 1st quartile and 3rd quartile of six replications. CA, Carrot agar; HA, Hansen’s
agar; HPA, Honey peptone agar; PSA, Potato sucrose agar; RA, Richard agar.

Fig. 4. Effect of culture media on mycelial growth of Thielaviopsis paradoxa at 7 dpi. A, Potato
sucrose agar; B, Richard agar; C, Carrot agar; D, Potato dextrose agar; E, Honey peptone agar; and F,
Hansen’s agar.
higher than 35°C. Yadahalli et al. (2007) reported
In current study, the optimum temperature for the maximum vegetative growth of Thielaviopsis
vegetative growth of the studied fungus was paradoxa, causing sett rot of sugarcane, at
obtained in the range of 15 to 35°C, which was temperature of 25-30°C. The optimum
significantly differ from 15 and 20°C at 7 dpi (Fig. temperatures are important criteria for
5). At 15°C temperature, the mycelial growth was understanding the ecology of spoilage fungi,
inhibited extremely, maximum mycelia growth especially mycotoxigenic species as mentioned by
was recorded at 35°C. Present results are in Ahmed and Naresh (2009). There is always an
conformity with the findings of Tzeng and Sun optimum temperature for the best growth of any
(2010), which cited that the optimum fungus as temperature has a regulatory effect on
temperature for hyphal growth of Thielaviopsis fungal growth and development.
paradoxa was found at 25 to 30°C.This fungus
did not grow at temperatures lower than 10°C or
Fig. 5. Effect of temperature on mycelial growth (mm) of Thielaviopsis paradoxa under five different
temperature conditions at 7 dpi. Value represents in box-plot as mean, 1st quartile and 3rd quartile of
six replications.

Light is a very important signal for every living under complete dark condition at 7 dpi.
cell, and since optimal adaptation to both the Interestingly, the mycelial growth was
beneficial and harmful effects of light suppressed (66.50 mm) under complete light
significantly enhances fitness of an organism, it exposure condition at 7 dpi. Our results are
can be considered crucial for successful partially supported by Bachiller (1998), who
competition and survival in nature. The reported that continuous light as well as alternate
experimental plates were exposed and incubated light and darkness greatly boosted the vegetative
under three different light conditions viz., 24 growth and sporulation of C. paradoxa on PDA.
hours light (complete light), 24 hours dark Sporulation of this fungus was good at both
(complete dark) and 12/12 hours alternate cycle continuous light and alternate cycles of light and
of light and dark. Significance difference was darkness. Results revealed that T. paradoxa grew
observed among three different treatments (Fig. well and sporulated more in alternate light and
6). Under 12/12 hours light-dark condition, dark for 12 h, but fewer sporulations was
Thielaviopsis paradoxa showed the outmost observed in continuous light.
mycelial growth (90 mm), followed by 76 mm
Fig. 6. Effect of light on mycelial growth (mm) of Thielaviopsis paradoxa under different light
regimes at 7 dpi. Value represents in box-plot as mean, 1st quartile and 3rd quartile of six replications.
pH is also one of key criteria for understanding reports of Sonyal et al. (2015) who obtained the
the ecology of spoilage fungi, however, in present maximum growth of Ceratocystis fimbriata at
study, the experimental plates were incubated at pH 7.5, followed by pH 7.0 and pH 8.0. The
five different pH level viz., 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. growth of the fungus was declined from pH 5.5 to
Growth of Thielaviopsis paradoxa was pH 2.0 and above pH 9.0. Yadahalli et al.(2007)
suppressed at pH 5, intermediate growth pattern noticed the maximum mycelial growth of
observed from pH 6 to pH 8, and the maximum Ceratocystis paradoxa when the pH of the media
mycelial growth was found at pH9 (Fig. 7). These was between 6.0 and 7.5. Result indicated that
results are in disagreement with the earlier this grew well at basic condition.

Fig. 7. Effect of pH on mycelial growth (mm) of P. Thielaviopsis paradoxa under five different pH
conditions at 7 dpi. Value represents in box-plot as mean, 1st quartile and 3rd quartile of six
replications.
Three different concentrations (10%, 20% and 78% and 65% for 20% and 10% garlic crude
30%) of the selected plant parts namely, rhizome extract, respectively (Fig. 8). In our study, there
of turmeric- Curcuma longa L., seeds of black were no striking outcomes of the efficacy of black
cumin- Nigella sativa L. and bulb of garlic- cumin and turmeric crude extracts. However,
Allium sativum L. were used for evaluation of earlier workers had been reported the positive
efficacy on the mycelial inhibition of impact of those plant extract. Shokri et al. (2012)
Thielaviopsis paradoxa. There were positive reported that the major components of the
trends of mycelial growth inhibition were noticed essential oil obtained from black cumin seeds are
with increasing doses of plant extract. Both thymoquinone, p-cymene, trans-anethole and γ-
turmeric and black cumin did not able to inhibit terpinene. These components possessed
mycelial growth at 10% and 20% crude extracts moderate in vitro and in vivo inhibitory activity
concentration (Fig. 8). However, only higher against pathogenic yeasts, dermatophytes, non-
concentration (30%) provided a certain level of dermatophytic filamentous fungi and aflatoxin-
mycelial inhibition of tested fungus. producing fungi. Present studies regarding the
Interestingly, there was increasing trends of significant impact of garlic on the tested fungus
mycelial growth inhibition of tested fungi with are in conformity with earlier reports. It has been
increasing concentration of garlic. Garlic extract reported that garlic contains of more than 200
provided positive results in respect of vegetative compounds, some of which are volatile
growth inhibition of T. paradoxa in which substances such as allicin, ajoene and alliin,
around 80% mycelial growth restriction was which is considered to be the main active
recorded due to higher dose of garlic, followed by ingredient in garlic (Goncagul and Ayaz, 2010).
Fig. 8. Effect of selected plant parts extracts on mycelial growth of Thielaviopsis paradoxa at 7 dpi.

Preservative agents commonly used include weak benzoate was able to restrict 80% mycelial
organic acids such as acetic, lactic, benzoic and growth of the studied fungus and the higher dose
citric acids, which inhibit the microbial growth in (100 mM) was completely inhibited the
various foods. In the present study, there was an vegetative growth of it (Fig. 9). The effect of
increasing trends of mycelial growth inhibition organic acids on the fungal growth, which
observed with increasing doses of food contaminate food and feed, have been
preservatives (Fig. 9). Lower doses (50 and 75 investigated by several authors (Gupta et al.,
mM) of vinegar (acetic acid) did not show 2012; Khosravi et al., 2013). Organic acids, which
promising inhibition of the tested fungus. used in food preservation is considered; simple,
However, fifty percent mycelial inhibition of fast, acid, cheap and efficient. Moreover, most of
Thielaviopsis paradoxa was recorded by higher them are not limited in the acceptable daily
dose (100 mM concentration) of vinegar. On the intake for humans. These characteristics favour
other hand, sodium benzoate showed very their use in food preservation.
striking results. Lower dose (50 mM) of sodium
Fig. 9.Effect of acetic acid and sodium benzoate on mycelial growth of Thielaviopsis paradoxa at 7 dpi.
Based on molecular identification, our isolated of Pleurotus nebrodensis based on ITS
fungus was identified as Thielaviopsis paradoxa. sequence and RAPD. Mycobiol. 37(3): 183-
To our knowledge, this is the first report of 188.
Thielaviopsis paradoxa (telemorph: C. https://doi.org/10.4489/MYCO.2009. 37.3.183
paradoxa) causing black spot disease on amla Bachiller, N.C.S.J. 1998. Effect of environmental
fruits in Bangladesh. factors on the growth and sporulation of
Thielaviopsis paradoxa (de Seynes) Von
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Investigating the risk and resilience of flash flood in Sunamgonj

haor region of Bangladesh
M.R. Islam1, M.A.H. Babu1, M.J. Uddin2, M.L. Khatun2 and M.S. Islam2*
Received 30 June 2020, Revised 6 November 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
Bangladesh faces various types of natural hazards from its birth due to geographical location
and physiographic conditions. Flood is the most common event among them. Northeastern
part of Bangladesh faces flash flood almost every year with large scale of damage. Tanguar
haor, (a famous Ramsar site of Bangladesh) located in Tahirpur upazila of Sunamgonj
district. This wetland adjacent area is the most vulnerable zone in terms of flash flood
hazard. About more than 80%, people are the direct victim of this hazard. The aim of this
study was to assess the risk and resilience status of flash flood at community level. A risk
and resilience assessment matrix leads to fulfill the assessment where only primary data
were used. A comparative study between those statuses is computed based on Pearson
correlation of co-efficient analysis that presents the difference of risk and resilience of the
study area that helps to realize the emergence of flash flood risk reduction. The findings of
this study will be a pathway for the policy makers, local administrators for the development
of sustainable community level risk management, policy-making and its implementations.
Keywords: Flash flood, Risk and resilience, Vulnerability, Tahirpur upazila.
1
Department of Geography and Environment, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka-1342, Bangladesh.
2Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University,
Tangail-1902, Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author’s email: islammstazu@yahoo.com (M.S. Islam)
Cite this article as Islam, M.R., Babu, M.A.H., Uddin, M.J., Khatun, M.L. and Islam, M.S. 2020. Investigating
the risk and resilience of flash flood in Sunamgonj haor region of Bangladesh. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech.
10(2): 47-53. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51576
Introduction
Bangladesh is one of the most flood prone fed flood and coastal flood (Brammer, 1990).
countries in the world located in South Asia. Due Among them flash flood is the most common
to the unique geographical location and special hazard in northeastern region of Bangladesh.
geo-natural, features of Bangladesh, different
types and levels of floods occur here every year People of the haor area are in great risk due to
(Mirza, 2011). In the last half a century, there flash flood. Remoteness, poverty and natural
have been six severe floods that have affected hazards are the major risk factors here. About
50% of the total area of the country. Since the 87% of haor people are poor and primary
early sixties of the last century, the country has economic activities are their main way of
taken a variety of measures for flood livelihood (Sun et al., 2017). Flash flood affects
management and has mixed experiences of this region any time from March to September
success and failure (Poncelet et al., 2010). Flood (Hossain et al., 2017). Boro Dhan (rice), BRRI
is a relatively high flow of water that flows across Dhan 28 and BRRI Dhan 29 are the major food
the natural or artificial banks of a river. When the crops cultivated in Tanguar Haor region. Some
water crosses the shore and floods the other crops such as chili (Capsicum annuum),
surrounding plains, it usually causes misery to onion (Allium cepa), garlic (Allium sativum),
the people (Ahmed, 2005). Since floodplains are potato (Solanum tuberosum), bean (Phaseolus
desirable and conducive to agriculture, it is lunatus) and coriander (Coriandrum sativum)
important to control floods and ensure that their are also cultivated here (Kamal et al., 2018).
damage does not exceed the limits. Flood in Among those crops, Boro Dhan, BRRI Dhan 28
Bangladesh are generally divided into four major and BRRI Dhan 29 are harvested in April to May
categories. These are flash flood, river flood, rain when early flash flood visited every year. Other
crops are damaged mainly due to mid and late
Islam et al. (2020) Investigating the risk and resilience of flash flood in Sunamgonj haor region
flash flood (Islam et al., 2010). Besides, their local community; to analyze the resilience status,
housing structure makes them more vulnerable and to compare between flash flood risk and
in terms of flash flood. Majority of their resilience status in the study area. This study will
settlements are made by clay, bamboo, chhon be a future guideline for the local community,
(thatched roof), wood etc. About 87.2% houses policy makers and local administrators for the
are kancha, 6.9% jhupri, 5.2% semi-pacca and development of disaster risk reduction
remaining only 0.7% pacca (BBS, 2011). Most of framework and relevant policymaking.
the flood prone areas of Bangladesh are too much
vulnerable because of the poor settlement Materials and Methods
structure. Study area
Government of Bangladesh implies several action Tahirpur upazila is located in northeastern part
plans to reduce the risk factors. Strategies like of Bangladesh under Sunamgonj district.
protection strategies, short as well as long-term Tahirpur came into upazila in 1983. This upazila
action plan are the main phase (Khan and was named after the name of Tahir Ali Shah who
Rahman, 2007). Protection strategies are the was a religious preacher. The total area of this
structural management such as embankments, upazila is about 315.33 km2. Tahirpur upazila is
flood shelter, flood proofing etc. Otherwise, some located between 25⁰01′ north latitude to 25⁰12′
other actions like flood warning, changes of north latitude and 91⁰02′ east longitude to 91⁰19′
settlement structure, shifting of agriculture etc. east longitude. It is surrounded by Dharmapasha
All these helps to reduce risk of flash flood upazila in the west, Bishwambarpur in the east,
proportionately (Islam et al., 2010; Khan and Jamalganj in the south and India in the north
Haque, 2010). Maximum number of haor people (Fig. 1). Tahirpur upazila contains about 22000
are not solvent, their economy is only haor based. households, with a total population of about
That is why government should focus on them so 155188 (Banglapedia, 2014). Linguistically
that they can able to live a life with basic facilities minors such as Garo and Hajong belong to this
(Khan and Rahman, 2007). The objectives of the upazila.
study were to assess the flash flood risk status of
Fig. 1. Map showing the geographical location of the study area in Tahirpur upazila of Sunamgonj.
Study process of measurement. Primary data were- flash flood
probability, flash flood vulnerability indicators,
Data sources
and indicators of resilience and the result of risk
To achieve the aim and objectives of this study and resilience assessment. To construct the
both primary and secondary data have been used. framework of this study and justify the flood
The assessment of flash flood risk and resilience vulnerability secondary data have been used as
status of the study area were accomplished based literature review of different books, journals,
on the data collected from primary sources, thesis papers and flood recorded data by Flood
where local people of the study area were the unit Forecasting warning center of the study area.

Data collection especially in the agriculture sector. Not only the

agricultural sector but also their housing,
In order to realize study objectives primary data communication, stored food, etc. faces damage
were collected based on both quantitative and too. Flash flood events occur frequently in
qualitative approaches. Primary data have been Tahirpur upazila. However, not every people in
collected through Field Observation, FGD the study area face flash flood hazards equally.
(Focused Group Discussion), Questionnaire The people, who live in low lying and haor
survey and Interview. These techniques were adjacent areas, face this hazard more intensively.
applied on the local people of the study area to However, the others are not like them. This factor
assess the flash flood risk and resilience status is the probability of flash flood hazard, which
using the risk assessment matrix and resilience varies person to person, place to place in the
assessment matrix. A risk assessment matrix is a study area. Otherwise, the damage rate also
matrix that assesses the risk using the hazard varies from person to person. For that reason,
probability and vulnerability (Risk = Hazard flash flood probability and vulnerability
probability × Vulnerability). Flash flood indicators have selected on a priority basis. Based
probability was determined based on the on these observations flash flood risk assessment
frequency of this event in the study area matrix was developed (Fig. 2). Flash flood risk
according to the opinion of local people. Flash was calculated in the study from the following
flood vulnerability indicators were identified equation (2).
through FGD (Per Union one FGD) based on the
priority of respondents. A resilience assessment Flash Flood Risk = Hazard (Flash flood
matrix is a matrix that assesses the resilience probability) × Vulnerability…………………………(2)
status using hazard probability and resilience
status (Resilience = Hazard probability × Flash flood probability
Resilience). Flash flood resilience indicators were Flash flood probability is the possibility of the
marked through FGD based on the precedence of occurrence of the flash flood that is not the same
the respondent. Here, the more the flash flood for all. In the study area, the variation seems in
probability and the more the vulnerability the same area based on some factors like flood-
indicators, the more the flash flood risk. In proof housing, a settlement on high land, etc.
addition, the less the flash flood probability and That is why the probability of flash flood hazards
the more resilience indicators, the more the flash categorized as five hierarchical stages. The flash
flood resilience. To collect this data, this study flood probability is the primary mechanism to
was used a simple random sampling method. know the intensity of flash flood probability in
Sample size was calculated from the following the study area. People of Tahirpur upazila face
equation (1). flash flood in various level that depends on some
criteria. Flash flood probabilities were
𝑧 2 .𝑝 (1−𝑝)/𝑒² determined through field survey (2018): i) Every
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 = (1−𝑝) ……………..….(1) year flash flood occurs severely; ii) It occurs every
1+(𝑧 2 .𝑝 )
𝑒2 𝑁 year but sometimes it is severe; iii) It occurs
Where, every year but not so severely; iv) It occurs after
every few years (Generally after every 2-3 years)
N= Population Size, p= the estimation of the and v) It occurs once every ten years.
proportion, e= Margin of Error, z= z-score
Flash flood vulnerability
Confidence Level = 80% and Margin of Error =10%
Flash flood vulnerability is the possibility of harm
Data analysis
due to flash flood. This also varies with area to
The raw data were processed through general area, person to person. In the study area,
percentage study using MS Excel, where the total variation seems based on several statuses such as
collection is divided into four categories (For risk settlement status, economic status, dependency
and resilience assessment such as extreme, high, on agriculture, etc. Vulnerability indicators were
moderate and low). Based on this risk status a marked as hierarchically based on the opinion of
zoning map was constructed using ArcMap. The the people of the study area. Vulnerability
relationship between risk and resilience status indicators of the flash flood were selected based
were accessed through Karl Pearson’s Coefficient on field survey (2018): i) There is agricultural
of Correlation method. land in haor and its adjacent low-lying areas; ii)
Livelihood is completely depending on
Flash flood risk assessment agricultural production & fishing; iii) Settlements
Flash flood risk assessment is the mechanism to are situated haor adjacent lower elevated areas &
assess the risk status due to flash flood hazards. height is low; iv) Homesteads have made by mud
Tanguar haor adjacent areas face flash floods and other raw materials and v) Day-wise income
almost every year. This causes many damages, (Fisherman, Day labor), lack of Savings & poor
flood Adjustment knowledge.

Resilience indicators
Flash flood resilience indicates the tolerance
capability in terms of flash flood. This type of
capability depends on people’s surroundings and
economic capability. Overall, the geographic
condition of an area controls the resilience status.
Resilience indicators of flash flood are identified
through field survey (2018): i) settlements are
protected by flood walls and plants (Hijal and
Koros forest); ii) human settlements are made on
the pile of soil and flood endures posts in low
lying regions; iii) agricultural production remains
after consumption for store and sell/ one or more
economic man involved in secondary economic
activities in urban areas; iv) there are savings
accounts in bank/ women involved in micro-
credit/ economic solvency (family income more
than 5000 per month) and v) rich in flood
preparedness and adjustment knowledge/
trained volunteer/ ability to read early warning
Fig. 2. Flash flood risk assessment matrix for the system. Based on flash flood probability and
study area in Tahirpur upazila. resilience indicators Flash Flood Resilience
Matrix has developed (Fig. 3).
Flash flood resilience assessment
Flash flood is the most common natural hazard in
Sunamgonj as well as Tahirpur upazila. People of
this area face this type of hazard almost every
year (Uddin et al., 2015). The flash flood affects
their settlement, agricultural production,
communication system and everything every
year. However, their resilience status against this
hazard is not so strong. Because of their poor
economic status and the geographic location, also
reduce the resilience status. For example, Boro is
the main agricultural products for local
community (Rabby et al., 2011). They cultivate it
in haor areas and this crop faces flash flood most
of the time. Resilience is the ability to bounce
back from adversity (McAllister, 2013). It is a
necessary skill for coping with life’s inevitable
obstacles and one of the key ingredients to
success. Learning to bounce back and to bounce
forward (Martin, 2002). Resilience is about being Fig. 3. Flash flood resilience assessmemt matrix
adaptable. It is about being flexible (Norbiato et for the study area in Tahirpur upazila.
al., 2008). Flash flood resilience status is the
mechanism to assess the flash flood tolerance Results and Discussion
capability both structural purposes and non-
structural purposes (Norbiato et al., 2008). Sunamgonj district is well known for one of the
Structural purposes indicate the adaptive largest wetlands in the country and most
capacity of the settlement and other spectacular place to visit named Tanguar haor.
infrastructure against flash flood, and the non- Tanguar haor is located at the foot of Meghalaya
structural indicates everything relevant with hill (Solayman et al., 2018). It is covering 9727
livelihood. Flash flood resilience status was hectares, Tanguar haor in northeastern part of
assessed from the following equation (3). Bangladesh, adjacent to the Indian border, is part
of a wetland of the Surma-Kushiyara rivers
Flash flood resilience status = Hazard probability × basins (Islam et al., 2010).
Resilience indicators. …………………………….. (3)
Here, Hazard probability = the less the hazard Risk index of Tahirpur upazila
probability the more the resilience probability. The assessment of risk status of Tahirpur Upazila
Resilience indicator = the more the indicator the shows that the people of Uttar Sreepur and
respondent have the more the resilience Dakshin Sreepur are in extremely high risk in
probability. terms of flash flood. About 75% people both of

these unions are in extreme high risk. Otherwise, low risk due to flash flood (Table 1). About
the people of Dakshin Badal, Uttar Badal and 150000 people lives in this upazila. Among them
Badaghat are in high-risk zone and about more more than half of the people are in high risk of
than 70%, people are in this zone. Overall, flash flood, only 13.47% people are in low risk.
Tahirpur sadar and Balijuri face moderate and
Table 1. Risk index for the study area in Tahirpur upazila (Source: Field Survey, 2018).
Name of union Population SS Nature of risk
Extremely high (%) High (%) Moderate (%) Low (%)
Uttar Sreepur 33,457 83 77.01 12.05 4.92 6.02
Dakshin Sreepur 16,605 43 74.42 11.63 9.30 4.65
Dakshin Badal 16,827 45 8.88 84.44 4.44 2.21
Uttar Badal 25,514 61 11.21 76.49 9.24 3.06
Badaghat 33,454 82 14.21 69.77 13.91 2.21
Tahirpur 15,300 41 9.87 11.21 63.19 15.73
Balijuri 14,031 39 5.07 4.82 29.67 60.44
Tahirpur upazila 1,55,188 394 28.67 38.63 19.23 13.47
Note: SS = Sample Size.
Risk zoning map of Tahirpur upazila representation, Uttar Sreepur and Dakshin
Sreepur unions are in extreme risk zone where
Risk zoning is the mechanism that represents an
only Balijuri union is in low risk zone. Dakshin
area by dividing it based on their risk status. Risk
Badal, Uttar Badal, Badaghat unions are in high-
zoning usually presented as map. The risk-zoning
risk zone and only Tahirpur union is I moderate
map usually important for disaster planning. Fig.
level. This presentation clearly shows that there
3 represents the several risk zone of Tahirpur
flash risks are varies from union to union (Fig.3).
upazila in terms of flash flood. According to this
Fig. 4. Flash flood risk status of the study area in Tahirpur upazila.
Risk index of Tahirpur upazila
The resilience assessment shows that the high- resilience status of Tahirpur upazila is not
risk zone people resilience status is poor. Unions satisfied in terms of flash flood risk status of this
of Tahirpur as Uttar Sreepur and Dakshin upazila. Because of this upazila, more than 66%
Sreepur are in extreme high risk but their people are in extreme and high risk where their
resilience is too low. Unions are in high-risk zone extreme and high resilience proportion is only
resilience status is not as high as need. About 24.61%. This shows a huge gap and that is why
62% people of these unions are in low resilience. they face a great harm due to flash flood almost
Tahirpur sadar and Balijuri union shows different every year (Table 2).
status in resilience question. However, the overall

Table 2. Resilience index of the study area in Tahirpur upazila (Source: Field Survey, 2018).
Name of union Population SS Nature of resilience
Extremely high (%) High (%) Moderate (%) Low (%)
Uttar Sreepur 33,457 83 10.84 18.07 14.45 71.08
Dakshin Sreepur 16,605 43 4.65 6.98 16.27 72.09
Dakshin Badal 16,827 45 13.33 8.89 15.56 62.22
Uttar Badal 25,514 61 4.92 8.20 22.95 63.93
Badaghat 33,454 82 9.76 6.09 14.63 69.51
Tahirpur 15,300 41 14.63 26.83 39.02 19.51
Balijuri 14,031 39 5.13 30.69 38.40 25.53
Tahirpur upazila 1,55,188 394 9.04 15.11 23.05 52.80
Note: SS = Sample Size.
variables. A connection coefficient is a numerical
Comparative analysis between flash flood proportion of some sort of relationship, which
risk and flash flood resilience means a factual connection between two factors.
Risk and resilience is relevant with one another. The factors might be two segments of a given
If resilience status is strong, this can reduce the informational collection of perceptions,
harm from hazards. The comparison between risk frequently called an example, or two segments of
and resilience status tells us, how much in danger a multivariate arbitrary variable with a known
a particular community are. Correlation analysis circulation (SchlickSteiner et al., 2008).
represents the relationship between two or more
Table 3. Pearson correlation coefficient between flash flood risk and resilience status.
Correlations
Risk status Resilience status
Risk status Pearson correlation 1 -0.819*
Significance (2-tailed) 0.024
N 7 7
Resilience status Pearson correlation -0.819* 1
Significance (2-tailed) 0.024
N 7 7
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
The correlation indicates a significant negative history and nature of past flash floods. However,
relationship (r = -0.819, p< 0.05) between risk not all these afford are so helpful to reduce the
and resilience in the study area (Table 3). For risk of flash flood. Disaster risk reduction is a
proper risk management, this type of relationship systematic function to identify, assessing and
is not satisfactory. The study provides a clear reducing the risk of disaster. Main objective of
indication that a wide range of risk reduction disaster risk reduction is to reduce socioeconomic
practices is required to improve the condition of vulnerabilities in consider with disaster risk as
flash flood in the study area. well as facing with the environmental and other
hazards that influence them. Government of
Conclusions Bangladesh implies several action plans to reduce
Haor people are poor and vulnerable. They are the risk factors. Strategies like protection
mostly deprived, distressed and destitute. strategies, short-term action plan and long-term
Although there was no dearth of prescription action plan are the main phase. Protection
from the government and policy makers, haor strategies are the structural management such as-
people always remained excluded from the embankments, flood shelter, flood proofing etc.
mainstream. Flash flood risk reduction capability Otherwise, some other actions like flood warning,
of Tahirpur upazila mainly depends on changes of settlement structure, shifting of
Governmental actions. Government undertakes agriculture etc., which are help to reduce risk of
most of the actions. Most important task for flash flash flood proportionately in the study area.
flood risk reduction is structural development Acknowledgement
and emergency response capability. Emergency
response system is well active in Tahirpur The authors sincerely acknowledge the
upazila. Haor people mainly the aged person cooperation of the Department of Geography and
accumulated regular and specialist knowledge Environment (Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka),
about the flash floods through previous and Department of Environmental Science and
observation and practical experience of their Resource Management (Mawlana Bhashani
surroundings. Local tales and anecdotes related Science and Technology University, Tangail) for
to floods abound and reveal how people live and using their GIS lab facilities during the study
interpret their landscape over time. Their period.
accounts provide many interpretations of the

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https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.TN.1795

ISSN: 2224-0616
Quality evaluation of commercially available instant mango drinks

powder in local market of Bangladesh
M.R Badsha1, S. Akther1,2*, J.S. Jothi1 and A. Sultana1
ABSTRACT
The upward trend of consumption of processed food must not dim the demand of taking
healthy and safe food among population. Thus, six popular commercial brands of instant
mango drinks powder of Bangladesh were targeted to investigate some quality parameters
(proximate compositions, mineral contents and bioactive compounds). Mineral contents
and bioactive compounds of instant mango drinks powder were determined by using
biochemical analyzer and UV-visible spectrophotometer, respectively. Results of proximate
analysis showed that moisture content, ash content, fiber content, and carbohydrate content
of different brands of instant mango drinks powder ranged from 0.21 to 0.25%, 0.45 to
0.55%, 0.10 to 0.40%, and 98.83 to 99.21%, respectively, whereas energy value ranged from
395.32 to 396.84 Kcal/100g. Sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, phosphorus, iron and
vitamin-C were also determined, which showed the significant different (p<0.05) values
among different brands. Total anthocyanin content (TAC), Total flavonoid content (TFC),
Total phenolic content (TPC), Antioxidant capacity were determined as bioactive
compounds. Results of bioactive compounds analysis also showed that the samples were
significantly different (p<0.05). Although, the quality varied from brand to brand, but all the
samples could be good source of vitamin-C, carbohydrate and energy. Furthermore, health
concerning issues can be improved by focusing the bioactive compounds of commercially
available instant drinks powder.
Keywords: Bioactive compounds, Instant mango drinks powder, Minerals contents, Proximate
composition.
1Department of Food Processing and Engineering, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
(CVASU),Chattogram-4225, Bangladesh.
2Department of Food Technology and Rural Industries, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author’s email: shireen_cvasu@yahoo.com (S. Akther)
Cite this article as: Badsha, M.R, Akther, S., Jothi, J.S. and Sultana, A. 2020. Quality evaluation of
commercially available instant mango drinks powder in local market of Bangladesh. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov.
Tech. 10(2): 54-58. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51577
Introduction
Fresh fruits are perishable and have limited shelf Mango is a popular fruit with excellent flavor,
life. To prolong shelf life, various processing and attractive color, and delicious taste with high
preservation methods such as drying, chemical nutritional value. Due to higher moisture content
treatments and various packaging methods are (85%); it has very poor keeping quality and can’t
used. Dehydration of mango juice into powdered withstand any adverse climatic conditions during
particles gives a considerable reduction in volume storage. Therefore, 30% of fruits have been
and is an effective method of prolonging the shelf getting spoilage every year (Thind et al., 2002).
life (Mahendran, 2011). Transportation and To overcome this post-harvest loss and to
storage costs would be reduced significantly increase the shelf life, the surplus mango has to
when shipping the products to distant markets. be processed into shelf stable products like
Dried juice products today are used mainly as sterilized pulp or dried flakes or powders for
convenience foods and have long storage life at consumption (Saxena and Arora, 1997). Mango
ordinary temperatures (Pap, 1995). Completely powder is generally being used in processing of
dried fruit powders are often used for making certain food products like ice cream, mango fruit
food products. Fruit powders less than 4% (wb) bar, mango cereal flakes, mango cake. Therefore,
moisture content can be used to make candy, there is a great need to develop a non-caking and
toffee, fudge and hard candy. soluble/readily mixing mango flakes/powder
(Akhter et al., 2010).
Badsha et al. (2020) Quality evaluation of commercially available instant mango drinks powder
Instant mango drink provides instant rehydration (1985) with minor modifications. Mineral
and instant freshness. It is mostly useful in contents were determined by using biochemical
summer duration. Mango drinks powder is a analyzer (Humalyzer 3000). Commercially
refreshing fruit flavored drink with minerals and available biochemical kit (Randox®) was used
vitamins (Chen et al., 2000). It makes a for biochemical assay. The quantity of the
refreshing drink that releases extra energy and vitamin C contained in each sample was
rejuvenates us (McIntyre, 2000). High energy determined by titrimetric method (using 2, 6-
drink powder when mixed with water creates an dichlorophenol indophenol dye) described by
instant breakfast drink. Mango drinks powder Najwa and Azrina (2017).
may attract the attention of the consumers due to
their palatability, attractive color, better ﬂavor Bioactive compounds of instant drinks
and taste. mango powders
The instant mango drinks powder mainly Preparation of extracts for bioactive compounds
consists of natural mango powders, sweetening were followed instructions as described by Unal
agent, color source, flavor source, thickening et al. (2014). Total anthocyanin content (TAC)
agent, anticaking agent, acid source, and and Total phenolic content (TPC) of the instant
additives, which make it desirable, appealing, mango drinks powder were determined according
appetizing, delicious, and nutritious for our to the method described by Unal et al. (2014).
health. The nutrient profiles help the consumer Total flavonoid content (TFC) of the instant
to understand clearly about the safe consumption mango drinks powder was determined using the
of instant mango drink powder. Therefore, the aluminum chloride colorimetric method
objectives of this study were to evaluate some described by Chang et al. (2002). Antioxidant
major quality parameters of commercial drinks capacity of the instant mango drinks powder was
powder in Bangladesh, such as proximate determined using DPPH assay as described by
compositions, mineral contents, and bioactive Azlim Almey et al. (2010).
compounds (phenolic content, flavonoid content,
anthocyanin content, and antioxidant capacity). Statistical tools to be used for data
analyses
Materials and Methods
Statistical analysis was performed by using MS
Collection of instant mango drinks powder Excel 2013 and Statistical Package for Social
The instant mango drinks powder of six different Science (SPSS 16th version). Values are expressed
brands (coded with A, B, C, D, E and F) were as means ± standard deviation (SD). One-way
bought from various local market in Chattogram, ANOVA and post-hoc “Tukey” tests were used to
Bangladesh. Samples were coded to overcome the identify the variation within the sample groups.
sampling biasness Statistical significance was set at P<0.05.
Place of experiment Results and Discussion
The samples were analyzed in the Department of Proximate analysis of instant mango
Food Processing & Engineering and Department drinks powder
of Physiology, Biochemistry & Pharmacology at
Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences The proximate composition of instant mango
University (CVASU), Chattogram, Bangladesh. drinks powder available in local market of
Bangladesh is presented in Table 1. The results of
Proximate analysis moisture content were ranged from 0.21 to 0.25%
The proximate composition of instant mango for different brand of instant mango drinks
drinks powder was determined using methods powder. The highest value of moisture content
described by Association of Official Analytical 0.25% was found in brand D of instant mango
Chemists (AOAC, 2016). The samples were drinks powder and the lowest value 0.21% was
analyzed for moisture, ash, crude protein, and found for brand B of instant mango drinks
crude fat. Carbohydrate content was determined powder. The results of moisture content showed
by difference. The energy value of the samples that the moisture content of samples was not
was determined by multiplying the protein significantly different (p<0.05). Moisture content
content by 4, carbohydrate content by 4 and fat is an important factor in maintaining product
content by 9 according to standard formula quality because increase moisture facilitates the
(Akpakpan and Akpabio, 2012). All analyses were growth of microbes and ultimately destroy
performed in triplicate. quality of product in a short time. The moisture
Mineral and Vitamin-C analysis contents of the instant mango drinks powder
were lower than reported by Akhter et al. (2010)
Preparation of samples for Mineral analysis was for instant mango juice powder and Mohammed
followed instructions as in Mustafa and Medeiros et al. (2017) for instant sorrel (Zobo) drink.

Table 1. Proximate analysis of instant mango drinks powder.

Sample Moisture (%) Ash (%) Fiber (%) CHO (%) Energy (Kcal/100g)
A 0.22±0.04a 0.45±0.02b 0.20±0.02c 99.13±0.08ab 396.52±0.32ab
B 0.21±0.01a 0.50±0.04ab 0.10±0.01d 99.19±0.06a 396.76±0.24a
C 0.24±0.03a 0.48±0.02ab 0.10±0.03d 99.18±0.08a 396.72±0.32a
D 0.25±0.02a 0.52±0.03ab 0.40±0.05a 98.83±0.10c 395.32±0.40c
E 0.23±0.04a 0.55±0.01a 0.30±0.01b 98.92±0.06bc 395.68±0.24bc
F 0.23±0.02a 0.46±0.04b 0.10±0.03d 99.21±0.09a 396.84±0.36a
Significant at P<0.05; Values followed by different superscript letters denote a significant difference;
comparison done across brand. Protein and Fat was not found in any of the instant mango drinks powder.
The highest value of ash content 0.55% was found In this study, the energy value of the six brands of
in brand E of instant mango drinks powder and instant mango drinks powder ranged from
the lowest value 0.45% was recorded for brand A 395.32 to 396.84 (Kcal/100g). The highest
of instant mango drinks powder. The results of content was found for the brand F (396.84
ash content showed that the ash content of kcal/100g), whereas least in the brand D (395.32
samples was significantly different (p<0.05). The kcal/100g). The results of energy value showed
variation of ash content was found due to having that the samples were significantly different
different types of minerals in the instant mango (p<0.05). High amount of carbohydrate in the
drinks powder. The ash contents of the instant instant mango drinks powder leads to increase
mango drinks powder were lower than reported the energy value. The energy value of the instant
by Akhter et al. (2010) for instant mango juice mango drinks powder was higher than reported
powder, Mohammed et al. (2017) for instant by Mohammed et al. (2017) for instant sorrel
sorrel (Zobo) drink and Farzana et al. (2017) for (Zobo) drink, Farzana et al. (2017) for vegetable
vegetable soup powder. soup powder and lower values observed by
Obilana et al. (2018) for instant beverage powder.
The highest value of fiber content 0.40% was
Mineral and Vitamin-C content of instant
found in brand D and the lowest value 0.10% was mango drinks powder
for brand B. The results of fiber content showed
that the samples were significantly different Mineral and Vitamin-C content of instant mango
(p<0.05). The results of fiber content of the drinks powder available in local market of
instant mango drinks powder were close Bangladesh are presented in Table 2. The results
agreement with Farzana et al. (2017) for of mineral contents were found in all instant
vegetable soup powder. mango drinks powder samples in the range as Na
(40.09-52.07) mg/dl, K (0.40-0.50) mg/dl, Ca
The carbohydrate (CHO) content of the six (1.20-1.90) mg/dl, Cl (1.10-2.00) mg/dl, P (0.44-
brands of instant mango drinks powder varied 0.55) mg/dl and Fe (0.10-0.18) mg/dl. In case of
significantly. It ranged from 98.83 to 99.21%. The mineral content, a one-way ANOVA showed that
lowest carbohydrate content was found of instant the instant mango drinks powder samples were
mango drinks powder in brand D (98.83%), significantly different (p<0.05). The highest value
whereas highest amount of instant mango drinks of Na, K, Ca, Cl, P and Fe content was found in
powder in brand F (99.21%). The carbohydrate brand E. The lowest value of Na, Ca, Cl, P content
content of instant mango drinks powder is was found in brand A and K, Fe content was
excellently high showing that it is a good source found in brand F. The mineral content was found
of energy. The high carbohydrates content could due to having different types of additives and
be due to the addition of nutritive sweetener, salts in the instant mango drinks powder. The
sucrose. The carbohydrate contents of the instant sodium and potassium content of the instant
mango drinks powder were higher than reported mango drinks powder was lower than reported by
by Mohammed et al. (2017) for instant sorrel Farzana et al. (2017) for vegetable soup powder.
(Zobo) drink, Farzana et al. (2017) for vegetable Obilana et al. (2018) prepared instant beverage
soup powder and Obilana et al. (2018) for instant powder from extruded malted pearl millet
beverage powder. (Babla) reported the calcium content as 32.56
mg/100g and the iron content as 7.78 mg/100g.
Table 2. Mineral contents of instant mango drinks powder.
Sample Na (mg/dl) K (mg/dl) Ca (mg/dl) Cl (mg/dl) P (mg/dl) Fe (mg/dl) Vit-C (mg/dl)
A 40.09±0.05f 0.42±0.02ab 1.20±0.08d 1.10±0.01d 0.44±0.02b 0.10±0.02a 66.56±0.10e
B 45.30±0.03c 0.43±0.03ab 1.35±0.05c 1.70±0.02b 0.47±0.03ab 0.14±0.01a 82.98±0.15b
C 43.10±0.06d 0.40±0.05b 1.30±0.01cd 1.40±0.05c 0.46±0.06b 0.11±0.02a 62.45±0.11f
D 46.04±0.02b 0.46±0.04ab 1.64±0.04b 1.90±0.03a 0.48±0.02ab 0.16±0.04a 85.68±0.17a
E 52.07±0.07a 0.50±0.05a 1.90±0.03a 2.00±0.05a 0.55±0.01a 0.18±0.06a 80.87±0.50c
F 41.54±0.04e 0.40±0.03b 1.25±0.02cd 1.20±0.09d 0.45±0.02b 0.10±0.01a 68.98±0.19d
P <0.05; Values followed by different superscript letters denote a significant difference; comparison done across brand.

The results of Vitamin C content were ranged reported by Akther et al. (2020) for instant
from 62.45-85.68 mg/dl for different brand of mango drink powder.
instant mango drinks powder. The highest value
of Vitamin C content 85.68 mg/dl was found in The results of total flavonoid content (TFC) were
brand D and the lowest value 62.45 mg/dl was for ranged from 5.31-2.27 mg QE/100g for different
brand C of instant mango drinks powder. The brand of instant mango drinks powder. The
results of Vitamin C content showed that the highest value of total flavonoid content
Vitamin C content of samples was significantly (5.31±0.15 mg QE/100g) was found in brand C
different (p<0.05). Farzana et al. (2017) prepared and the lowest value (2.27±0.10 mg QE/100g)
soup powder from vegetable reported the was for brand A of instant mango drinks powder.
Vitamin C content as 6.4 mg/100g. Due to presence of the flavoring agents in the
instant mango drinks powder, total flavonoid
Bioactive compounds of instant mango content was discovered. The results of flavonoid
drinks powder content showed that the flavonoid content of
samples was significantly different (p<0.05).
The Bioactive compounds of instant mango
drinks powder available in local market of The results of total phenolic content (TPC) were
Bangladesh are presented in Table 3. The results ranged from 12.05-21.79 mg GAE/100g for
of total anthocyanin content (TAC) were ranged different brand of instant mango drinks powder.
from 0.16-0.23 mg/100g for different brand of The highest value of total phenolic content
instant mango drinks powder. The highest value (21.79±0.03 mg GAE/100g) was found in brand
of total anthocyanin content 0.23 mg/100g was B and the lowest value (12.05±0.05 mg
found in brand E and the lowest value 0.16 GAE/100g) was for brand F of instant mango
mg/100g was for brand A of instant mango drinks powder. The results of total phenolic
drinks powder. The anthocyanin content was content showed that the total phenolic content of
found due to the presence of coloring agents in samples was significantly different (p<0.05).
the instant mango drinks powder. The results of Obilana et al. (2018) prepared instant beverage
anthocyanin content showed that the powder from extruded malted pearl millet
anthocyanin content of samples was significantly (Babla) reported the total phenolic content as
different (p<0.05). The anthocyanin content of 1.30 μg/g.
the instant mango drinks powder was higher than
Table 3. Bioactive compounds of instant drinks powder.
Sample TAC TFC TPC Antioxidant Capacity
(mg/100g) (mg QE /100g) (mg GAE/100g) (mg TE/100g)
A 0.16±0.02b 2.27±0.10d 14.62±0.07e 23.93±0.04d
B 0.19±0.01ab 5.27±0.05a 21.79±0.03a 32.69±0.10a
C 0.18±0.03ab 5.31±0.15a 18.81±0.10b 22.53±0.07e
D 0.21±0.01a 3.39±0.12c 17.07±0.02c 32.70±0.18a
E 0.23±0.02a 4.84±0.13b 15.05±0.06d 29.51±0.16b
F 0.18±0.00ab 5.17±0.05a 12.05±0.05f 26.46±0.30c
Significant at P<0.01; Values followed by different superscript letters denote a significant difference;
comparison done across brand.
The results of antioxidant capacity were ranged agreement with Akther et al. (2020) for instant
from 22.53-32.70 mg TE/100g for different mango drink powder.
brand of instant mango drinks powder. The
highest value of antioxidant capacity (32.70±0.18 Conclusion
mg TE/100g) was found in brand D and the Instant mango drinks powder provides instant
lowest value (22.53±0.07 mg TE/100g) was for energy, and is well known due to its excellent
brand C of instant mango drinks powder. Due to taste, purity, accurate composition, safe
presence of the different types of food acid and consumption and long shelf life. It also provides
acid regulator in the instant mango drinks instant rehydration and instant freshness. Mango
powder, the antioxidant capacity was detected. drinks powder includes flavors, colors with
The results of antioxidant capacity showed that minerals and vitamins. This study shows the
the antioxidant capacity of samples was quality evaluation of instant mango drinks
significantly different (p<0.05). Obilana et al. powders available in local market. Instant mango
(2018) prepared instant beverage powder from drinks powder samples were a good source of
extruded malted pearl millet (Babla) reported the vitamin-C, carbohydrate and high energy.
antioxidant capacity as 1.78 μmole TE/g. The
results of antioxidant capacity were close

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ISSN: 2224-0616
Investigating suitability of treated wastewater for agriculture in

Hawassa, Sidama region, Ethiopia
Kannan Narayanan1* and Ayele Getachew2
Received 29 July 2020, Revised 22 September 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
This study is based on the quality of wastewater from Hawassa University surroundings,
which was assessed to determine its suitability for irrigation purposes during 2019. Grab
samples of influent and the treated water were taken for assessing for quality parameters.
The study revealed that the treated water could be used for irrigation purpose with some
moderate restrictions. Even though Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS) permit to irrigate fruit trees and fodder crops, there is a risk of soil degradation due to
high value of Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR). Results also indicated that carbonate,
potassium and phosphate exceeded the specified limits for wastewater reuse in agriculture.
Despite increased nutritive elements, continuous use of treated sewage water for irrigation
will make the soil acidic. Analysis of soil parameters indicated that there is an increase in
nitrogen, phosphate and potassium nutrient levels considerably to benefit crop production
but increase in soil EC is a serious concern.
Keywords: Crop water, Irrigation demand, Pollutants, Sewage water, Water treatment.
1AssociateProfessor, Department of Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering, Hawassa University Institute of
Technology, Hawassa, Sidama Regional State, Ethiopia.
2Dean, Faculty of Biosystem and Water Resources Engineering, Hawassa University Institute of Technology, Hawassa,
Sidama Regional State, Ethiopia.

*Corresponding author’s email: kannan051968@gmail.com (Kannan Narayanan)
Cite this article as: Narayanan, K. and Getachew, A. 2020.Investigating suitability of treated wastewater for
agriculture in Hawassa, Sidama region, Ethiopia.Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 59-65.
Introduction
Water, a prime nutrient, which sustains life and it altering plant availability of nutrients (Ayers and
is the most important compound to the Westcot, 1985). In this respect, the reuse of
ecosystem and is often the limiting factor for sewage effluent for irrigation purpose seems to be
successful crop production. Irrigated agriculture the most promising method to reduce
is dependent on adequate water supply of usable dependability to other water resources and
quality. Water quality concerns have often been reduce environmental degradation. In many
neglected because good quality water supplies studies worldwide the use of treated sewage
have been plentiful and readily available effluents (TSE) as water and nutrient sources in
(Shamsad and Islam, 2005; Islam and Shamsad, agricultural irrigation have been introduced as a
2010). This situation is now changing in many viable alternative for wastewater destination in
areas around the world. Intensive use of nearly the environment. Various studies have revealed
all good quality supplies means that new that the nutrient supply only by TSE irrigation
irrigation projects, and old projects seeking new was not sufficient to meet plant nutrient
or supplemental supplies, must rely on lower requirements resulting in yield decreases.
quality and less desirable sources (Cuena, 1989). Sewage, often untreated, is used to irrigate 10%
of the world’s crops, according to the first over
In order to sustain irrigation, large amounts of global survey of wastewater irrigation (Scott et
water are withdrawn from rivers, lakes, al., 2004). Globally, around 20 million hectares of
reservoirs, and groundwater, together making up land are irrigated with wastewater and this figure
about 70% of global water withdrawals is likely to increase during the next few decades
(Famiglietti, 2011). The chemical constituents of (Hamilton et al., 2007). Availability of plant
irrigation water can affect plant growth directly essential nutrients from the biodegradable
through toxicity or deficiency, or indirectly by
Narayanan and Getachew (2020) Investigating suitability of treated waste water for agriculture in Ethi0pia
constituents of wastewater attracts farmers to use

it for agriculture. In that sense, it enables farmers Materials and Methods
to reduce the expenditures on fertilizer and better Description of the study area
production can be achieved. In some cases up to
37% increase in harvest is possible when raw Hawassa city is the capital of Sidama regional
wastewater is applied compared to freshwater state. It is located at a distance of 273 km South of
irrigation with chemical fertilizer (Martijn and Addis Ababa. The geographic coordinates of the
Redwood, 2005). town are approximately 7º03' latitude North and
38º29' longitudes East. Sewage water from the
During dry spells, supplemental irrigation is must student’s hostel buildings in the main campus is
for annual crops like banana/sugarcane to boost first diverted to septic tanks to remove the solids
yield and coping uncertainty of rainfall due to and then diverted to stabilization pond and a
climate change. At present, the treated water from series of oxidation and polishing ponds. There is a
the system is disposed to underground by seepage possibility for utilizing the treated sewage water
and percolation. To make use of this water for for irrigation purpose in the nearby hill side lands.
irrigation purpose, it is necessary to study its Based on physical observation, soils on adjacent
quality parameters and suitability for irrigation. hillside land is generally sandy loam with low
For this purpose, research was conducted in humus and are more permeable. They dry fast
wastewater from Hawassa University even after a heavy rain. The cultivated crops are
surroundings during 2019 dealing with how best maize, onion, tomato, potato and sugarcane under
the pollutants are treated and the unutilized rainfed and irrigated conditions.
resource of sewage water can be utilized
productively.
Fig. 1. Location map of Hawassa University main campus.

Hawassa has warm temperature, which varies more than 10,000 students, average sewage
between 10ºC in winter and 30ºC in summer. The discharge of 5.8 to 8.1 (500 to 700 m3/d) litres per
mean annual precipitation is 958 mm. The second was estimated (Directorate of
average elevation at is 1700 m and that of the lake constructions, Hawassa University). This water is
surface is 1680 m. Rain is more intensive during collected by many septic tanks constructed as part
the four rainy months of June to September such of primary anaerobic treatment removing macro
that more than 80% of the rain falls during this particles. The effluent from these septic tanks is
period. collected and delivered to sewage treatment plant
(STP) Line 1 and 2 located at a distance of around
Sewage treatment system 1.0 km. The STP comprises of a series of lined
Ponds and tanks are one of storage options and earthen tanks of different capacities starting from
combinations that can be considered for equalization pond followed by oxidation and
managing increasing water resources variability polishing ponds. The sewage water is treated both
(McCartney and Smakhtin, 2010). From the by physical and biological treatment to reduce the
student’s hostel buildings, which accommodate suspended solids and biochemical oxygen
demand to the acceptable levels.

Crop water requirement Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), pH, EC, Total
Organic Carbon (TOC), available phosphorous
To estimate the crop water requirements and and Total nitrogen. Organic carbon was
irrigation water requirement of selected crop, determined using the Walkley-Black method.
CROPWAT software for windows was used. The Phosphorus (P) content determination was done
input climate parameters i.e. rainfall, using the colorimeter method using sodium
temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind hydrogen carbonate extract (Adepetu et al.,
velocity and pan evaporation data obtained from 2000). Exchangeable bases were extracted by the
Meteorological station of Hawassa were used for ammonium acetate extraction technique and
the research. Climate data was analyzed to determined by flame photometry (Adepetu et al.,
estimate the peak crop water demand of 2000). The total nitrogen was determined using
sugarcane plant and observations were also made Kjeldal method while pH was determined using
on soil quality parameters to find the impact using 1:2.5 CaCl2 dilution method (Adepetu et al.,
treated sewage water if used for irrigation on soil 2000).
parameters. Treated sewage water quality has
been compared with standard water quality Results and Discussion
requirements for irrigation.
Rainfall and crop water demand
Water sampling and analysis
Annual average rainfall considering 5, 10 and 20
Grab water samples were collected from STP years data shows a decreasing trend due to
during peak functioning month of the university. impact of climate change. The rate of decrease in
Raw and treated effluent samples were collected rainfall is 1.76% and 8.9% based on 10 and 5
and analyzed for the water quality parameters. years average. This implies that the rate of
Samples for Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), decrease is increasing year by year resulting
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Chlorides and Solids etc. severe impact on agriculture and land
were analyzed in accordance with the procedure management practices. To cope with this decline
laid down in Standard Methods for the in rainfall, suitable strategies should be followed
Examination of Water and Wastewater (APHA, in crop scheduling and water management.
2005). Total Suspended Solid (TSS) and Total Owing to increasing population and food demand
Dissolved Solid (TDS) were determined by new water resources and appropriate water
gravimetric method (dried at 103ºC). Biological application methods need to be evolved.
Oxygen Demand (BOD) was determined by the 5
Day BOD test. Other tests such as Conductivity Considering a long duration crop (Sugarcane), it
(EC) and pH were directly measured in-situ using needs total crop water demand of 1400 mm for
portable measuring devices (HANNA Hawassa climate conditions. Twenty (20) years
instruments, HI 9811, portable pH-EC-TDS average monthly rainfall data are analyzed to
Meter). Note that before each measurement, the estimate effective rainfall and irrigation demand
pH meter was calibrated with reference buffer (Fig. 2). Considering medium sandy loam soil, the
solution. Each analysis was carried out in net irrigation water to be applied in the root zone
triplicate and then the mean value was taken. to replenish 30% depletion is calculated as
48.6mm. For 90% irrigation efficiency, gross
All samples were collected and transported within irrigation depth of 54mm is to be applied. Peak
ice box and analyzed within 6 hours of collection irrigation demand of 2.7 mm/day is observed for
for chemical examinations. Soil samples from 20 years average data with planting date in
sewage disposal land and nearby cultivated land January whereas 4.6 mm/day is observed when
were also analyzed. Soil sample were taken at 30 planting is in June.
to 60 cm depth in three different locations. Totally
six samples were collected and tested for Na++, K+,
60
ETc mm/dec Eff rain mm/dec Irr. Req. mm/dec
ETc/Eff Rain/Irri demand,
50
40
mm/10days
30
20
10
0
Jan
Jun
Oct
Jan
Jan
Feb
Feb
Feb
Feb
Jun
Jun
Jul
Jul
Jul
Oct
Oct
Apr
Apr
Apr
Sep
Sep
Sep
Nov
Nov
Nov
Mar
Mar
Mar
Aug
Aug
Aug
Dec
Dec
Dec
May
May
May
Fig. 2. Monthly crop water and irrigation demand.

Sewage water quality for irrigation The SAR and EC values (Fig. 3) of the treated
wastewater reflect that it should be severely
The average value of pH was 7.8, which indicate restricted for surface irrigation system since it
that the treated sewage water is slightly alkaline in reduces the infiltration rate of the soil. Highly
nature. The normal pH range for irrigation water efficient irrigation systems are recommended if
is from 6.5 to 8.4. Irrigation water with a pH the treated sewage water needs to be used for
outside the normal range may cause a nutritional irrigation to avoid soil degradation. The effects of
imbalance or may contain a toxic ion (Ayers and the high SAR percentages are that the soil
Westcot, 1985; Pescod, 1985). hydraulic system is affected, as aggregates will
Electrical conductivity (EC) is the most important begin to break down resulting in poor soil
parameter in determining the suitability of water structure. This will make the soils less productive
for irrigation use and it is a good measurement of as they will be sticky when wet and crusty when
salinity hazard to crop as it reflects the TDS in dry making tillage operations very difficult (Ayers
wastewater. The most important negative effect and Westcot, 1985; Affullo, 2009).
on the environment caused by agricultural The obtained Cl- ion concentration of the samples
wastewater is the increases in soil salinity, which varied from 130 to 224 mgL-1 representing slight
if not controlled, can decrease productivity in long to moderate degree of restriction on the use of this
term (WHO, 2005). EC values of treated wastewater in irrigation (Ayers and Westcot,
wastewater varied from 1100 to 1300 μScm-1 1985). While, according to USSL classification of
(mean value = 1200 μScm-1) while TDS values irrigation water, the effluent samples can be used
varied from 545 to 675 mgL-1 (mean value = 610 for moderately tolerant plants (WHO, 2005). The
mgL-1) indicating slight to moderate degree of most common toxicity is from chloride (Cl-) in the
restriction on the use of this wastewater in irrigation water. Cl- is not adsorbed or held back
irrigation due to salt build-up in soils and its by soils, therefore it moves readily with the soil-
adverse effects on plant growth (Ayers and water, is taken up by the crop, moves in the
Westcost, 1985). Furthermore, the results indicted transpiration stream, and accumulates in the
also that this type of water can be used on the leaves. If the Cl- concentration in the leaves
soils with restricted drainage. Special salinity exceeds the tolerance of the crop, injury
control management with selection of good salt symptoms develop such as leaf burn or drying of
tolerant plants is required. However, irrigation leaf tissue. Normally, plant injury occurs first at
water with conductivity in the range of 750-2250 the leaf tips (which is common for chloride
μScm-1 is permissible for irrigation and widely toxicity), and progresses from the tip back along
used. It is necessary to combine the use of the edges as severity increases. Excessive necrosis
wastewater with practices to control salinization, (dead tissue) is often accompanied by early leaf
such as soil washing and appropriate soil drainage drop or defoliation (Pescod, 1985). Except SAR
(WHO, 2005). The primary effect of high EC and Chloride (Fig. 3), all other parameters are
reduces the osmotic activity of plants and thus well within the permissible limits recommended
interferes with the absorption of water and for irrigation water.
nutrients from the soil (Tatawat and Singh,
2008).
3500.0
3000.0 TDS, ppm EC μmhos/cm SAR chloride, ppm

Concentration of pollutants.
2500.0
ppm/μmhoscm-1
2000.0
1500.0
1000.0
500.0
0.0
Raw Treated Raw Treated limit
Treatment I Treatment 2
Fig. 3. Treated water quality parameters against permissible limit for irrigation.

According to the guidelines of Pescod (1992), sewage water whereas suspended solids do not so
BOD and Suspended Solids (SS) (Fig. 4) also favor as such the treated wastewater cannot be disposed
possibility of using the treated sewage water for into natural water bodies. This indicates that the
irrigating fruit trees and fodder crops. For other performance of the treatment system in the
crops, BOD and SS should be less than 20ppm, university campus needs to be improved in terms
which is the requirement for irrigating vegetable of operational efficiency despite having adequate
crops. Moreover, it should be noted that BOD capacity of the ponds system.
meets the standard requirement for treated
Concentration of pollutants in
250
200
150
ppm
100
50
0
BOD 5, ppm SS, ppm BOD 5, ppm SS, ppm BOD5 Limit, SS limit,
ppm ppm
Treatment 1 Treatment 2 For fruit trees
Fig. 4. Permissible Limits of BOD and SS for fruit trees.

Total cation and anion concentration appreciable proportion of the total anions present
in irrigation water.
The principal cations present in irrigation water
are calcium, magnesium and sodium with a small The mean carbonates concentration detected in
amount of potassium. Use of bad quality water the irrigation water was ranges from 40 mgL-1
create imbalance in the concentration of different (0.668 me/l) to 70 mgL-1 (1.17 me/l) as we go
cations in water. If the proportion of sodium is from the inlet to the outlet of the septic tanks
high the alkali hazard is high and conversely, if respectively, while the mean bicarbonate content
the calcium and magnesium predominate, the ranged from 395 mgL-1 (6.44 me/l) to 457.5 mgL-1
hazard is low. Mean concentration of calcium ion (7.4 me/l). The normal safe ranking for carbonate
and magnesium ions are 48 mgL-1 (2.4 me/l) at (CO32-) and bicarbonates (HCO3-) are 0-0.1 me/l
the entrance, 51 mgL-1 (2.55 me/l) in the outlet and 0-10 me/l, respectively (FAO, 1989). By this
and 13.5 mgL-1 (1.11 me/l), 11.5 mgL-1 (0.95 me/l), criteria therefore, the irrigation water in the
respectively. sample area is assessed in terms of carbonates as
it is out of the ranges, it could be described as
According to FAO (1985), the Calcium and being at less severe risk concerning carbonates.
Magnesium ion concentration of wastewater to But, in the case of bicarbonates, it is the normal
be available for irrigation should be within the range so it can be used for irrigation purpose.
range of 0-20 me/l and 0-5 me/l, respectively.
Also the normal range of Ca2+ in irrigation water Sulphate (SO4-)
should be 0–20 cmol/l, while that of Mg2+
should be between 0–5 cmol/l (Christensen et Mean values of sulphate ranged from 2.3 to 6.5
al., 1977). To convert mg/l to me/l multiply by mgL-1, respectively. If sulphate is present in
0.0499 for calcium ions and 0.0823 for more quantity in water then it creates serious
magnesium (Bauder et al., 2007). The mean problem for crop growth and affect the quality of
result of the concentration of calcium and soil. As described in (FAO, 1985), for crop
magnesium ions of the sample area obtained is production, it should contain a sulphate content
within the ranges of the standards, therefore it is ranges from 0-20 me/l and therefore, the treated
suitable for irrigation. In waters containing high wastewater is within the range as described by
concentration of bicarbonate ions, there is the standards of less than 10 ppm SO4- in
tendency for calcium and magnesium to irrigation water (Mass, 1990).
precipitate as carbonate and the soil solution Ammonium and Nitrate–Nitrogen contents
becomes more concentrated. Carbonate ions are (NH4 –N and NO3 – N)
also similarly harmful; however, they are seldom
present in waters in significant quantities. Mean values of NH4–N ranged from 0.005 to
Bicarbonate ions, in general, represent an 0.01 mgL-1, respectively. This finding is probably

attributed to oxidation of the NH 4+ to NO3- by the the accumulated salts when it goes beyond the
action of the microorganisms previously activated limit. Therefore, the sustainable use of treated
due to aeration such as some kinds of bacteria i.e. wastewater in agriculture can be beneficial to the
Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. NO3--N content environment in such a way that minimizes the
took an opposite trend to that of NH4+, where its side effects on the quality of downstream water
concentration values were lower at outlets than resources, but it requires the control of soil
the corresponding concentration values at the salinity at the field level. It is recommended as a
inlets. Oxidation of NH4+ at the aeration basin matter of high priority that treated wastewater is
may account for such increases in NO3-. The considered and made a reliable alternative source
normal safe ranking water quality for irrigation in water resources management. Agricultural
purpose in terms of ammonia-nitrogen (NH4 –N) wastewater reuse can effectively contribute to fill
and nitrate- nitrogen (NO3 – N) contents are 0-5 the increasing gap between water demand and
mgL-1 and 0-10 mgL-1, respectively (FAO,1985). water availability particularly in semi-arid areas.
This infers the wastewater can be used for
irrigation purpose even if it has less content of
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Effects of organophosphate insecticide, sumithion on histopathology of

common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in the natural pond condition
M. Shira1, P. Chowdhury2*, M.S. Rahman3, S.M. Haque4 and M. Shahjahan5
Received 02 September 2020, Revised 10 October 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
Sumithion is an organophosphorus insecticide, which is widely used in aquaculture ponds
for eradication of aquatic insect (mainly tiger bug) prior to release of larvae. This study was
conducted to evaluate the effects of an organophosphorus pesticide, sumithion on
histoarchitecture of liver and kidney in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) during the period
from July to December 2016. It was carried out with four treatments, each with two
replications. i.e., ponds with no sumithion (T0), with 0.025ppm sumithion (T1), 0.050 ppm
sumithion (T2) and 0.100 ppm sumithion (T3). The water quality parameters, such as pH,
dissolved oxygen, total alkalinity, free CO2, nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), phosphate-
phosphorus (PO4-P) were not affected by sub lethal doses of sumithion but the values were
fluctuated significantly in most of the cases between the ponds throughout the study period.
In case of histoarchitecture of liver and kidney, normal structure of liver and kidney cells
were observed in the controlled and treated fish. Through the histological analysis of liver,
small vacuole, enlarge lumen space of hepatopancreas and disrupted hepatopancreas were
found in T1. Disrupted hepatopancreas, increasement intracellular space, regeneration of
hepatic cell and hemorrhage were observed in T2. Moreover, enlarge lumen space of
hepatopancreas, degenerated hepatic cell, disrupted hepatopancreas were observed in T3.
After the histological analysis of kidney, degenerated renal corpuscle, enlargement of blood
vessel, disrupted hematopoetic cell were observed in T1. Ruptured collecting duct, large
vacuole, enlarge intracellular space were observed in T2. Furthermore, enlarge bowman’s
space, degenerated hematopoetic cell hemorrhage and ruptured distal tubule disrupted,
enlarge intracellular space and necrosis were observed in T3. The present investigation
sufficiently emphasizes that sumithion has adverse effects on the major organs like liver and
kidney.
Keywords: Organophosphorus insecticide, Sumithion, Hematological parameter, Liver, Kidney,
Common carp.
1
Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.
2
Senior Scientific Officer, Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.
3
Professor, Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.
4
5
*Corresponding author’s email: nitoldhk@gmail.com (P. Chowdhury)
Cite this article as: Shira, M., Chowdhury, P., Rahman, M.S., Haque, S.M. and Shahjahan, M.2020.Effects of
organophosphate insecticide, sumithion on histopathology of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in the natural
pond condition. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 66-75. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51579
Introduction
Bangladesh is exclusively endowed with the species, 12 have been categorized as critically
diversity of very rich fresh and marine water endangered, 28 as endangered and 14 as
fisheries resources comprising 260 indigenous vulnerable (IUCN Bangladesh, 2003). One of the
species, 24 freshwater prawns, 475 marine fish major causes of this situation is the
species, 36 marine and brackish water shrimps indiscriminate use of various insecticides and
and 16 exotic species (DoF, 2013). Fisheries pesticides in the agricultural sectors. Pesticides
contribute about 63% of animal protein in the have been mentioned as the contributor of
daily diet of people of Bangladesh, 6% to the GNP gradual degradation of the aquatic ecosystem
and 11-14% of export earnings of the country (Konar, 1975; Basak and Konar, 1976; 1977).
species (DoF, 2014). Among the indigenous fish Pesticides at high concentrations are known to
Shira et al. (2020) Effects of organophosphate insecticide, sumithion on histopathology of common carp
reduce the survival, growth and reproduction of Every species has an immense power of biotic
fish (Mckim et al., 1975) and produce many potential, and if the conditions are favorable the
visible effects on fish (Johnson, 1968). Due to the population may increase to the explosive level.
residual effects of pesticides, important fish But, it seldom happens, because from the
organs like gonads, kidney, liver, gills, stomach, beginning of gametogenesis the attainment of
brain and muscle are damaged. In Bangladesh, maturity, there are a number of factors
there is a rapid increase in the use of pesticide responsible for untimely death of embryos,
and chemical fertilizers for the growth of high juveniles and adults even before they start
yielding variety crops (HYVC). The insecticides reproducing. Many commercial and productive
and pesticides fall under four major groups viz. fish species are adversely affected in modern
organochlorine, organophosphate, carbamate times, due to severe, fast and undesirable
changes detrimental to their surroundings,
and pyrethroid.
survival and viability. Fish populations are often
Sumithion, [O, O Dimethyl O-(3-methyl-4- subject to sudden and large scale mortalities.
nitrophenyl)] is an organophosphorus This happens due to unusual natural causes, and
insecticide. It is effective against a wide range of such mortalities are beyond remedy. Then there
pests, i.e. penetrating, chewing and sucking are equally significant mortalities of fish
insect pests on cereals, cotton, orchard fruits, population, which stem from causes for which
rice, vegetables, and forests. It may be used to humanity is responsible. Near large centers of
control fly, mosquito, cockroach and also as urban agglomerations and in proximity of mines,
residual contact spray for farms and public health mills, industries and the like changes are brought
program. In Bangladesh, sumithion is also widely in the chemical, physical and biological qualities
of water so much as to cause mass killing of fish
used in aquaculture ponds for eradication of
life. Considering the toxic effects of sumithion on
aquatic insect (mainly tiger bug) prior to release
fish and other aquatic organisms discussed
of larvae. Sumithion is considered somewhat above, it is essential to know the extent of
toxic to fish (Thomson, 1989). At 96 hours after damage in aquatic environment caused by
treatment (HAT), the LC50value was 1.7 ppm for pesticides and to find out the concentrations
brook trout and 3.8 ppm for bluegill sunfish; below which aquatic lives live in safe
moderately toxic to both warm water and cold environment. Fish exposed to pesticides present
water fish (Meister, 1994). At 96 HAT, the LC50 in the ecosystem which receives it from
value to various species of North American agriculture runoff and industrial wastes,
freshwater fish has also been reported as 2-12 µg exhibited a variety of reproductive problems such
L-1. The chronic toxicity of sumithion to fish is as reducing number of sperm, abnormal gamete,
considered low (Murty, 1986). At 48 HAT, the reducing fecundity (Patyna et al., 1999), sex
LC50 values for carp ranged between 2.0 mg L-1 reversal (Mills and Chichester, 2005), low
and 4.1 mg L-1 (Worthing and Walker, 1987). hatching rate and survivability (Rahman et al.,
Fenitrothion (4.9 mg Kg-1) persisted longer than 2002). Hence, it is thought to be worthwhile to
four weeks in fish (Murty, 1986). In a study on conduct a research on the effects of sumithion on
the acute toxicity of sumithion to rainbow trout, histoarchitecture of liver and kidney of common
embryos were found to be the least sensitive, the carp.
sac fry stage was intermediate, and fingerlings
and adults were the most sensitive. The toxicity
of sumithion to rainbow trout increased with Selection of test fish species
increasing temperature.
Healthy and active specimens of common carp, C.
The common carp, Cyprinus carpio is a highly carpio were procured from a fish farm named
palatable and preferred for culture due to its high ‘Shagor Fish Farm’ located at Digharkanda,
growth rate and prolific breeding in confined Mymensingh. The length and weight of fishes
water. The common carp, C. carpio is a native of ranged from 3 to 4 cm and 5 to 8 g, respectively.
the temperate regions of Asia especially of China The fishes were released in 8 ponds each having
(Gunther, 1868). At present, the common carp an area of 2 decimal situated at the northern side
enjoys global distribution occurring in tropical as of the faculty of fisheries, BAU, Mymensingh. The
well as temperate regions acclimatized to a collected fish were reared in the ponds. During
variety of habitats and extremes of environment. this period, the fish were fed normal food daily.
Two exotic varieties of common carp (scale carp Selection of pesticide
and mirror carp) were introduced in mid
nineteen fifties by fishery department. The fish In Bangladesh, many types of pesticides are used
every year in crop fields to control insects and to
have been well established in the waters of the
increase production. Among them, Sumithion 50
valley, especially, the lentic habitats and over EC is most common which belongs to the
shadow at present almost all the indigenous organophosphorous group. To conduct this
species. experiment, sumithion 50 EC was collected from
a retail pesticide shop of Mymensingh city.

Experimental design
The experimental layout has been given in the table below:
2.1. Layout of the experiment.
Treatments Replications Concentration of Fish sp. for test, its length & weight
Sumithion and no. per decimal of pond
T0 2 (2 ponds) No sumithion Cyprinus carpio
(Control) 3 to 4cm, 5 to 7 g, 30 fish/decimal
T1 2 (2 ponds) 0.025 mg L-1 Do
T2 2 (2 ponds) 0.050 mg L-1 Do
T3 2 (2 ponds) 0.100 mg L-1 Do
Application of sumithion into pond water amount of sumithion have been shown in the
table below:
The insecticide, sumithion was applied in pond
water according to water volume and calculated
Table 2.2.Water volume of ponds, amount of sumithion used and concentration of sumithion in pond
water.
Treatments Pond No. Total amount of Volume of water Concentration of
Sumithion applied of pond Sumithion
in pond (m3 or liter) (mg L-1) in pond water
P3 About 1.00 ml 37.37 or 37370 0.025
T1
P5 1.00 ml 41.23 or 41230 0.025
P2 2.32 ml 46.45or 46450 0.050
T2
P6 2.40 ml 47.98 or 47980 0.050
P1 4.04 ml 40.39 or 40390 0.100
T3
P4 4.90 ml 49.01 or 49010 0.100
Examination of the effect of insecticide consistent paraffin blocks. The process is
sumithion on liver and kidney of common mentioned in Table 2.4
carp (Cyprinus carpio) Table 2.4.The clearing schedule.
Collection of organs
Sl. No. Solution Time
The fish species from both control and treated 1 Chloroform 1.5 hours
ponds were dissected at an interval of 0, 7, 15 and 2 Chloroform 1.5 hours
30 days and organs like liver and kidney were
carefully collected by dissection and immediately Infiltration
kept in vials filled with 10% formalin and kept at
room temperature for preservation. The cassettes holding the samples were marked
previously in accordance with the number of
Histological study of organs samples. From chloroform, the samples were
taken out from the cassette and placed in paraffin
Dehydration sequentially in incubator (EL-450 B) following
The fixed samples were kept into the cassette and the steps shown below in Table 2.5.
passed through a graded alcohol series. The
samples that kept in 10% formalin fixative were Table 2.5.The infiltration schedule.
started dehydration from 70% ethyl alcohol and Sl. No. Solution Time
proceed on up to 100% ethyl alcohol (Table 2.3.)
1 Paraffin 40 minutes
Table 2.3.The dehydration schedule. 2 Paraffin 40 minutes
Sl. No. Solution Time Embedding
1 70% Ethyl alcohol 12 hours
2 80% Ethyl alcohol 12 hours After infiltration, the cassettes were taken out
one by one, being opened, settling the sample in
3 90% Ethyl alcohol 12 hours the middle of a small paper-box previously
4 95% Ethyl alcohol 6 hours marked as in the cassette and filled with melted
5 100% Ethyl alcohol 4 hours paraffin from wax dispenser. Then the paper-
6 100% Ethyl alcohol 4 hours boxes were allowed to cool in room temperature.
Thus the embedded blocks containing the sample
Clearing were formed which allowed smooth sectioning.
Dehydrated samples were cleared by using Trimming
chloroform twice successively for 2-3 hours to
remove traces of alcohol in order to have Trimming is a process in which the undesirable

wax layers of the embedded blocks are trimmed tagged and filled with water drops. The sections
by knife to obtain suitable blocks. Trimming were kept overnight at room temperature for
allowed easy sectioning. Trimming was done by proper drying.
using microtome blades. In this step both side
trimming and surface trimming were conducted. Staining
Sectioning Staining is a process by which samples are

stained with various dyes and staining materials
Paraffin embedded blocks was cut by microtome so that their components become visible under
knife in microtome machine (KEDEE KD-3358, microscope. Staining was done following the
China) at 6 µm thick size. The sections were schedule in Table 2.6.
placed on lower part of a glass slide previously
Table 2.6.The staining schedule.
Sl. No. Solution Time Process
1. Xylene 10 minutes Clearing
2. Xylene 10 minutes Clearing (1-3)
4. 100% Ethyl alcohol 5 minutes
5. 100% Ethyl alcohol 5 minutes Rehydration (4-8)
6. 90% Ethyl alcohol 3 minutes Rehydration
Rehydration (4-8)
10. Distilled water 15 dips Staining (9 - 15)
11. Hematoxylene (Harris) 3 minutes Staining (9 - 15)
Staining
12. Wash in tap water 15 minutes Staining (9 - 15)
13. 50% Ethyl alcohol 10-15 dips Staining (9 - 15)
14. 95% Ethyl alcohol 30 seconds Staining (9 - 15)
15. Eosin Y 1 minutes Staining (9 - 15)
17. 100% Ethyl alcohol 1 minutes Dehydration (16-19)
18. 100% Ethyl alcohol 3 minutes Dehydration
Dehydration (16-19)
19. 100% Ethyl alcohol 1 minutes Dehydration (16-19)
20. Xylene 20 minutes Clearing
22. Drying at room temperature Over night Drying
Mounting analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by

In this process the tissue sections on the slides Tukey’s post hoc test to assess statistically
were covered with a cover slip. DPX was used for significant differences among different
mounting as a mounting agent. A drop of DPX treatments. Statistical significance was set at
was put on each slide followed by attachment of P<0.05. Statistical analyses were performed
cover slip (22 mm × 22 mm). After mounting the using PASW Statistics 18.0 software (IBM SPSS
slides were put for several hours in room Statistics, IBM, Chicago, USA).
temperature. Results
Microscopic view of the tissue sections Effects of sumithion on histoarchitecture
The mounted slides were observed under a in kidney
microscope (OLYMPUS microscope; Model: Kidney tubules, renal corpuscle, hematopoietic
CX21, Japan) which was connected to computer cell, blood vessel were normal and systematically
with OPTIKA MB3 Digital camera (3.14 Mega arranged in the control treatment (Fig. 1A, 2A
pixel). By the help of this mechanism, numerous and 3A). Sumithion exposed kidney sections
photographs were taken at different showed vacuolation, necrosis, cellular
magnifications. For preparing histological slides degeneration, enlarge blood vessel, hemorrhage
only steps and time is sufficient. and rupture of kidney tubules. Kidney tissue of
Statistical analysis Cyprinus carpio exposed to 0.025 ppm
sumithion under the treatment T1 showed
Values are expressed as means ± standard degenerated renal corpuscle on 7 days of
deviation (SD). Data were analyzed by one-way exposure (Fig. 1B). Ruptured collecting duct was

found at the dosage of 0.050 ppm belong to T2 ppm (Fig. 2D) on 15 days of exposure.
treatment (Fig. 1C) and degenerated Vaculotaion, necrosis, disrupted hematopoietic
hematopoietic cell, enlarge blood vessel were tissue were observed at the dosage of 0.025 under
observed at the dosage of 0.100 ppm (Fig. 1D) on T1 treatment on 30 days of exposure (Fig. 3B).
7 days of exposure. Expand blood vessel and Enlargement of intracellular space was recorded
disrupted hematopoietic cell were found at the at the dosage of 0.050 ppm under T2 treatment
dosage of 0.025 ppm on 15 days of exposure (Fig. on 30 days of exposure (Fig. 3C). Ruptured
2B). Disrupted collecting duct was found at the hematopoietic cell, increase intracellular space
dosage of 0.050 ppm (Fig. 2C) and expand and hemorrhage were also found at the dosage of
bowman’s space, degeneration of hematopoietic 0.100 ppm belong to T3 treatment on 30 days of
cell were also recorded at the dosage of 0.100 exposure (Fig. 3D).
Fig. 1. Histological changes in kidney (H and E stained, X100) exposed to sumithion: (A) Control (T0);
(B) 0.025 ppm (T1); (C) 0.050 ppm (T2) and (D) 0.100 ppm (T3) at 7 days of exposure. Arrowheads are
indicating- RC (renal corpuscle), PT (proximal tubule), DT (distal tubule), CD (collecting duct), G
(glomerulus), HP (hematopoietic cell), BV (blood vessel), RCD (ruptured collecting duct), DRC
(disrupted renal corpuscle), DHP (degenerated hematopoietic cell) and EBS (enlargement of
bowman’s space).
indicating- RC (renal corpuscle), DT (distal tubule), CD (collecting duct), G (glomerulus), BV\(blood
vessel) DHC (degenerated hematopoietic Cell) EBV (expand blood vessel), DCD (disrupted collecting
duct), RDT (ruptured distal tubule), V (vacuole) and H (hemorrhage).

(B) 0.025 ppm (T1); (C) 0.050 ppm (T2) and (D) 0.100 ppm (T3) at 30 days of exposure. Arrowheads
are indicating- RC (renal corpuscle), G (glomerulus), PT (proximal tubule), DT (distal tubule), CD
(collecting duct), BV (blood vessel), DHP (degenerated hematopoietic tissue), V (vacuole), N
(necrosis), EIS (enlarge intracellular space), RHP (ruptured hematopoietic cell) and H (hemorrhage).
Effects of sumithion on histoarchitecture sumithion showed small vacuolation (Fig.4B) ,
of liver disrupted hepatopancreas (Fig. 4C) in treatment
T2 (0.050 ppm) and enlargement of
In the concerned study period, the hepatopancreas lumen (Fig. 4D) in treatment T3
histoarchitecture of liver of common carp was (0.100 ppm) on 7 days exposure . Enlarge lumen
observed through histological study. The space and hemorrhage (Fig. 5B) in treatment T1 ,
hepatocytes, hepatopancreas blood vessel and disrupted hepatopancreas (Fig. 5C) in treatment
other cells of the liver in control (T0) were normal T2 and degenerated hepatic cell, enlarge
and systematically arranged (Fig. 4A, 5A, 6A). hepatopancreas lumen(Fig. 5D) in treatment T3
When carp exposed to sumithion, liver sections on 15 days exposure. Disrupted hepatopancreas
showed small and large vacuolation, hemorrhage, (Fig. 6B) was found in treatment T1, increase
necrosis, hepatic cell degeneration, ruptured intracellular space, disrupted hepatopancreas,
hepatopancreas, increasement of intracellular degenerated hepatic cell (Fig. 6C) in treatment
space, expand blood vessel, enlarge hepatic T2, and expand blood vessel, vacuolation of
lumen, hypertrophy of hepatocytes and large hepatopancreas lumen (Fig. 6D) in treatment T3
vacuolation into hepatopancreas. Liver tissue of on 30 days exposure.
common carp exposed to 0.025 ppm (T1)

Fig. 4. Histological changes in Liver (H and E stained, X100) exposed to sumithion: (A) Control (T0);
indicating- HP (hepatopancreas), HC (hepatic cell), SV (small vacuole), H (hemorrhage), DHP
(disruptured hepatopancreas), and ELH (enlarge lumen of hepatopancreas).
are indicating- HP (hepatopancreas), HC (hepatic cell), ELS (enlarge lumen space), H (hemorrhage),
DHP (disrupted hepatopancreas), DHC (degenerated hepatic cell), and EHPL (enlarge
hepatopancreas lumen).

are indicating- HP (hepatopancreas), HC (hepatic cell), DHP (disrupted hepatopancreas), DHP
(degenerated hepatopancreas), N (necrosis), IIS (increase intracellular space) EBV (expand blood
vessel) and VHC (vacuolation in hepatopancreas).
Discussion hematopoetic cell, enlarged intracellular space

and necrosis was found at 0.025, 0.050 and
A number of changes have been documented in 0.100 ppm for an exposure of 30 days.
this present study in water quality parameters,
plankton population and the histoarchitecture of Sharkar (2016) exposed Tengra, Mystus tengara
liver and kidney in the concerned species to six different concentrations of cypermethrin 10
Cyprinus carpio, which are discussed below: EC, which were 0.1 ppm, 0.2 ppm, 0.4 ppm, 0.8
ppm, 1.6 ppm, and 3.2 ppm including a control
In the current study period, histology of kidney of and observed vacuolation, necrosis and ruptured
test species Cyprinus carpio was also conducted kidney tubules, cellular degeneration and
after definite exposure of sumithion. The control karyolysis which are also more or less similar to
kidney (T0) of test species (Cyprinus carpio) the findings of present study. Similar histological
composed of mass hepatopoetic cell, undamaged changes were also reported by Konar (1975),
renal corpuscle with glomeruli and bowman’s degenerated kidney tubules in carp (Labeo
space, entire collecting duct and kidney tubule rohita) and catfish (Heteropneus tesfossilis)
including distal and proximal tubule as well as when exposed to 200 and 210 ppm of
undamaged blood vessel. In the present study, phosphamidon for 168 hours. The results of the
the selected common carp species were exposed present study are similar to the findings of
to sumithion at desired concentrations (0, 0.025, Rahman et al. (2002). They reported necrosis,
0.050 and 0.100 ppm) for an exposure period of pyknosis, hemorrhages, vacuolation,
7, 15, 30 days. Here through the histological degeneration of kidney tubules and hematopoetic
analysis of kidney degenerated renal corpuscle, cells on Anabas testudineus, Channa punctatus
ruptured collecting duct and enlarged bowman’s and Barbodes gonionotus at 3.75 ppm, 2.26 ppm
space, degenerated hematopeotic cell were and 2.26 ppm, of diazinon 60 EC, respectively for
observed at 0.025, 0.050 and 0.100 ppm for an 7 days. Nannu (2014) investigated the sub lethal
exposure period of 7 days. While enlargement of effects of an organophosphorous pesticide,
blood vessel, large vacuole and hemorrhage and kinalux 25 EC on kidney of Nile tilapia,
ruptured distal tubule disrupted were noticed at Oreochromis niloticus and observed that highly
0.025, 0.050 and 0.100 ppm for an exposure degenerated kidney tubules and hematopoietic
period of 15 days. Furthermore, disrupted tissues, degeneration of renal corpuscles,

vacuolization, and necrosis of treated fishes, Similar histological changes were also reported
which are also similar to the findings of present by Kabir and Begum (1978) are cytoplasmic
study. Butchiram et al. (2009) reported necrosis, degeneration, pyknotic nuclei in liver tissues;
swelling of renal tubules, cellular hypertrophy vacuolation in hepatic cells and rupture of blood
and granular cytoplasm of kidney of Channa vessels; degenerative hepatic cells and necrotic
punctatus exposed to alachlor for a period of 10 nuclei when Heteropneutes fossilis was exposed
days, which are different to the findings of for 25 days to 5, 10 and 20 ppm diazinon,
present study. respectively. Moitra and Sadhu (1982) reported
vacuolation, necrosis and swollen cell of hepatic
Histopathological studies are beneficial tools to tissue when Channa striatus was exposed to 1.0,
assess the effects of toxicants on fish (Pimpao et 5.0 and 10.0 ppm of phosphamidon for 10 days,
al., 2007). In the current study period, histology which are different to the present study. The
of liver of concerned species was conducted after result of the present experiment coincided with
definite exposure of sumithion. The control liver the findings such as degeneration of cytoplasm in
is composed of a mass of large hexagonal hepatic hepatocytes, atrophy, formation of vacuoles,
cells with cord-like formations. Each cell contains rupture in blood vessels and disposition of
centrally located distinct vesicular nuclei. hepatic cords in the liver as reported by
Cytoplasm contains granular deposits, sometimes Butchiram et al. (2009) due to the exposure of
with mild vacuolation. Large number of blood alachlor on Channa punctatus for 10 days.
vessels and intercellular bile canaliculi are Elezaby et al. (2001) studied the effect of
scattered among the hepatic cords. malathion on the fish Oreochromis niloticus and
Hepatopancreatic cells were seen to surround the observed necrosis and lipidosis in the liver, which
hepatic portal vein as darkly stained large cells. are different to the findings of present study.
In the present study, the selected common carp
species were exposed to sumithion at desired From the above discussion, we can say that
concentrations (0, 0.025, 0.050 and 0.100 ppm) sumithion 50 EC is significantly toxic to the
for an exposure period of 7, 15, 30 days. Here Cyprinus carpio and other freshwater fishes. The
through the histological analysis of liver little amount of this pesticide can causes
disrupted hepatopancreas and enlargement of histological changes in liver and kidney of
hepatopancreas lumen were observed at 0.050 common carp. So, the pesticide should not be
and 0.100 ppm for an exposure period of 7 days. used indiscriminately and the use of pesticide in
While enlargement of lumen space and disrupted agricultural land and aquaculture ponds, must be
hexagonal hepatic cell were noticed at 0.025 and carefully evaluated, observed and controlled.
0.100 ppm for an exposure period of 15 days.
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Effects of fodder conservation and ration formulation interventions on

dairy performance in Kenya
B.N. Sakwa1*, J.O. Ondiek1, A.M. King’ori1 and O.A. Ndambi2
Received 8 August 2020, Revised 9 October 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
Use of conserved forages and proper ration formulation has great potential to bridge the gap
in dairy nutrition and reduce seasonal variations in milk yield. This study determined the
effects of various fodder and ration formulation interventions on dairy farm performance in
North Rift, Eastern, and Central regions of Kenya. Seventy-two farms were purposively
selected as participating farms and assigned into six groups of twelve as follows: two groups
on silage production, two groups on ration formulation, and two control groups having
similar production systems and in the same geographical locations as the other groups. Data
on daily dry matter feed intake and milk yield were recorded while laboratory analysis was
done to determine milk butterfat and protein content. The data was analyzed using a multi-
linear regression model to assess the relationship between independent and dependent
variables. The results showed that farmers using feed rationing with advisory services had
the highest average daily milk yield (19.7 kg/cow) compared to maize train silage (16.8
kg/cow) and those with silage support from Service Provider Enterprises (SPE) (13.3
kg/cow) (P<0.05). Daily dry matter feed intake/cow varied significantly across the
interventions as well as feed utilization efficiency (P<0.05). Milk butterfat and milk protein
content did not differ (P>0.05) across the interventions. In conclusion, use of maize train
silage and feed rationing with advisory services increased milk yield and reduced seasonal
milk ﬂuctuation.
Keywords: Feed intake, Maize silage, Milk yield, Silage bales, Service provider enterprises.
1
Department of Animal Sciences, Egerton University P.O. Box 536-20115, Egerton, Kenya.
2
Animal Science Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands.
*Corresponding author’s email: boniface396@gmail.com (B.N. Sakwa)
Cite this article as: Sakwa, B.N., Ondiek, J.O., King’ori, A.M. and Ndambi, O.A. 2020 Effects of fodder
conservation and ration formulation interventions on dairy performance in Kenya. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech.
Introduction
The dairy sector is the largest agricultural sub- of dairy farmers in Kenya leading to low milk
sector in Kenya, and its share in gross domestic yields, low milk solid content and high cost of
product (GDP) is approximately 4% (Odero- milk production (Kashangakiand Ericksen,
Waitituh, 2017). Dairy farming in Kenya is 2018).
concentrated in the high altitude Agro-ecological
zones of the Eastern, Central highlands and Faced with a myriad of constraints, the dairy
North Rift regions with a high and bimodal farmers need to adopt a promising dairy and
rainfall and relatively low temperatures between forage technology especially in utilizing the
15-24oC. More than three-quarters of the limited forage resources. This remains critical for
households in the regions engage in agriculture increased fodder and milk production and
with 73% practicing integrated crop/dairy improvement of the performance of dairy
production (Wambugu et al., 2011). Dairy feed industry for economic growth (Mutavi, 2017).
management and utilization efficiency is the key This justifies the need to adopt production-
determinant of dairy farm performance. enhancing forage innovations and dairy feed
Conserved forages have great potential to bridge rationing as better ways of stimulating milk
the gap in forage supply and support milk yield production to meet the ever-increasing demand
during seasonal variations, which will reduce for milk.
fluctuations in milk supply. The availability of The SNV Market led Dairy Program (KMDP) in
quality forage all year-round is a major challenge Kenya, funded by the Embassy of the Kingdom of
Sakwa et al. (2020) Effects of fodder conservation and ration formulation on dairy performance in Kenya
Netherlands introduced some interventions on ii. Medium and large-scale farms using
fodder conservation and ration formulation on maize train and silage bales.
dairy farms in Kenya, i.e. use of maize train/baled
silage and production of silage with support from b) Two groups on feed rationing:
Service Provider Enterprises (SPEs), and
i. Farms practicing ration formulation
supporting on-farm ration formulation. Maize
without regular advisory services and
train and baled silage; - is a concept of silage
follow-ups.
making that involves a lot of mechanization and
commercialization as well as the concept of silage ii. Farms using the Rumen8 feed balancing
baling to facilitate transportation and proper software for ration formulation and with
storage practices. Service provider enterprises regular farm advisory services.
maize silage; - Involves groups of entrepreneurial c) Two control groups representing silage
youth trained by the Netherlands development interventions were established comprising of
organization (SNV) under the KMDP project. farmers of the same production system in the
This study therefore, determined the effects of same geographical location not implementing the
these interventions on dairy farm performance.
interventions and not having access to KMDP
Materials and Methods farm advisory services.
Description of study areas i. SPE control

ii. Maize train control
The study was done in North Rift, Eastern, and
Central regions of Kenya. The rainfall in these Average daily milk yield (kg/cow) was recorded,
regions ranged from 900-1300, 1000-2020 and while laboratory analysis was done per farm for
700-1400 mm/year, respectively. While the butterfat (Babcock test method), and protein
altitude ranged from 1800-2500, 1000-2000, content of the milk (Kjeldahl method) (AOAC,
and 1800-2500 meters above sea level, 2012). Average daily feed intake (kg/cow) was
respectively (Jaetzoldet al., 2010). determined by weighing feeds offered per day
and subtracting feed remaining the following
Data collection and laboratory analysis
morning before feeding. Feed efficiency was
The dairy farms were sampled based on the calculated as the ratio of daily milk yield to the
fodder interventions adopted using the purposive daily feed intake per cow.
sampling technique. A typology of the farms,
which had access to these interventions, was Statistical analysis
done and the farms classified based on the A multiple-linear regression analysis was used for
interventions adopted. A structured the relationship between milk yield, butterfat,
questionnaire was used to obtain farm protein content, feed efficiency, feed intake (DM)
characteristics. Two groups of farms were and the feeding interventions used. Analysis of
identified, that is farms producing silage and variance (PROC GLM) was used to determine
farms practicing feed rationing. These two groups differences in feeding interventions and mean
were further sub-divided as follows: separation done using least significant different
a) Two groups on silage: (LSD) (P<0.05). Data was analyzed using
i. Smallholder farms with support from Statistical Analysis Software (SAS, 2008). The
Service Provider Enterprises (SPEs). model used was:
𝛾 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1 𝑋1 + 𝛽2 (𝑋1 𝑋2 ) + 𝛽3 (𝑋1 𝑋3 ) + 𝛽4 (𝑋1 𝑋4 ) + 𝛽5 (𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑋3 ) + 𝛽6 (𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑋4 ) + 𝛽7 (𝑋1 𝑋3 𝑋4 ) + 𝛽8 (𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑋4 ) + 𝜀

Where,
Υ = is the predicted value of a dependent variable (Daily dry matter intake, Milk yield, milk butter fat, milk
protein content, and feed efficiency).
β0=the intercept
β1,β2,β3, β4,β5,β6, β7, and β8= regression coefficients
X1, X2, X3, and X4=independent variables (interventions, region, farm size and grazing system).
Ԑ= random error term
the highest daily milk yield (19.7 kg/cow)
Results compared to farms using maize train/baled silage
The results from the study on milk yield, milk and those with support from SPEs interventions
quality, feed intake, and feed efficiency are (16.8 and 13.3 kg/cow), respectively (Table 1).
presented in Table 1, Figure 1 and Figure 2. Milk Rationing without visits, maize train/baled and
yield from different interventions differed SPEs controls had the lowest daily milk yield per
(P<0.05), where by farms using feed rationing cow compared to their respective farms using the
with regular visits and advisory services recorded interventions (P<0.05) (Table 1).

Table 1. Dairy performance under different Interventions.

Interventions DMFI Milk yield per Milk yield MP MBF FE
(kg) farm (kg) per cow (kg) (%) (%)
Maize train silage 16.3±0.32a 438.7±53.49ab 16.8±0.53b 2.7±0.03b 3.6±0.04b 1.1±0.03a
(n=5)
Maize train Control 14.4±0.18b 220.2±50.96bc 14.2±0.27cd 2.6±0.02c 3.7±0.04a 0.9±0.04b
(n=5)
Rationing and 17.3±0.34a 630.4±181.92a 19.7±0.64a 2.8±0.02a 3.6±0.04b 1.1±0.05a
advisory services
(n=5)
Rationing without 14.9±0.42b 467.8±132.82ab 15.1±0.61bc 2.7±0.02b 3.7±0.02a 1.0±0.03b
visits (n=5)
SPEs silage (n=5) 13.7±0.45c 113.8±39.23c 13.3±0.88d 2.6±0.02c 3.7±0.04a 0.9±0.08b
SPEs Control (n=5) 13.2±0.73c 23.1±4.05c 10.4±0.47e 2.6±0.03c 3.7±0.04a 0.8±0.04c
P value <0.0001 0.0014 <0.0001 0.1336 <0.0001 0.0010
R2 0.72 0.54 0.85 0.28 0.70 0.55
DMFI= Dry matter feed intake, FE= Feed efficiency, MBF= Milk butterfat, MP= Milk protein, SPEs= Service
provider enterprises, abcMeans within columns with different superscripts differ significantly at P<0.05.
Medium/large scale farms practicing feed Farms using maize train silage interventions in
rationing with advisory services and regular visits North Rift region of Kenya had higher average
performed better than farms using maize daily milk yield (16.7 kg/cow) compared to those
train/baled silage interventions (P<0.05). While with support from service provider enterprises
their medium/large scale control farms’ (maize (SPE) intervention in both Eastern and Central
train control and farms practicing feed rationing regions of Kenya (13.8 and 13.2 kg/cow),
without advisory services and regular visits) respectively (Fig. 1).
performance did not vary significantly.
Fig. 1. Comparison of fodder conservation interventions in different regions of Kenya.

However, farms in Central and Eastern regions of compared to those practicing fodder
Kenya practicing feed rationing with advisory conservations using maize train intervention in
services and regular visits had higher daily milk North Rift (Fig. 2).
yield (19.1 and 18.6 kg/cow), respectively,

Fig. 2. Comparison of rationing and fodder interventions in different regions of Kenya.

Milk butterfat and milk protein contents differed Feed efficiency which measures the effectiveness
(P<0.05) across the interventions. of a diet on milk yield, varied significantly
Medium/large-scale farms not using the (P<0.05) across the interventions. Medium/large
interventions and the smallholder farms under farms practicing feed rationing with advisory
SPE had higher milk butter fat content (3.7%) services and those using maize train
than those medium/large-scale farms using interventions had an average feed efficiency of 1.1
maize train and feed rationing with advisory higher than 0.8 from smallholder SPE control
services interventions (3.6%) (Table 1). Milk farms (Table 1).
protein content was higher in medium/large-
scale farms practicing feed rationing with The results from the regression models used are
advisory services (2.8%) and lowest in presented in Table 2 below for the derived
smallholder farms using support from SPE and optimal models on the basis of smallest AIC, BIC,
the medium/large-scale maize train control farms C(p) and SSE values and largest R2. About 70% of
(Table 1). the variations in daily milk yield/cow was
Average daily dry matter feed intake (DMFI explained by the interventions and grazing
kg/cow) varied significantly across the systems. Only 30% variability in daily milk
interventions. Medium/large-scale farms yield/cow was due to variations in region and
practicing feed rationing with advisory services farm size. Similarly, 66% of the variability in feed
and those using maize train silage interventions intake per cow per day (kg DM) was explained by
had the highest average DMFI per cow was 17.3 the different intervention levels and grazing
kg and 16.3 kg, respectively. Medium/large-scale systems. In contrast, variability in milk butter fat
farms under maize train control and feed (26%), milk protein (0.7%) and feed efficiency
rationing without advisory services, and the (45%) was due to different interventions, grazing
smallholder farms with support from SPEs had systems, farm sizes and grazing systems,
the lowest daily DMFI per cow was 14.4 kg, 14.9 respectively (Table 2).
kg, and 13.7 kg, respectively (Table 1).
Table 2. Optimal models selected for explaining dependent variables.
Model Variables in the model R2 AIC BIC C(p) SSE P
Daily milk Interventions, grazing system 0.7 27.3 31.1 1.7 59.4 0.004
yield/cow
Daily dry matter Interventions, grazing system 0.7 22.8 25.9 2.9 45.7 0.007
feed intake/cow
Milk butter fat Interventions 0.3 -63.2 -60.6 1.8 0.3 0.425
content
Milk protein Interventions, grazing system 0.1 -95.8 -92.6 -0.4 0.1 0.912
content
Feed efficiency Intervention, grazing system 0.5 -78.1 -74.3 1.2 0.1 0.102

The optimal models derived for estimating the dependent variables were:
Milk yield = 25.97 - 0.63R - 1.77Int + 0.69FS - 2.95GS
Dry matter feed intake = 24.50 – 0.69R – 1.28Int – 0.55FS – 2.40GS
Milk butter fat = 3.45 + 0.08R + 0.03Int – 0.06FS – 0.09GS
Milk protein content = 2.68 – 0.002R + 0.01Int + 0.02FG – 0.02GS
Feed efficiency = 0.89 + 0.01R – 0.01Int + 0.11FG – 0.07GS
Where,
R = Regions (North Rift, Central and Eastern)
Int = Interventions (FRASV=Feed rationing with advisory services and regular follow-ups, Maize
train/baled silage, Service provider enterprises (SPEs) silage)
FS = Farm sizes (Large and Medium scale)
GS = Grazing systems (Zero grazing and Semi-zero grazing system).
R2= coefficient of determination, AIC= Akaike information criterion, BIC= Bayesian information
criteria, C(p)=Cp statistic metric, and SSE= residual sum of squares. (Metrics used for comparing
regression models quality and selection, measuring the performance of regression model. The higher
the R2 the better the model, while the lower the AIC, BIC gives the optimal model).
Discussion increase dairy performance among dairy farms in
Kenya.
This study gave an insight into the impact of
fodder conservation and ration formulation During the adoption of these interventions by
interventions on daily dry matter feed intake, most dairy farms, general advisory services and
milk yield, milk butterfat, milk protein, and feed regular follow-ups were given to improve farm
efficiency among dairy farms in Kenya. The management. Examples of the advices were on
genetic potential of a cow is achieved only when forage production, conservation and storage,
the diet fed meets the nutritional requirements housing, re-grouping of cows based on their
commensurate with the genetic potential. production potential, calf rearing, etc. (Ettema,
Therefore, a well-formulated feed ration and 2015). These general improvements in
quality conserved fodder is required for increased management probably led to better animal health
productivity (FAO, 2012; Garg et al., 2013). and welfare and thereby an increase in dairy
However, cows kept in most of the dairy farms in performance (Moran, 2009). Therefore, in
Kenya are rarely fed based on their nutritional addition to a well-balanced feed rations, changes
requirement (Garg et al., 2013). This is confirmed in farm management were likely contributors to
by this study among the farms not using the the observed increase in dairy productivity
interventions. among the farms practicing feed balancing with
advisory services.
When all the animal factors (breed, stage of
lactation, and body weight) were kept constant, Farms, which were not using any of the
dairy cows on rations from feed balancing with interventions (control farms) had lower milk
advisory services and regular follow-ups had yield, which was attributed to the feeding rations
better performance compared to the other that did not meet the production potential of the
interventions and their controls. The variations in dairy cows. This was due to feeding of low-quality
milk yield within the interventions may be feed resources, predominantly Napier grass,
explained by variations in feed quality and natural pastures, and crop residues that are low
quantity being used. The feed balancing with in metabolizable energy and crude protein.
advisory services and regular follow-ups enabled Kashongwe et al. (2017) reported that Napier
dairy ration formulation by considering the grass and other natural pastures are low in dry
animal’s nutrient requirements for production. matter content (20-35%), crude protein (8-10%)
An increase in metabolizable energy and crude and contain high crude fibre of over 37%, which
protein intake leads to an increase in milk yield makes them insufficient to support high milk
(Johnson et al., 2016). Significant high daily milk production.
yield was observed among the farms practicing The low milk yield observed in smallholder SPEs
feed rationing with advisory services and regular farms was due to low quality and quantity of
visits. This demonstrated that the cows feeds. Most farms relied on Napier grass and
responded well to well-balanced rations. This is little silage for their dairy cows. The cows were
in line with findings by FAO, (2012) where a often fed concentrates, either dairy meal or other
ration balancing was introduced. Research industrial by-products (maize germ, wheat bran,
carried out by Kannan et al. (2011); Sherasia et wheat pollard) most often in low amounts of less
al. (2016); Deen et al. (2019) showed a positive than 2 kg DM/day. Feeding in these farms was
effect of balanced rations on daily milk yield. This not adjusted based on the production potential of
shows that feed rationing with advisory services cows. Similar observations are reported by
and regular visits can be an effective way to Richards et al. (2015, 2016). The low rates of

energy and protein supplied resulted to under- Lukuyu et al. (2011) attributed low milk yield to
nutrition in the early part of the lactation cycle poor nutrition and lack of supplementation with
and affected milk production throughout the high proteins. The results from small-scale dairy
lactation, a similar observation was reported by farms using SPEs silage concurs with reports by
Moghaddam (2016). Jansen et al. (2019) Kilelu et al. (2017, 2018) who noted that farms
reported increases in daily milk production and using support from SPEs intervention performed
better animal health, linking the change to the better than the controls. However, comparing
SPE services. Farms from Meru County in with farms using maize train silage in North Rift
Eastern region, where SPEs made the most region, SPEs had low performances, which is
silage, reported daily milk increases from attributed to in adequate and low-quality feed
between 5.0-6.0 to between 8.0-9.5 litres per resources.
cow. This was lower than 13.8 litres per cow
increase reported in this study in Eastern region. The low milk yield of 10.4 kg/cow/day observed
This was due to more improved and availability in the farms without support from SPE
of conserved maize silage in the region. intervention was comparable to the results by
Muia et al. (2011) who reported milk production
Farms using maize train silage had better daily of 8.4 kg/cow/day in the Central regions while
milk yield/cow compared to SPE silage farms. Mungube et al. (2014) reported milk yield of
This can be attributed to the good quality of 6kg/cow/day in the semi-arid region of Eastern
maize train silage in terms of metabolizable Kenya. This shows that dairy interventions had a
energy (11.9 MJ/kg DM), dry matter (>30%) and significant improvement on dairy cow
organic matter digestibility (56.4%) compared to performance. Feeding higher amounts of
SPE silage which had metabolizable energy of 9.2 concentrate in early-mid lactation stages is
MJ/kg DM, <30% dry matter content, and reported to increase milk yield by 20% (Purcell et
organic matter digestibility of 50.9%. Most of the al., 2016). This finding was observed in
SPE farmers in Central and Eastern regions medium/large-scale farms using feed rationing
lacked sufficient land for forage production, with advisory services, where large amounts of
majority of who own between 0.5 to 5.0 acres out concentrates was being used to supply enough
of which 80% is committed to food crop nutrients for milk synthesis.
production (Kashangaki and Ericksen, 2018). High daily feed intake was attributed to quality
This contributed to high milk yield in North Rift feed rations, made of quality maize silage and
region under the interventions and low yield in concentrates formulated with advisory services
Central and Eastern regions. Similar findings and regular follow-ups by the feed nutritionists
were reported by Kilelu et al. (2017, 2018) in a from the Kenya market-led dairy program
study done in Central, Eastern and Rift Valley (KMDP), this concurs with reports by Ferguson,
regions of Kenya. Farms under maize train silage (2017) and Ayuya et al. (2018) who noted that
and those practicing feed rationing with advisory dairy feed ration balanced with all nutrients
services in North Rift Kenya performed better particularly for protein and calcium is essential
due to the sustainable intensification of feeding for both rumen digestion of feedstuffs and milk
systems with efficient use of fodder and production. This also suggests that cows in
concentrate feed, so that the proportion of the control farms lacked a balanced supply of
intake from feeds remained high, and the nutrients in the feeds and feed rations provided,
efficiency of use of concentrate (kg milk/kg which led to low dry matter feed intake as well as
concentrate) was also high compared to their milk production. Explanations can be lack of
controls which was attributed to feeding systems nutritional knowledge, costs of diet ingredients or
with low input grazing strategy adopted. Similar availability of feed resources. With the increase in
observations were reported by Llanos et al. human population, increasing acreage for forage
(2018). production to meet nutritional requirements is
Medium/large-scale farms in Central and Eastern not the solution (FAO, 2018). Sustainable
regions invested more in commercial production intensification is required to meet
concentrates to supplement their dairy cows with fodder productivity potential (Jayne et al., 2014).
the required metabolizable energy and protein for Therefore, high quality forage should be
milk production. This was possible due to close produced and conserved (Ettema, 2015; Lukuyu
proximity of readily available market for milk-as et al., 2011).
the urban centres are very near, hence need for This study shows a significant effect of quality
high energy and protein feeds for their dairy feed rations on milk yield as observed among
cows. However, the quantity of concentrates farms using the feed balancing software. Maize
used in smallholder farms using support from train silage intervention farms had better feed
SPE silage was low (<2 kg/cow/day) which was intake compared to farms using silage from SPEs
not commensurate with amount of milk produced that was attributed to the quality of silage used
due to unavailability of quality feeds throughout based on the right stage of harvesting and proper
the year. Similar observations were reported by ensiling process that increases organic matter
Muia et al. (2011). digestibility, dry matter intake, and energy

content. Lawrence, (2019) noted that highest dry fodder producer’s agenda (including PUM
matter intake of conserved maize silage in dairy Evaluation 2015). Leeuwarden. pp. 19-21.
cows occurs when maize is harvested at FAO. 2012. Balanced feeding for improving
physiological maturity stage with (32 to 40% livestock productivity-Increase in milk
DM). production and nutrient use efficiency and
decrease in methane emission. In: FAO
Low milk butterfat recorded in farms with feed Animal Production and Health Paper. Rome,
balancing software was attributed to the type of Italy. pp. 31-42.
rations used, which was high in concentrate to FAO. 2018. Livestock production systems
forage ratio. Farms using SPEs silage spotlight: Cattle and poultry sectors in
intervention had high milk butter fat content Kenya. pp. 46-49. Retrieved from
attributed to the high proportion of forages used http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programme
compared to concentrates. Roughages are s/en/ASL2050.html
associated with higher acetate production, hence Ferguson, J.D. 2017. Nutritional strategies to
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The study revealed that use of maize train/baled Cambridge, UK. pp. 283-332.
silage and feed rationing with advisory services https://doi.org/10.19103/AS.2016.0005.11
and regular follow-ups are ideal and sustainable Garg, M.R., Sherasia, P.L., Bhanderi, B.M.,
interventions for increased milk yield in Phondba, B.T., Shelke, S.K. and Makkar,
medium/large-scale farms. Similarly, use of SPE H.P.S. 2013. Effects of feeding nutritionally
silage by smallholder farms in Central and balanced rations on animal productivity,
Eastern regions of Kenya increased milk feed conversion efficiency, feed nitrogen use
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The authors wish to thank the 3R (Robust, Jaetzold, R., Schmidt, H., Hornetz, B. and
Reliable, and Resilient) - from ‘Aid to Trade’ Shisanya, C. 2010. Farm management
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Investigation of soil properties and nutrients in agricultural practiced

land in Tangail, Bangladesh
M.S. Islam*, T. Nusrat, M.R. Jamil, F. Yesmin, M.H. Kabir and R.H. Rimi
Received 10 August 2020, Revised 23 November 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
The study investigated on soil nutrients in agriculture practiced high, medium high, medium
low and low land at Kalihati upazila of Tangail district during October 2017 to June 2018.
Thirty soil samples were collected from different land types at the study area and analyzed at
Soil Resource Development Institute (SRDI) to determine soil nutrient status. The soil
parameters under investigation included pH, organic matter (OM), total nitrogen (N),
available phosphorus (P), available zinc (Zn), available iron (Fe), available manganese (Mn),
available boron (B), exchangeable potassium (K), exchangeable calcium (Ca) and
exchangeable magnesium (Mg). Results indicated that many of the soil nutrient levels
decreased such as pH (5.63 to 6.40), P (3.50 to 23.20 µg g-1), Zn (3.27 to 3.60 µg g-1), Mn
(21.12 to 57.90 µg g-1), B (0.17 to 0.60 µg g-1), K (0.18 to 0.30 meq 100g-1) and Ca (5.75 to
9.10 meq 100g-1). On the contrary, the average content of OM (2.30 to 1.40%), Fe (248.22 to
161.10 µg g-1) and Mg (2.07 to 1.80 meq 100g-1) were increased. Total N content status did
not change much (0.12%). Soil nutrients like those that available Zn, Fe, Mn and Mg
contents were found above optimum level (very high) but OM and N status found below
optimum level (low, very low and medium). Nutrient concentrations below optimum levels
may limit crop yield. Updated knowledge about soil nutrient status needs to be provided for
the farmers so that they can use necessary amount of fertilizers and avoid applying excess
amount of fertilizers.
Keywords: Nutrients, Land type, Crops production, Soil and Agriculture.
Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University,
Tangail-1902, Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author’s email: islammstazu@yahoo.com (M.S. Islam)
Cite this article as: Islam, M.S., Nusrat, T., Jamil, M.R., Yesmin, F., Kabir, M.H. and Rimi, R.H. 2020.
Investigation of soil properties and nutrients in agricultural practiced land in Tangail, Bangladesh. Int. J. Agril.
Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 84-90. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51581
Introduction
The main challenge of agriculture is to provide Soil acts as the storehouse for plant nutrients. In
enough food for the rapidly increasing population other words, soil is the ultimate source of almost
of the country (Shah et al., 2008). Farmers all essential nutrient elements for plant growth.
desperately try to increase crop yield by applying Soil plays a major role in determining the
additional inorganic fertilizers, and pesticides for sustainable productivity of an agro-ecosystem.
increasing cropping intensity, where application The sustainable productivity of soil mainly
of excessive amount of a particular fertilizer may depends upon its ability to supply essential
hinder availability of other nutrients. Our farmers nutrients to the growing plants. The deficiency of
use fertilizers without knowing about the micronutrients is major constraint to
inherent nutrient status of the soil. Often extra productivity, stability and sustainability of soils
fertilizers and pesticides are used carelessly and (Bell and Dell, 2008). Soil fertility is an
inefficiently. Limiting these problems need timely important factor, which determines the growth of
assessment of the soil nutrient at the field level plant. Soil fertility is determined by the presence
(Bhuiya et al., 1974). or absence of nutrients i.e. macro and
Islam et al. (2020) Investigation of soil properties and nutrients in agricultural practiced land in Tangail
micronutrients. Although micronutrients are must produce more food to feed the country's
required in minute quantities, they have the same ever-growing population. Targeting high yield
agronomic importance as macronutrients with a higher cropping intensity is the most
because they play a vital role in the growth of logical way to raise the total production from the
plants (Nazif et al., 2006). country's limited land resources. Inorganic,
organic and bio-fertilizers are the main sources
For plants, the essential micronutrients are
for replenishing plant nutrients in agricultural
boron, chlorine, sodium, copper, iron,
soil. However, the problem is that soil is turning
manganese, zinc, vanadium and molybdenum. barren due to deficiency of different nutrients
These elements are required at trace levels and with prolonged agricultural practices without
they can have a toxic effect if present at higher
proper management. Soil analysis is a valuable
than threshold levels. Among them chlorine,
tool for soil nutrients assessment, soil practices
manganese, iron, zinc, vanadium are likely to
and soil management. However, only few studies
take part in the photosynthesis process. The
found to report the status of soil nutrients at
micronutrients including iron (Fe), copper (Cu),
Tangail district and there is a clear need for a soil
zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), nickel nutrient assessment for agricultural perspectives.
(Ni) and sulfur (S) play a very important role in Considering this gap, the study was carried out
plant growth, productivity, soil fertility and
with the following objectives: i) to assess the soil
animal nutrition. The micronutrients function in
nutrients status in variable lands of the study
living organism as structural components of cell
area, and ii) to assess the changes in soil nutrient
constituents and its metabolically active
contents with agricultural practices.
compounds. They also help in the maintenance of
cellular organization, and in energy Materials and Methods
transformation in enzyme action (Renwick and
Walker, 2008). Study area
The yield of almost all crops is very low in Tangail district is located in the central part of
Bangladesh compared to some other developed Bangladesh. Kalihati is one of the upazila of
countries. There are a number of reasons behind Tangail district located at 24'3833° N and
such low crop yield in which soil is a dominating 90'0083° E (Fig. 1). The total area of Kalihati
factor. The agriculture of Bangladesh has been upazila is 2.39 km2 with a total of 3,54,959
suffering from various problems such as nutrient populations (BPC, 2011). Bhuapur and Ghatail
deficiency and toxicity of soil, improper soil and upazila on the north, Tangail sadar and Basail
crop management, alteration of agricultural land upazila on the south, Sakhipur upazila on the east
for other uses, insects and disease hazards, and and the Jamuna River on the west surround this
natural calamities (Benson and Clay, 2002). The upazila. Main crops of the upazila are paddy,
success or failure of a crop production system wheat, mustard, potato, onion, ginger, garlic,
primarily depends on plant nutrient in soil, which pulse and vegetables. Different Land types were
is either naturally endowed or artificially found in this upazila which are classified
maintained. The cropping sector of Bangladesh according to Uddin et al. (2019) shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Classification of land types in Bangladesh based on inundation.
Sl. Land types Description

1 Highland (HL) Land, which is above the normal flooding level
2 Medium highland (MHL) Land, which is flooded up to about 90 cm deep during the
flooding season
3 Medium lowland (MLL) Land, which is flooded, between 90 and 180 cm deep during
flooding season
4 Lowland (LL) Land, which is normally flooded up to between 180 and 300
cm deep during the flooding season
5 Very lowland (VLL) Land, which is normally flooded deeper than 300 cm during
the flooding season

Fig. 1. Map showing the study area in the Kalihati upazila of Tangail district.
Soil Resource Development Institute (SRDI),
Sample collection
Tangail for analysis of soil pH, total organic
Total 30 soil samples were collected from matter (OM), total nitrogen (N), available
different land types in the study area to know phosphorus (P), available zinc (Zn), available
their nutritional status for agricultural practices. iron (Fe), available manganese (Mn), available
Among them, 6 samples were collected from high boron (B), exchangeable potassium (K),
land (HL), 9 samples from medium high land exchangeable calcium (Ca) and exchangeable
(MHL), 9 samples from medium low land (MLL) magnesium (Mg). The soil pH was determined by
and 6 samples from low land (LL). The samples digital pH meter. The OM of soil sample was
were scraped from the top to bottom (0 to 10 cm) determined by Walkley and Black’s wet oxidation
with the help of an auger. Then 250 g soil was method (Huq and Alam, 2005). Total N of soil
taken to have a representative sample. All samples were determined by semi-micro Kjeldhal
samples were placed in sealed polythene bags and method (Sattar and Rahman, 1987). The available
labeled with date of collection, location and code P of soil was determined by using the Olsen
number. From the collected samples, the gravels, method (Sattar and Rahman, 1987). The available
pebbles, plant roots, leaves etc. were dried in air Zn was determined by DTPA method (Roberts,
for 15 days by spreading on a clean piece of 1971). The available Fe and Mn were determined
polythene bag then samples were mixed well, by DTPA (diethylene-triamine-penta acetic acid)
ground to pass through a 2-mm plastic sieve, and micronutrient extraction method developed by
preserved in polythene bags for laboratory Lindsey and Norvell (1978) using atomic
analysis. absorption spectrometry (AAS). The available B
was determined by hot water extraction method
Sample analysis using a dilute calcium chloride solution
The soil samples were dried in room temperature introduced by Berger and Truog (1939). The
and carefully transported to the laboratory of exchangeable K in soil was determined by

ammonium acetate extraction method (Sattar organic matter in soil is suitable for almost all-
and Rahman, 1987). The exchangeable Ca and agricultural crop production (Ahmed et al.,
Mg of soil samples were determined by EDTA 2018). Higher oxidation rate of plant and animal
(Ethylenediamene Tetra Acetic Acid) titration residues by relatively higher temperature may
method (Huq and Alam, 2005). have contributed to such low levels of OM (Khan
et al., 2002). The SRDI (2009) reported that the
Statistical analysis organic matter of Balla union agricultural soils of
After getting the soil test results from SRDI, data Kalihati upazila ranged from 2.20 to 2.70%.
were compiled, tabulated and analyzed through
Microsoft Office Excel software. Total nitrogen (TN)
Results and Discussion The TN was 0.10, 0.11, 0.12 and 0.13% in all types
of land in the study area indicated low nutrient
Soil pH status that is below the optimum level (Table 2
and 4). The optimum value of TN is 0.27 to
The soil pH was 6.00, 5.82, 5.53 and 5.16 in HL, 0.36% for agricultural land (Ahmed et al., 2018).
MHL, MLL and LL, respectively (Table 2 and 3). The total nitrogen in soil ranged from 0.09 to
The pH values were indicated slightly acidic soil 0.18% with a mean of 0.12% (Table 4) which was
in HL and MHL, whereas strongly acidic soil in below the optimum level. Below optimum level
MLL and LL. Prodhan (2010) reported that the (very low, low and medium) nutrient status,
soil pH increase with increasing depth. Probably makes soil nutrient deficient and consequently
due to removal of basic soil materials like CaCO3 limits crop yield (Heckman, 2006). The TN
and MgCO3 from upper soil layer with deficiency can be due to de-nitrification, leaching,
simultaneous accumulation in lower layer immobilization of nitrogen from the soil. Other
through leaching. The pH status of the study reasons may include intensive crop cultivation,
area’s soil ranged from 4.85 to 6.74. Bhuiyan and imbalanced use of fertilizer. For instance,
(1988) reported that the pH of different soil Razzaque et al. (1998) showed that the nitrogen
series of Bangladesh ranged from 4.4 to 8.0. content in non-irrigated surface and sub-surface
Average soil pH was 5.63 indicated slightly acidic soils of Ghatail and Kalihati upazila were 0.06 to
in nature in the study area. 0.29% and 0.03 to 0.22%, respectively. Hossain
Total organic matter (OM) et al. (2003) observed that the total nitrogen
content decreased with increasing the depth of
The soil OM in HL, MHL, MLL and LL was 2.00, soils. In old Brahmaputra floodplain soil, the
2.15, 2.40 and 2.64%, respectively in the study total nitrogen varied from 0.038 to 0.100% and
area (Table 2 and 3). The OM indicated medium Madhupur tract from 0.010 to 0.082% under
in status in all the land types. The OM status different cropping patterns and tillage.
ranged from 1.86 to 3.65% with an average of
2.30% i.e., medium status in nature. About 3.4%
Table 2. Soil nutrients status in agricultural practiced land at Kalihati upazila, Tangail.
Soil nutrients Land types
HL (n=6) MHL (n=9) MLL (n=9) LL (n=6)
Soil pH 6.00±0.54 5.82±0.40 5.53±0.23 5.16±0.16
Status SlA SlA StA StA
OM (%) 2.00±0.12 2.15±0.26 2.40±0.49 2.64±0.71
Status M M M M
TN (%) 0.10±0.01 0.11±0.01 0.12±0.02 0.13±0.03
Status L L L L
AP (μg g-1) 8.20±4.96 3.26±1.62 1.88±0.83 2.04±1.00
Status OP VL VL VL
Zn (μg g-1) 2.80±1.98 3.80±1.22 3.02±1.35 3.39±1.17
Status VH VH VH VH
Fe (μg g-1) 168.10±82.50 192.80±43.70 288.80±45.19 365.10±50.59
Status VH VH VH VH
Mn (μg g-1) 25.60±11.21 15.74±8.70 25.25±15.10 18.49±9.93
Status VH VH VH VH
B (μg g-1) 0.10 ±0.03 0.17±0.05 0.18±0.04 0.15±0.05
Status VL L L VL
K (meq 100g-1) 0.10 ±0.02 0.15±0.05 0.21±0.06 0.28±0.05
Status L L M OP
Ca (meq 100g-1) 4.80 ±1.12 5.22±1.15 6.59±1.49 6.25±1.07
Status OP OP H H
Mg (meq 100g-1) 2.00±0.43 2.05±0.37 2.11±0.27 2.12±0.25
Status VH VH VH VH
Note: H=High, L=Low, M=Medium, N=Neutral, OP=Optimum, SlA=Slightly Acidic, StA=Strongly Acidic,
VH=Very High, VL=Very Low.

Available phosphorus (P) The available Zn in HL, MHL, MLL and LL were
2.80, 3.80, 3.02 and 3.39 μg g-1, respectively
In HL soil, available P was 8.20 µg g-1, whereas (Table 2). The Zn levels ranged from 0.94 to 6.35
MHL, MLL and LL with 3.26, 1.88 and 2.04 µg g-1, µg g-1 with a mean of 3.25 μg g-1 (Table 1) which
respectively (Table 2). The mean available P was was above the optimum (very high) range and so
3.50 µg g-1, which indicated very low status of was considered more than adequate for crop yield
nutrient (Table 4). The optimum nutritional level (Table 4). Therefore, addition of the nutrient has
of available P in soil is 18.1 to 24.0 μg g-1 for a very low probability of getting an economic
agriculture practice in Bangladesh (Ahmed et al., crop yield response. If more nutrients are added,
2018). Portch (1984) reported that the 41% soils there is a possibility of getting a negative effect on
of Bangladesh contained phosphorous with below the crops due to excessive Zn (Heckman, 2006).
critical level and 35% below optimum level. The Average Zn levels in all types of lands slightly
available phosphorous content varied with decreased. Jahiruddin et al. (1981) reported Zn
different location and layer of soil profile. deficiency in some soils and generally in
Available zinc (Zn) submerged soils.
Table 3. Classification of soil pH and organic matter according to Ahmed et al. (2018).
Standard of soil pH Standard of soil organic matter (%)

Value Soil reaction class Value Status
<4.5 Very strongly acidic <1.00 Very low
4.5-5.5 Strongly acidic 1.00-1.70 Low
5.6-6.5 Slightly acidic 1.71-3.40 Medium
6.6-7.3 Neutral 3.41-5.50 High
7.4-8.4 Slightly alkaline >5.50 Very high
8.5-9.0 Strongly alkaline - -
>9.0 Very strongly alkaline - -
Available iron (Fe) Available manganese (Mn)

In the study area, the mean available iron was The available Mn content in HL, MHL, MLL and
found in all types of land (HL, MHL, MLL and LL were 25.60, 15.74, 25.25 and 18.49 μg g-1,
LL) at very high levels (Table 4). The iron content respectively (Table 2). The SRDI (2001b)
ranged from 56.58 to 411.70 µg g-1 with an reported that the Mn content of HL, MHL and
average of 253.70 μg g-1 in study area (Table 2). MLL under Mymensingh sadar upazila were
The optimum level of available Fe is 9.1 to 12.0 μg 45.10, 49.80 and 2.31 µg g-1, respectively.
g-1, which is comparatively high and adequate to Razzaque et al. (1998) observed that the Mn
crop yield (Ahmed et al., 2018). Therefore, there content of the non-irrigated surface and sub-
is no need to apply any additional available Fe in surface soil of Ghatail and Kalihati upazila were
these lands. The SRDI (2001b) reported that the 32.5 to 162.5 µg g-1 and 36.3 to 124.0 µg g-1,
Fe content of highland, medium highland and respectively. The optimum content of available
medium lowland under Mymensingh sadar Mn in soil is 2.26 to 3.00 µg g-1 for agricultural
upazila were 91, 87 and 146 µg g-1, respectively. activities (Ahmed et al., 2018). However, the
The SRDI (2001b) reported that suitable Fe mean status of Mn of the study area soil was
content in soil is 9.1 to 12.0 μg g-1 for crop 21.27 μg g-1, which indicated very high content of
production. Hussain (1992) reported that the available Mn (Table 4). Average content is higher
soils of Madhupur tract contain high amount of than optimum level and so addition of available
iron and aluminum, which are highly aggregated. Mn was not required in these lands.
Table 4. Status of soil nutritional level according to Ahmed et al. (2018).
Nutrients Nutrients status
Very low Low Medium Optimum High Very high
N (%) <0.090 0.091-0.18 0.081-0.270 0.271-0.36 0.361-0.450 >0.450
P (μg g-1) <6.000 6.100-12.00 12.100-18.000 18.100-24.00 24.100-30.000 >30.000
Z (µg g-1) < 0.450 0.451-0.90 0.910-1.350 1.351-1.80 1.810-2.250 >2.250
Fe (µg g-1) <3.000 3.100-6.00 6.100-9.000 9.100-12.00 12.100-15.000 >15.000
Mn (µg g-1) <0.750 0.760-1.50 1.510-2.250 2.260-3.00 3.100-3.750 >3.750
B (µg g-1) < 0.150 0.151-0.30 0.310-0.450 0.451-0.600 0.610-0.750 >0.750
K (meq 100g-1) <0.075 0.076-0.15 0.151-0.225 0.226-0.300 0.310-0.375 >0.375
Ca (meq 100g-1) < 1.500 1.510-3.00 3.010-4.500 4.510-6.00 6.010-7.500 >7.500
Mg (meq 100g-1) <0.375 0.376-0.75 0.751-1.125 1.126-1.50 1.510-1.875 >1.875

Available boron (B) Conclusions

The available B in soil was 0.10, 0.17, 0.18 and Findings of this study concluded that most of the
0.15 µg g-1 in HL, MHL, MLL and LL, respectively nutrients were above optimum levels and so there
(Table 2). The optimum content of available B in was no need for using additional supplements for
soil is 0.45 to 0.60 µg g-1 (Ahmed et al., 2018). these nutrients. The soil pH, available P, available
The available B ranged from 0.10 to 0.25 µg g-1 Zn, available Mn, available B, exchangeable K
with an average of 0.15 µg g-1 indicated low and exchangeable Ca decreased when compared
content of nutritional status (Table 4). Available with optimum level. On the other hand, the
B content at the study area was lower than average OM, available Fe and exchangeable Mg
optimum level. It might be due to intensive contents were increased than optimum. While,
cropping pattern and imbalance use of fertilizer. some of the nutrients analyzed were at the
At such low levels of available B, crop yield might
optimum level suitable for crop yield; few
be limited. The SRDI (2005) reported the most B
nutrients were below optimum level causing crop
deficient areas are Dinajpur, Rangpur, Bogura,
Sirajganj, Comilla and Sylhet. yield reduction. Intensive crop production,
imbalance use of fertilizer, and cropping pattern
Exchangeable potassium (K) change over time might have contributed to
nutrient deficiencies in the soil. Consequently
In the study area, the exchangeable K in soil were extra fertilizer application was needed for
0.10, 0.15, 0.21 and 0.28 meq 100g-1 in HL, MHL, expected level of crop production. To minimize
MLL and LL area, respectively (Table 2). The loss of soil nutrients and degradation of soil
optimum content of exchangeable K in soil is
quality, this study recommended few actions
0.27 meq 100g-1 (Ahmed et al., 2018). In HL and
MHL, low content of exchangeable K was found. including: i) proper steps should be taken to
In MLL and LL area, medium and optimum provide knowledge to the farmers about using
exchangeable K status was found (Table 2 and 4). fertilizer at proper dose; ii) increase essential soil
The mean K content was found low 0.19 meq nutrients of OM, N, P in agricultural lands using
100g-1 (Table 2). Razzaque et al. (1998) showed appropriate fertilizers; iii) develop farmers’
that K content of some non-irrigated surface and awareness through intensive training; iv)
sub-surface soils of Ghatail and Kalihati upazila improving capacity building and involvement of
were 0.06 to 0.68 and 0.10 to 0.47 meq 100g-1, GO’s and NGO’s to support farmers; and v)
respectively. Ghosh and Biswas (1978) reported government should facilitate availability of
that the continuous cropping without K quality fertilizers and provide information about
application was found to decrease the content of correct dose for application at different soil
exchangeable K appreciably and increase the regions.
influence of K progressively. Acknowledgements
Exchangeable calcium (Ca) Sincere gratitude to Mr. Utpol Kumar (Scientific
The soil exchangeable Ca content in HL, MHL, Officer, Soil Resource Development Institute,
MLL and LL area were 4.80, 5.22, 6.59 and 6.25 Tangail) for his kind support during the study
meq 100g-1, respectively (Table 2). The optimum period.
content of exchangeable Ca is 4.51 meq 100g-1
(Ahmed et al., 2018). The mean Ca content was References
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Interactive effects of rice bran compost and chemical fertilizers

on macronutrients, oil and protein content in
sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)
M. Alauddin1, G.M. Mohsin2*, A.H.M.Z. Ali3 and M.K. Rahman3
Received 19 August 2020, Revised 14 December 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted at the research farm of Charfasson Govt. College, Bhola,
Bangladesh in rabi season in 2015-2016 to evaluate the impact of conjunctive use of
chemical fertilizers with rice bran on concentration, uptake and seed quality of sunflower cv.
BARI-2 (Keroni-2). The experiment was laid out in the randomized complete block design
(RCBD) having sixteen treatments with three replications. The size of the plots were 3 m x 2
m. Treatments were T1 Control (- RB and -NPK), T2: 2.5 t RB ha-1, T3: 5.0 t RB ha-1,T4: 7.5 t
RB ha-1, T5: N40P30K50 kg ha-1,T6: N80P60K100 kg ha-1, T7: N120P90K150 kg ha-1, T8: 2.5 t RB ha-1 +
N40P30K50 kg ha-1, T9: 2.5 t RB ha-1 + N80P60K100 kg ha-1, T10: 2.5 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-
1, T : 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N P K
40 30 50 kg ha , T12: 5.0 t RB ha + N80P60K100 kg ha , T13: 5.0 t RB ha
-1 -1 -1 -
11
1 +N
120P90K150 kg ha , T14: 7.5 t RB ha + N40P30K50 kg ha , T15: 7.5 t RB ha + N80P60K100 kg
-1 -1 -1 -1
ha-1, T16: 7.5 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1. Results showed that the concentration, uptake
and quality of seeds (oil and protein) of the crop increased with increasing rate of the
amendments significantly (P<0.05) over the control and the variation between the
treatments were also significant irrespective of the sources of amendments in most of the
cases. Generally, combination of the treatments showed better performance than their
individual application. Maximum values of NPKS concentration (%) in different organs of
sunflower were 1.22, 0.35, 1.90, 0.18 for stem; 1.17, 0.35, 2.41, 0.16 for root; 3.98, 0.43, 4.28,
0.24 for leaf, 1.04, 0.65, 3.00, 0.22 for petiole; 2.16, 0.58, 2.21, 0.26 for inflorescence and
5.24, 0.83, 1.60, 0.47 for seed measured in treatments 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1 and
7.5 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1 in most of the cases. However, their uptake pattern also
followed the same trend as in concentration and the highest values were found in those
treatments in most of the cases. Significantly (P<0.05%) the highest content of oil (51.1%) in
seed was measured in the treatment 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1 and protein (33.9%)
was found in the treatment 5.0 t RB ha-1 +N80P60K100 kg ha-1. Their lowest values were found
in control for oil and in 2.5 t RB ha-1 for protein, which was lower than control treatment.
The overall findings of this study indicated that rice bran in combination with chemical
fertilizers could be applied to achieve better concentration and uptake in different organs, oil
and protein content in seeds of sunflower.
Keywords: Oil and protein, Rice bran and chemical fertilizers, Sunflower, Uptake.
1Department of Soil Science, Charfasson Govt. College, Bhola, Bangladesh.

2Department of Agriculture, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Sonapur, Noakhali- 3814, Bangladesh.
3Department of Soil, Water and Environment, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author’s email: mohsinbreeder97@gmail.com (G.M. Mohsin)
Cite this article as: Alauddin, M., Mohsin, G.M., Ali, A.H.M.Z. and Rahman, M.K. 2020. Interactive effects of
rice bran compost and chemical fertilizers on macronutrients, oil and protein content in sunflower (Helianthus
annuus L.). Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 91-99. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51582
Introduction
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is one of the needs and easy cultivated and grown in different
most important oil seed crops in the world’s oil conditions and soils. In addition, it is one of the
seed production, because it offers advantages in crops, which have high availability to planting
crop rotation systems, such as high adaptation and produce high yield under stress such as
capability, suitability to mechanization, low labor (drought, salinity or temperature). The oil
Alauddin et al. (2020) Interactive effects of rice bran compost and chemical fertilizers in sunflower
extracted (48-53%) is edible from this crop; Sunflower is highly productive in sandy loam as
about 80% of the oil is used for edible purpose well as a clay loam soil. Therefore, farmers could
and rest being non-edible, used for industrial cultivate this crop widely both in rabi and kharif
purposes. seasons in the coastal areas of Bangladesh.
Moreover, it reduces climate change vulnerability
Agriculture plays an important role in economy
by emission of large amount of CO2 (Mahapatra
of developing countries like Pakistan (Badar and
Qureshi, 2014), Bangladesh and so on. However, and Sharma, 1989). For higher productivity and
rapid crop production with inappropriate sustainability, integrated use of organic and
farming practices deteriorate organic matter in inorganic sources of nutrient is very important
soil, which results in decreased microbial activity (Rasool et al., 2013). Keeping these aspects in
that eventually affect its physical, chemical and view, the present investigation was carried out to
biological conditions which lead to decline in examine the impact of conjunctive use of rice
land productivity and crops yields. To solve this bran and chemical fertilizer on concentration,
problem, synthetic fertilizers were always uptake and seed quality of sunflower (Helianthus
thought to be a better way to improve the soil annuus L.).
fertility and crop productivity but unfortunately,
the excessive use of these creates a number of Materials and Methods
serious environmental and health risk (Badar and A field study was carried out at the research farm
Qureshi, 2014). Agro-chemicals deteriorate soil of Charfasson Govt. College, Bhola, Bangladesh
health and environment got pollute. Problems during rabi season in 2015-2016. Soil samples (0-
associated with continuous use of chemical 15 cm depth) were collected from the research
fertilizers included nutrient imbalance, increased farm. The sample was air dried, ground and
soil acidity, degradation in soil physical
sieved through 3 mm sieve for chemical analysis
properties and loss of organic matter. Hence, the
and 2 mm sieve for physical analysis and kept in
tendency to supply all plant nutrients through
polyethylene bags. The soil had found pH of 8.36
chemical fertilizer should be reconsidered in the
(1: 2.5 w/v H2O), organic carbon 0.63% (Wet
future because of the deleterious effect on soil
productivity on a long-term basis (Moyin-Jesu, oxidation method, Walkley and Black, 1934),
2015). To minimize these hazards, naturally available nitrogen 0.24% (Kjeldahl extraction,
occurring organic fertilizers, namely animal and Marr and Cresser, 1983), available phosphorus
plant manures, fall residues, and food and urban 0.06% (Jackson, 1958), available potassium
wastes are better alternate of commercially 1.23% (Pratt, 1965), available sulfur 0.15%
available fertilizers. Reports proved that organic (Bardsley and Lancaster, 1965), sand 12.3%, silt
farming improves soil composition, fertility, and 51.34% and clay 36.36%, textural class- silty clay
soil fauna, which in the long run have a beneficial loam (Bouyoucos, 1962), the maximum water
effect on crop production (Badar and Qureshi, retentive capacity was 37%, respectively. Seeds
2014). Leguminous materials and rice bran (RB) were collected from BADC, Barishal. The variety
supplied mainly N, P, K, Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn and B to of seed was BARI-2 (Keroni-2). The experiment
the soil those NPK 15-15-15 fertilizer did not was laid out in a randomized complete block
possess. The organic materials applied (wood design (RCBD) having sixteen treatments with
ash, rice bran and so firth) have beneficial three replications. The unit plot size was 3.0 m x
residual effects on soil properties which are in 2.0 m and total plots were 48. Treatments were
line with growing concern of using environment T1 Control (-RB and -NPK), T2: 2.5 t RB ha-1, T3:
friendly fertilizer (Moyin-Jesu, 2015). Mahrous et 5.0 t RB ha-1, T4: 7.5 t RB ha-1, T5: N40P30K50 kg ha-
al. (2014) reported that different organic nutrient 1, T : N P K
6 80 60 100 kg ha , T7: N120P90K150 kg ha , T8:
-1 -1
management practices have been found to be 2.5 t RB ha + N40P30K50 kg ha , T9: 2.5 t RB ha-1
-1 -1
technically and financially beneficial. Adding + N80P60K100 kg ha-1, T10: 2.5 t RB ha-1 +
nutrient in the form of organic fertilizers has N120P90K150 kg ha-1, T11: 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N40P30K50
many advantages, e.g. they enhance soil kg ha-1, T12: 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N80P60K100 kg ha-1, T13:
biological activity, which improves nutrient 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1, T14: 7.5 t RB
mobilization, enhance root growth due to better ha-1 + N40P30K50 kg ha-1, T15: 7.5 t RB ha-1 +
soil structure, release nutrients slowly and N80P60K100 kg ha-1 and T16: 7.5 t RB ha-1 +
contribute to the industrial pool of organic N and N120P90K150 kg ha-1.
P in the soil. Also using organic fertilizers
reducing N leaching loss and P fixation; they can The doses were selected according to the
also supply micronutrients, increase the organic Fertilizer Recommendation Guide of Bangladesh
matter content of the soil, therefore improving Agricultural Research Council (BARC, 2012). At
the exchange capacity of nutrients, increasing soil the time of initial land preparation, rice bran was
water retention, promoting soil aggregates. applied and at final land preparation, N, P and K
were applied as urea, triple super phosphate and

muriate of potash, respectively. Seeds were sown Results and Discussion

on 29 December, 2015. Sixty seeds were sown in
(a) Concentration and uptake of NPKS in root
each plot. Length between row to row was 40 cm
and width between seed to seed was 25 cm. Effects of rice bran and NPK fertilizers on NPKS
Intercultural practices i.e. weeding, spading, concentration and uptake of root of sunflower
fencing, pesticide etc. were applied as per when were determined. The results showed that both
needed. Finally, plants were harvested after 90 concentration and uptake of NPKS of root
days of sowing of seeds at the period of maturity. increased significantly (P<0.05) due to
Different organs of sunflower plants viz., stem, application of various combinations of rice bran
root, leaf, petiole, inflorescence and seed were and NPK fertilizers over the control (Table 1). The
collected and dried in an oven at temperature of treatments generally showed an increase in both
650C. The dry weight of different parameters and the concentrations and uptakes of NPKS in
seed weights were measured and those were kept sunflower root with increasing rates of both rice
in paper bags separately. The uptake of nutrients bran and NPK fertilizers. The values of
by different parts of sunflower plant was worked concentration and uptake of the nutrients in root
out by multiplying the nutrient concentration and of sunflower when compared between the
treatments, in most of the cases, identical results
dry matter yield of the plant parts. Estimation of
were obtained. Rice bran showed better results in
oil content (%) in the seed sample was done by
nitrogen and sulfur concentration of root than
Soxhlet Fat Extraction method evolved by
fertilizer when applied alone. But, phosphorus
(AOAC, 1990). Seed protein content was
and potassium concentrations in root of
calculated by multiplying the N content of seed sunflower were found to be better in fertilizer
with a factor of 6.25. Analysis of variance was treated plants. The ranges of nitrogen
done with the help of SPSS program and the concentration and uptake were found to be 0.52
mean differences among different treatments to 1.17% and 5.2 to 187.2 mg plant-1 root,
were evaluated by LSD test at 5% level. respectively.
Table 1. Effects of rice bran compost and NPK fertilizers on the concentration and uptake of NPKS in root of
sunflower.
Treatments Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Sulfur
Conc. Uptake Conc. Uptake Conc. Uptake Conc. Uptake
(%) (mg (%) (mg (%) (mg (%) (mg
plant-1) plant-1) plant-1) plant-1)
T1: Control (-RB and -NPK) 0.52 5.2 0.09 0.9 0.89 8.9 0.07 0.7
T2: 2.5 t RB ha-1 0.67 13.4 0.13 2.6 1.18 23.6 0.07 1.4
T3: 5.0 t RB ha-1 0.68 22.4 0.15 5.0 1.27 41.9 0.14 4.6
T4: 7.5 t RB ha-1 0.83 41.5 0.15 7.5 1.46 73.0 0.16 8.0
T5: N40P30K50 kg ha-1 0.65 45.5 0.12 8.4 1.54 107.8 0.09 6.3
T6: N80P60K100 kg ha-1 0.67 48.2 0.19 13.7 1.58 113.8 0.09 6.5
T7: N120P90K150 kg ha-1 0.68 54.4 0.25 20.0 1.94 155.2 0.08 6.4
T8: 2.5 t RB ha-1 0.52 42.5 0.19 19.2 2.03 205.0 0.09 9.1
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T9: 2.5 t RB ha-1 0.71 97.3 0.23 31.5 2.07 283.6 0.08 11.0
+N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T10: 2.5 t RB ha-1 1.17 161.5 0.25 34.5 2.11 291.2 0.13 17.9
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
T11: 5.0 t RB ha-1 0.93 130.2 0.21 29.4 2.41 237.4 0.10 14.0
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T12: 5.0 t RB ha-1 0.69 73.8 0.20 21.4 1.88 201.2 0.09 9.6
+ N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T13: 5.0 t RB ha-1 1.17 187.2 0.35 56.0 2.15 344.0 0.12 19.2
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
T14: 7.5 t RB ha-1 0.92 135.2 0.21 30.9 2.05 301.4 0.10 14.7
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T15: 7.5 t RB ha-1 0.98 153.9 0.17 26.7 1.71 268.5 0.10 15.7
+ N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T16: 7.5 t RB ha-1 0.83 132.8 0.23 36.8 1.96 313.6 0.11 17.6
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
LSD at 5% 0.16 7.49 0.04 5.02 0.44 15.37 0.05 1.75

The highest value of nitrogen concentration was (b) Concentration and uptake of NPKS in stem
recorded in treatments, 2.5 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150
kg ha-1 and 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1 but Effects of rice bran and NPK fertilizers on
that of uptake was observed in 5.0 t RB ha-1 + concentration and uptake of NPKS of stem of
N120P90K150 kg ha-1 treatment. Like nitrogen, sunflower were determined. The results showed
concentration and uptake of phosphorus in root that both concentration and uptake of NPKS of
of sunflower ranged from 0.09 to 0.35% and 0.9 stem increased significantly (P<0.05) due to
to 56.0 mg plant-1 root, respectively (Table 1). application of various combinations of rice bran
Both the highest values were observed in the and NPK fertilizers over the control (Table 2).
same treatment, 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha- The values of concentration and uptake of the
1. Potassium concentration and uptake of nutrients in stem of sunflower when compared
sunflower root were found to be 0.89 to 2.41 and between the treatments, in most of the cases,
8.9 to 344.0 mg plant-1 root, respectively (Table identical results were obtained. Nitrogen,
3). The highest values were recorded in phosphorus and potassium concentrations in
treatments, 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N40P30K50 kg ha-1 and stem were comparatively more effective in
5.0 t CD ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1, respectively. inorganic fertilizers treated plants than rice bran
Sulfur concentration and uptake of root ranged treated ones. An opposite effect was observed in
from 0.07 to 0.16% and 0.7 to 19.2 mg plant -1 case of sulfur concentration in stem. Nitrogen
root, respectively (Table 1). The highest recorded concentration and uptake varied from 1.07 to
values were observed in treatments, 7.5t RB ha-1 1.22% and 85.6 to 787.4 mg plant-1 stem,
and 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1, respectively.
respectively.
Table 2. Effects of rice bran compost and NPK fertilizers on the concentration and uptake of NPKS in
stem of sunflower.
Conc. Uptake Conc. Uptake Conc. Uptake Conc. Uptake
(%) (mg (%) (mg (%) (mg (%) (mg
T2: 2.5 t RB ha-1 1.10 117.7 0.20 21.40 1.18 126.3 0.10 10.7
T3: 5.0 t RB ha-1 1.18 156.9 0.22 29.26 1.40 186.2 0.12 16.0
T4: 7.5 t RB ha-1 1.20 192.0 0.24 38.40 1.50 240.0 0.15 24.0
T5: N40P30K50 kg ha-1 1.21 378.7 0.28 87.60 1.56 488.3 0.09 28.2
T6: N80P60K100 kg ha-1 1.13 392.1 0.27 93.70 1.59 551.7 0.10 34.7
T7: N120P90K150 kg ha-1 1.22 610.0 0.23 115.00 1.66 830.0 0.13 65.0
T8: 2.5 t RB ha-1 1.14 501.6 0.24 105.60 152 668.8 0.17 74.8
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T9: 2.5 t RB ha-1 1.16 541.7 0.20 93.40 1.49 695.8 0.15 70.1
+N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T10: 2.5 t RB ha-1 1.11 502.8 0.24 108.70 1.68 761.0 0.18 81.5
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
T11: 5.0 t RB ha-1 1.22 497.5 0.22 86.50 1.48 581.6 0.14 55.0
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T12: 5.0 t RB ha-1 1.21 629.2 0.28 145.60 1.72 894.4 0.16 83.2
+ N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T13: 5.0 t RB ha-1 1.16 664.7 0.35 200.60 1.74 997.0 0.17 97.4
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
T14: 7.5 t RB ha-1 1.10 528.0 0.29 139.20 1.90 912.0 0.14 67.2
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T15: 7.5 t RB ha-1 1.14 749.0 0.30 197.10 1.52 998.6 0.17 111.7
+ N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T16: 7.5 t RB ha-1 1.17 787.4 0.25 168.30 1.48 996.0 0.16 107.7
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
LSD at 5% 0.10 21.03 0.08 12.09 0.21 48.67 0.68 9.13
The highest values were recorded in treatments, phosphorus were recorded in the same
N120P90K150 kg ha-1 and 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N40P30K50 treatment, 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1.
kg ha-1, and 7.5 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1, Potassium concentration and uptake varied from
respectively. Phosphorus concentration and 0.62 to 1.90% and 49.6 to 998.6 mg plant -1 stem,
uptake ranged from 0.11 to 0.35% and 8.8 to respectively (Table 2). The maximum values of
200.6 mg plant-1 stem, respectively (Table 2). The concentration and uptake were observed in
highest values of concentration and uptake of treatments, 7.5 t RB ha-1 + N40P30K50 kg ha-1 and

7.5 t RB ha-1 + N80P60K100 kg ha-1, respectively. and NPK fertilizers on nutrients concentrations
Similarly, sulfur concentration and uptake also of NPKS in sunflower leaf over the control (Table
varied from 0.07 to 0.18% and 5.6 to 111.7 mg 3). But comparison between the treatments
plant-1 stem, respectively (Table 2). The highest showed identical results. Between rice bran and
values were recorded in treatments, 2.5 t RB ha-1 fertilizers, rice bran played better role than
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1 and 7.5 t RB ha-1 + inorganic fertilizers in case of only sulfur
N80P60K100 kg ha-1, respectively. concentration. Concentration and uptake of
(c) Concentration and uptake of NPKS in leaf nitrogen and phosphorus in leaf of sunflower
varied from 2.18 to 3.98 and 0.28 to 0.43%; and
Treatments of rice bran and NPK fertilizers, on 152.6 to 903.5 and 19.6 to 97.6 mg plant-1 leaf of
concentration and uptake of NPKS in leaf were both nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively.
measured. Treatments showed significantly
(P<0.05) positive effects with doses of rice bran
leaf of sunflower.
Conc. Uptake Conc. (%) Uptake Conc. (%) Uptake Conc. (%) Uptake
(%) (mg (mg (mg (mg
T2: 2.5 t RB ha-1 2.33 233.0 0.28 28.0 2.80 280.0 0.13 13.0
T3: 5.0 t RB ha-1 2.36 212.4 0.31 27.9 3.41 306.9 0.15 13.5
T4: 7.5 t RB ha-1 2.37 237.0 0.34 34.0 3.43 343.0 0.17 17.0
T5: N40P30K50 kg ha-1 2.50 382.5 0.33 50.5 3.24 495.7 0.08 12.0
T6: N80P60K100 kg ha-1 2.62 453.3 0.34 58.8 3.49 603.8 0.12 20.8
T7: N120P90K150 kg ha-1 2.75 624.3 0.35 79.5 4.28 971.6 0.09 20.4
T8: 2.5 t RB ha-1 2.79 521.7 0.39 72.9 4.16 777.9 0.12 22.4
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T9: 2.5 t RB ha-1 2.97 614.8 0.35 72.5 3.01 623.1 0.14 29.0
+N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T10: 2.5 t RB ha-1 3.17 634.0 0.36 72.0 4.13 826.0 0.16 32.0
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
T11: 5.0 t RB ha-1 3.10 536.3 0.34 58.8 3.59 621.1 0.18 31.1
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T12: 5.0 t RB ha-1 3.12 645.8 0.30 62.1 3.68 761.8 0.22 45.5
+ N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T13: 5.0 t RB ha-1 3.98 903.5 0.43 97.6 4.07 923.9 0.23 52.2
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
T14: 7.5 t RB ha-1 3.12 624.0 0.37 74.0 3.89 778.0 0.18 36.0
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T15: 7.5 t RB ha-1 3.96 650.4 0.38 91.2 3.74 897.6 0.20 48.0
+ N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T16: 7.5 t RB ha-1 2.96 680.8 0.40 92.0 3.83 880.9 0.24 55.2
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
LSD at 5% 0.54 21.59 0.06 7.34 0.57 35.15 0.05 4.76
The highest values of both nitrogen and (d) Concentration and uptake of NPKS in petiole
phosphorus were recorded in the same Treatments of rice bran and NPK fertilizers, on
treatment, 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1 concentration and uptake of NPKS in petiole
(Table 3). Similarly, concentration and uptake of were measured. Treatments showed significantly
potassium and sulfur in leaf ranged from 2.56 to (P<0.05) positive effects with doses of rice bran
4.28% and 0.10 to 0.24%; and 179.2 to 971.6 and and NPK fertilizers on nutrients concentrations
7.0 to 55.2 mg plant-1 leaf, respectively (Table 3). of petiole of sunflower over the control (Table 4).
The highest values were observed in treatments, But comparison between the treatments showed
N120P90K150 kg ha-1 for potassium and 7.5 t RB ha-1 identical results. Between rice bran and
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1 for sulfur. fertilizers, rice bran played better role than
inorganic fertilizers in case of only sulfur
concentration.

Table 4. Effects of rice bran compost and NPK fertilizers on the concentration and uptake of NPKS in petiole
of sunflower.
(%) (mg (mg (mg (mg
T2: 2.5 t RB ha-1 0.57 9.1 0.20 3.2 0.83 13.3 0.12 1.9
T3: 5.0 t RB ha-1 0.61 18.3 0.25 7.5 1.31 39.3 0.16 4.8
T4: 7.5 t RB ha-1 0.65 21.5 0.26 8.6 1.50 49.5 0.18 5.9
T5: N40P30K50 kg ha-1 0.97 34.0 0.29 10.2 1.62 56.7 0.07 2.5
T6: N80P60K100 kg ha-1 0.74 29.6 0.35 14.0 1.92 76.8 0.08 3.2
T7: N120P90K150 kg ha-1 0.79 43.5 0.42 23.1 1.99 109.5 0.09 5.0
T8: 2.5 t RB ha-1 0.63 27.1 0.44 18.9 1.66 71.4 0.11 4.7
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T9: 2.5 t RB ha-1 0.70 29.4 0.46 19.3 1.69 71.0 0.13 5.5
+N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T10: 2.5 t RB ha-1 0.85 40.8 0.41 19.7 2.13 102.2 0.16 7.7
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
T11: 5.0 t RB ha-1 0.91 39.1 0.43 18.5 1.83 78.7 0.14 6.0
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T12: 5.0 t RB ha-1 0.95 45.6 0.49 23.5 1.89 90.7 0.17 8.2
+ N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T13: 5.0 t RB ha-1 0.98 47.0 0.52 25.0 2.30 110.4 0.22 10.6
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
T14: 7.5 t RB ha-1 0.93 46.5 0.40 20.0 2.00 100.0 0.20 10.0
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T15: 7.5 t RB ha-1 0.96 55.7 0.61 35.4 2.05 118.9 0.22 12.8
+ N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T16: 7.5 t RB ha-1 1.04 59.3 0.65 37.1 3.00 171.0 0.19 10.8
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
LSD at 5% 0.05 6.46 0.07 3.83 0.28 7.78 0.05 2.02
The concentration and uptake of nitrogen and here with in treatment, 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150
phosphorus in petiole ranged from 0.53 to 1.04 kg ha-1 for sulfur concentration.
and 0.14 to 0.65%, and 6.9 to 59.3 and 1.8 to 37.1
mg plant-1 petiole, respectively (Table 4). The (e) Concentration and uptake of NPKS in
highest values for both concentration and uptake inflorescence
of nitrogen and phosphorus were observed in the The concentration and uptake of NPKS in
same treatment, 7.5 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150kg ha-1. inflorescence of sunflower were improved due to
Like nitrogen and phosphorus, concentration and application of rice bran and NPK fertilizers in alone
uptake of potassium and sulfur in petiole of and various combinations. All the treatments
sunflower varied from 0.56 to 3.00% and 0.04 to increased the concentrations of NPKS in
0.22% and 7.3 to 171.0 and 0.5 to 12.8 mg plant-1 inflorescence of sunflower significantly (P<0.05)
petiole, respectively (Table 5). The highest values over the control (Table 5). Concentrations of
of concentration and uptake of potassium was NPKS increased with increasing doses of rice
found in same treatment, 7.5 t RB ha-1 + bran and NPK fertilizers. The differences between
N120P90K150 kg ha-1. The highest values of the treatments were identical in most of the
concentration and uptake of sulfur was found in cases.
same treatment, 7.5 t RB ha-1 + N80P60K100 kg ha-1

inflorescence of sunflower.
(%) (mg (mg (mg (mg
T2: 2.5 t RB ha-1 0.39 20.7 0.16 8.5 1.02 54.1 0.11 5.8
T3: 5.0 t RB ha-1 0.58 50.5 0.18 15.7 1.16 100.9 0.15 13.1
T4: 7.5 t RB ha-1 0.62 70.1 0.22 24.9 1.28 144.6 0.16 18.1
T5: N40P30K50 kg ha-1 1.42 132.1 0.27 25.1 1.40 130.2 0.06 5.6
T6: N80P60K100 kg ha-1 1.49 178.8 0.30 36.0 1.48 177.6 0.05 6.0
T7: N120P90K150 kg ha-1 1.55 227.9 0.37 54.4 1.56 229.3 0.07 10.3
T8: 2.5 t RB ha-1 1.62 252.7 0.34 53.3 1.44 224.6 0.13 20.3
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T9: 2.5 t RB ha-1 1.70 287.3 0.39 65.9 1.52 256.9 0.14 23.7
+N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T10: 2.5 t RB ha-1 1.82 314.9 0.43 74.4 1.61 278.5 0.17 29.4
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
T11: 5.0 t RB ha-1 1.87 237.5 0.40 50.8 1.57 199.4 0.18 22.9
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T12: 5.0 t RB ha-1 1.88 287.6 0.45 68.9 1.63 249.4 0.19 29.1
+ N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T13: 5.0 t RB ha-1 2.03 365.4 0.52 93.6 1.71 307.8 0.23 41.4
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
T14: 7.5 t RB ha-1 2.12 360.4 0.48 81.6 1.91 324.7 0.22 37.4
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T15: 7.5 t RB ha-1 2.14 256.8 0.54 64.8 2.09 250.8 0.25 30.0
+ N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T16: 7.5 t RB ha-1 2.16 330.5 0.58 88.7 2.21 338.1 0.26 39.8
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
LSD at 5% 0.05 27.45 0.05 7.28 0.05 29.95 0.43 3.60
Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations of of NPKS in seed of sunflower significantly

inflorescence ranged from 0.36 to 2.16% and (P<0.05) over the control (Table 6).
0.09 to 0.58%, respectively. The highest values Concentrations of NPKS increased with
were recorded in the same treatment 7.5 t RB ha-1 increasing doses of rice bran and NPK fertilizers.
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1. The values of uptake of The differences between the treatments were
nitrogen and phosphorus varied from 14.4 to identical in most of the cases. Nitrogen and
365.4 and 3.6 to 93.6 mg inflorescence plant-1, phosphorus concentrations and uptakes of seed
respectively (Table 6). The highest uptake of showed a variation between 3.17 to 5.24 and 0.43
nitrogen and phosphorus were recorded in same to 0.83%, and 231.4 to 2396.6 and 31.4 to 345.0
treatment, 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1. mg plant-1 seed, respectively. The highest values
Potassium and sulfur concentrations were found of nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations were
to vary from 0.75 to 2.21% and 0.05 to 0.26%, recorded in the treatments, 5.0 t RB ha-1 +
respectively (Table 5). Potassium and sulfur N120P90K150 kg ha-1 and 7.5 t RB ha-1, respectively.
uptakes were found to range between 30.0 to Similarly, the maximum values of uptake for both
338.1 and 2.0 to 41.4 mg plant-1, respectively the nutrients were observed in the same
(Table 5). Highest values of both concentrations treatment, 7.5 t RB ha-1 + N80P60K100 kg ha-1.
and uptakes of potassium and concentration of Concentrations and uptakes of potassium and
sulfur of inflorescence were being recorded in the sulfur in seeds of sunflower varied between 0.57
same treatment, 7.5 t RB ha-1 + N120P90K150 kg ha-1 and 1.60, and 0.13 and 0.47%; 41.6 and 547.2 and
and that of uptake of sulfur in 5.0 t RB ha-1 + 9.5 and 115.0 mg plant-1 seed, respectively (Table
N120P90K150 kg ha-1 treatment. 6). The highest values were observed in
treatment, 2.5 t RB ha-1, and 5.0 t RB ha-1; and
(f) Concentration and uptake of NPKS in seed 2.5t RB ha-1 + N40P30K50 kg ha-1 and 7.5 t RB ha-1 +
The concentrations of NPKS in seed of sunflower N80P60K100 kg ha-1, respectively.
were improved due to application of rice bran and
NPK fertilizers in alone and various combinations.
All the treatments increased the concentrations

Table 6. Effects of rice bran compost and NPK fertilizers on the concentration and uptake of NPKS
and oil and protein content in seeds of sunflower.
Treatments Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Sulfur Oil Protein
Conc. Uptake Conc. Uptake Conc. Uptake Conc. Uptake Con content
(%) (mg (%) (mg (%) (mg (%) (mg tent
(%) (%)
T1: Control (-RB and -NPK) 3.17 231.4 0.43 31.4 0.57 41.6 0.13 9.5 40.5 18.9
T2: 2.5 t RB ha-1 3.21 343.5 0.53 56.7 1.60 171.2 0.22 23.5 39.0 19.8
T3: 5.0 t RB ha-1 3.23 474.8 0.68 100.0 1.39 204.3 0.47 69.1 44.8 20.0
T4: 7.5 t RB ha-1 3.27 631.1 0.83 160.2 1.14 220.0 0.23 44.4 43.7 21.2
T5: N40P30K50 kg ha-1 3.26 740.0 0.52 118.0 1.11 252.0 0.22 49.9 45.4 21.3
T6: N80P60K100 kg ha-1 3.27 981.0 0.57 171.0 1.11 333.0 0.21 63.0 45.2 21.7
T7: N120P90K150 kg ha-1 3.29 987.0 0.68 204.0 1.15 345.0 0.14 42.0 43.0 22.2
T8: 2.5 t RB ha-1 3.39 1196.7 0.64 225.9 1.55 547.2 0.19 67.1 44.8 23.6
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T9: 2.5 t RB ha-1 3.86 1389.6 0.72 259.2 1.06 381.6 0.23 82.8 45.3 27.4
+N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T10: 2.5 t RB ha-1 4.04 1587.7 0.78 306.5 1.01 396.9 0.18 70.7 47.1 26.7
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
T11: 5.0 t RB ha-1 4.34 1532.0 0.65 229.5 1.15 406.0 0.19 67.1 48.7 27.9
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T12: 5.0 t RB ha-1 4.46 1306.8 0.75 219.8 0.96 281.3 0.19 55.7 45.2 33.9
+ N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T13: 5.0 t RB ha-1 5.24 1991.2 0.82 311.6 1.15 437.0 0.29 110.2 51.1 31.0
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
T14: 7.5 t RB ha-1 4.34 1562.4 0.69 248.4 1.39 500.4 0.22 79.2 43.8 30.5
+ N40P30K50 kg ha-1
T15: 7.5 t RB ha-1 5.21 2396.6 0.75 345.0 1.15 529.0 0.25 115.0 49.8 28.9
+ N80P60K100 kg ha-1
T16: 7.5 t RB ha-1 4.34 1245.6 0.64 183.7 1.25 358.8 0.23 66.0 46.3 25.8
+ N120P90K150 kg ha-1
LSD at 5% 0.46 31.05 0.05 30.49 0.26 31.95 0.14 9.32 1.30 4.42
These findings are in consistent with the content of sunflower seeds significantly (P< 0.05)
observations of Badar and Qureshi (2014) who over the control except in treatment, 2.5 t ha-1
reported that composted rice husk improved RB (Table 6). Results showed that all the
mineral nitrogen and phosphorus contents of treatments increased the oil content of seed
sunflower plants. Yankaraddi et al. (2009) also following the increase of rice bran and NPK
showed that application of FYM @ 10 t ha-1 + rice fertilizers except 2.5 t ha-1 RB. The variations
hull ash @ 2 t ha-1 + 100% RDF recorded the among the treatments were found to be
highest nutrient content (2.51% N, 0.61% P and significant in most of the cases. The highest
2.91% K) and nutrient uptake (170.66 N, 41.14 P (51.1%) content of oil was observed in 5.0 t RB ha-
and 209.76 K kg ha-1) in rice plant. In this 1 + N
120P90K150 kg ha
-1 treatment. The lowest
context, Akter et al. (2017), further, reported that (39.0%) content of oil was observed in 2.5 t RB
the primary nutrition (NPK) of rice had better ha-1 treatment that the value was lower than
response in saline soil, which received rice hull, control treatment.
rice straw and saw dust. Marr and Cresser (1983)
concluded that the typical concentrations of These results are in agreement with the finding of
elements in dried healthy foliage are N 0.8-3.0%, Rasool et al. (2013) reported that application of
K 0.5-2.5%, Ca 1.5-2.8%, Mg 0.15-0.45%, P 0.08- organic manure @ 10 and 20 t ha-1 increased the
0.35%, Fe 40-150 mg kg-1, Mn 30-100 mg kg-1, B oil yield of sunflower by 11 and 5.4%, respectively,
10-50 mg kg-1, Cu 5-12 mg kg-1, Zn 30-200 mg kg- over no application of FYM. The author, further,
1 and Mo 0.1-1.5 mg kg-1. The result of the revealed that with increased N dose, the oil
concentration of N, P and K of the present content consistently decreased but the oil yield of
experiment are in agreement with Marr and sunflower improved by the application of FYM
Cresser (1983). with N in two experiments. Similarly, Mahrous et
al. (2014) reported that, there were no significant
(g) Oil and protein content in seed effect of the interaction between the varieties and
various form of fertilizers (organic, bio and
Application of rice bran and NPK fertilizers at mineral) application in most of the studied traits
different combinations influenced on the oil except in seed oil content of sunflower.

Protein content of sunflower seed also showed Bouyoucos, G.J. 1962. Hydrometer method
almost similar trend as in case of oil (Table 6). improved for making particle size analysis of
The treatments showed a gradual increase in soils. Agron. J. 54: 461-465.
protein content with the increase of doses of both https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1962.0002196200
the rice bran and NPK fertilizers. Six treatments 5400050028x
namely 2.5 t RB ha-1, 5.0 t RB ha-1, 7.5 t RB ha-1, Jackson, M.L. 1958. Soil Chemical Analysis.
N40P30K50 kg ha-1, N80P60K100 kg ha-1 and Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood cliffs, N.J.
N120P90K150 kg ha-1 showed not significant USA. p. 498.
decrease in protein content when compared with Mahapatra, B.S. and Sharma, G.L. 1989.
the control. However, the rest of the treatments Integrated management of Sesbania, Azolla
significantly (P<0.05) increased the protein and urea nitrogen in low land rice- wheat
content of sunflower seeds. The highest (33.9%) cropping system. J. Agric. Sci. 113: 203-206.
and the lowest (18.9%) contents of protein were https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859600086779
recorded in 5.0 t RB ha-1 + N80P60K100 kg ha-1 and Mahrous, N.M., Ragab, A.A., Abotaleb, H.H.,
control treatments, respectively. Moreover, the Taha, M.H. and El-Metwally, M.S. 2014.
variations among the treatments were found to Effect of inorganic, organic and bio-
be insignificant in most of the treatments as far fertilizers on yield and yield components of
as protein content was concerned. These findings sunflower under newly reclaimed soils. J.
agreed well with Badar and Qureshi (2014) who Plant Prod. Mansoura Univ. 5(3): 427-441.
reported that decomposed rice husk improved https://doi.org/10.21608/jpp.2014.53660
total carbohydrate and protein contents of Marr, I.L. and Cresser, M.S. 1983. The
sunflower, which may be due to improvement in lithosphere. In: Environmental Chemical
availability in nitrogen in soil. Similar Analysis. Blackie & Son LTD. UK. pp. 155-
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et al. (2014). Moyin-Jesu, E.I. 2015. Use of different organic
fertilizers on soil fertility improvement,
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Factors influencing adoption of high tunnels for tomato production in

northeast district, Botswana
Dandy Badimo
ABSTRACT
The study was carried out to investigate constraints and determinants of high tunnels
adoption for tomato production in the North-East District of Botswana, using household
survey data sourced directly from 116 horticultural farmers during the months of May and
June 2017. Descriptive statistics and a binary probit regression model were employed to
analyze constraints and determinants of high tunnels adoption for tomato production. The
prohibitive cost of high tunnels, inadequate knowledge on high tunnels, inadequate capital
and markets were identified as major constraints that hinder high tunnels adoption. The
adoption of high tunnels was found to be positively influenced by years of education, access
to extension services and farm size. The findings suggest that encouraging tunnel designers
to consider constructing the structure using local materials could be ideal to cut down on the
startup cost. Strengthening extension service and re-engineering of the current extension
system is necessary to improve the adoption rate of the technology.
Keywords: Botswana, High tunnels technology, Probit model, Tomato.
Okavango Research Institute, University of Botswana, Maun, Botswana. Private Bag 285 Maun, Botswana
*Corresponding author’s email: dbadimo@gmail.com (Dandy Badimo)
Cite this article as: Badimo, D. 2020. Factors influencing adoption of high tunnels for tomato production in
northeast district, Botswana. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 100-109.
Introduction
High tunnels are plastic-covered, passive solar Botswana, tomato demand is estimated at 12 000
heated houses used to modify the growing tonnes per month, however, local productivity
environment (Wells and Loy, 1993; Carey et al., range from 60 -100 tons per hectare depending
2009; O’Connell et al., 2012). There are various on the variety and related production conditions
types of high tunnels depending on the frame (Disele, 2018), and this does not satisfy local
structure, material of the frame and the covering demand. Currently, local production only affords
material. The benefits associated with high to meet approximately 40% of horticultural
tunnels include opportunities for season produce demand (LEA, 2015).
extension, improved yield, and quality, crop risk
reduction (weather and diseases related risk) and The sluggish growth and unsustainable
intensive production capabilities on the limited commercial production of tomatoes result from
land area (Waterer, 2003; O’Connell et al., 2012; the shortness of the growing season and erratic
Drost and Wytsalucy 2014). High tunnel weather conditions in Botswana (Baliyan, 2014).
technology has proved to be a viable alternative The situation is further exacerbated by climate
to open-field tomato production. change (World Economic Forum, 2016; Field et
al., 2014); henceforth production in an open field
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is one of has become a challenge. Tomato is a warm-
the main economic crops in the world. It is a season crop and cannot stand severe frost. For
versatile fruit consumed in diverse ways that reason, in Botswana, the open field tomato
including raw (salads), as an ingredient in many production period runs from October to March.
dishes and sauces, making it the most consumed However, the upward demands for year-round
fruit in the world. In Africa, for instance, in 2013, tomatoes have created a huge deficit. This has
the tomato was the most produced vegetable at compelled the country to import substantial
19.1 Metric Tonnes (MT) (FAO, 2013). In amounts of tomatoes, specifically from South
Badimo (2020) Factors influencing adoption of high tunnels for tomato production in Botswana
Africa, to meet the country's demand (DAFF, constraints paradigms (Ibrahim et al., 2012;
2017). Botswana's unfavourable climatic Ramaeker et al., 2013; Kassa et al., 2014). The
conditions have prompted exploring other innovation diffusion model, following from the
farming systems for tomato production to keep work of Rogers, holds that access to information
up with the increasing demand. As a result, high about the innovation is the key factor
tunnels were introduced around 2005 in determining the adoption decision. Nonetheless,
Botswana. Subsequently, the government of the paradigm has previously been criticized as
Botswana, in support of the technology, being "top-down" in orientation and thus lacking
established a protected farming (greenhouse, consideration for farm variables in its packaging
high tunnel, net shade) incubator for tomato (Roling, 1988). On the other hand, the economic
production in Glenn Valley in 2011 providing constraint paradigm hypothesizes that
training as a way to facilitate the rollout of the asymmetrical distribution pattern of resource
technology (LEA, 2015). endowments are the major determinants of
observed adoption behaviour (Aikens et al.,
Despite the benefits associated with high tunnels 1975). The strength of the economic paradigm is
and the establishment of a protected farming the recognition of the importance of profitability
incubator for tomato production by the and economic constraints to explain adoption
government seven years ago, there is still low behaviour, but it fails to recognize less tangible
adoption of the technology. This has resulted in factors such as personal motivation or peer
the stagnation of tomato value chain pressure (Prager and Posthumus, 2010).
development and bloated import bill of fresh
tomatoes and associated products. The import Another paradigm gaining attention is the
bill for fresh tomatoes in 2014 and 2015 was BWP 'adopter perception' paradigm in agricultural
32, 882,917.00 and BWP 33, 851,680.00 (1BWP economics (Apata, 2011; Murage et al., 2015).
= 0.097 U$D), respectively (Statistics Botswana, This paradigm argues that the perceived
2016a). These drain the foreign exchange attributes of innovations influence adoption
earnings and reverse government efforts to behaviour. Perception is determined by personal
diversify the agricultural sector. Furthermore, factors as well as physical factors of the land and
high dependence on imports also makes the institutional factors (Aubert et al., 2013. This
industry susceptible to international shocks. study blended the three paradigms to reduce
biasness in explaining the adoption decision of
Previous studies carried out in Botswana have high tunnels.
mostly focused on horticulture productivity of
open-field production systems and experimental Particular to the current study, the framework
studies of protected farming performance at hypothesized relationships among variables
research centres and schools (Baliyan, 2014; assumed to influence the adoption of the high
Baliyan and Rao, 2013; Madisa, 2012). The tunnels technology based on the theoretical and
studies paid less attention to the awareness and empirical review of relevant literature. Several
adoption of the technologies at the farm level. factors have been found to influence the adoption
Therefore, there was a need for novel research to of new technologies. These factors have been
investigate why there is low adoption of the high classified general into four broad categories
tunnels technology in North East District, namely; socio-economic, institutional,
Botswana. The overall objective of the study was environmental and farmers perception on
to contribute to the understanding of the agricultural technology (Howley and Heanue,
adoption process of the high tunnels technology 2012; Ibrahim et al., 2012; D’Antoni et al., 2012;
for tomato production to inform future actions Aubert et al., 2013; Kassa et al., 2014). Specific
and promotional strategies. The study findings factors that consistently surface from various
will aid the refocusing of associated policy thrust literatures as key determinates include
and research. The main aim of the study is demographic factors such as gender, education,
consistent with key development strategies for age, experience, and marriage status (Aubert et
achieving food security and promoting al., 2013; Labaran, 2015). Other factors are land
sustainable agriculture. Besides, the findings will size, wealth or asset accumulation, in-farm, and
assist in bridging the information gap associated on-farm income, access to extension services,
with high tunnels adoption in the North East input and output market access, credit facilities,
District with potential spillover to other districts. land tenure system as well as information and
communication infrastructure (Al-Shadiadeh et
Theoretical and conceptual framework al., 2012; Kassa et al., 2014; Manda et al., 2016).
Since the classic work of Rogers (1962), there Nevertheless, this study was limited to farm size,
have been progressive efforts to explain head of household education, age, gender,
innovations diffusion and technology adoption. occupation, farmer’s experience, access to
Two commonly reiterated paradigms in literature extension, access to credit, and distance to the
are innovation diffusion and economic market.
Materials and Methods 30oC in summer (Department of Meteorological

Services, 2017). Annual average rainfall in the
Study area district ranges between 400 mm (in the south)
North East District is the second smallest district and 500 mm (in the north) and the raining
in the country but the second principal period is around October to March (North-East
horticultural district in Botswana (Fig. 1). The District Development Plan 6, 2004).
district lies between 27'15 and 28 East (longitude) The district is mainly characterized by well
and 20'30 and 21'25 South (latitude) (North-East drained to moderately deep silty sands and sandy
District Development Plan 6, 2004). It covers a clays (Ranganai et al., 2015). The district is
total area of 5 120 km2, with a population of 167 regarded as a principal horticultural area in
500 (Central Statistics Office, 2011). Agriculture Botswana because of its positioning as it lies
is the predominant economic activity in the between two rivers, Shashe and Ramokgwebana,
district, with a large number of households which are the main sources of water for
participating in horticulture, pastoral farming horticultural production and the majority of the
and/or rain-fed arable farming. Other economic farms in the district are located adjacent to these
activities include transport and communication, rivers. North East District is second after Central
finance, public administration, and District (Tuli to be specific) in tomato production
manufacturing. (Statistics Botswana, 2016b). As of 2011, the
The minimum and maximum temperatures in the district had a total of 271 horticultural farmers
district are 5oC and 23oC in winter, and 17oC and (Central Statistics Office, 2011).
Fig.1. Map showing the location of the North East District in Botswana.
Source: North East District Development Plan
Data and sampling procedures

that influence its adoption. The questionnaire
The study was a cross-sectional survey, which included both open and closed-ended questions
implied that data was collected at one point in to avoid restricting the participants’ answers. For
time. The data was collected from 2nd May to 5th the key informants’ interviews, Agribusiness
June 2017. Two data collection methods were officers in the district, Local Enterprise Authority
employed, namely key informants interviews (LEA, Glenn Valley), and National Agricultural
(KIIs) and household surveys (HHS). The Processing (NAPRO) officers were purposively
household survey entailed administering a pre- chosen to have an in-depth discussion on issues
tested questionnaire to sampled horticultural important to the study for triangulation purpose.
farmers in the district with the help of trained A list of questions was prepared focusing mainly
enumerators. The questionnaire was sub-divided on extension services and information
into two sections; section A mainly focused on dissemination strategies concerning high tunnels
general demographic characteristics of the technology, to assist in obtaining necessary data
respondents. Section B covered questions related from the officers.
to high tunnels adoption and associated factors
A stratified random sampling technique was Where;

employed to select participants for the study.
Horticultural farmers in the district were Yi* is a latent variable, is an index of unobserved
segregated into two strata, non-tunnels adopters variables associated with perceived net benefits
and tunnels adopters. Guided by the United of the high tunnels technology. X ik is a vector of
Nations' (2005) handbook for designing
household survey samples, a total of 85 non- farmer’s characteristics and  i is the error term
adopters were randomly sampled and for high which is independently distributed random
tunnels adopters, a census of 31 farmers was variable with a mean of zero.
carried out due to their small number (Only
A latent variable is unobservable, but a choice
26.7% of the farmers had adopted the high
made by the individual i can be related to the
tunnels as of 2017). Overall, 116 farmers
actual decision taken by the farmer upon
participated in the survey.
observing the discrete choice made as, Yi takes
Analytical framework and empirical two values, specified as:
model specification
1, Y *  0
Descriptive statistics, Chi-square analysis, t-test,  i
and regression analysis were suitable to analyze Yi  (2)
the quantitative data collected from the survey. 0, Yi *  0
Qualitative analysis was imperative in addressing 
the open-ended questionnaire, especially from
Yi = 1 (if farmer i adopts) and Yi = 0 (if farmer i
key informants’ interviews. Statistical Package for
does not adopt). The dependent variable is the
Social Science (SPSS) version 21 and Stata were
adoption decision, assuming the value 1 or 0. The
used for analysis.
value 1 indicates a farmer who has adopted the
Empirical model specification high tunnels with an expectation of positive net
benefits whilst 0 represents those who expect the
A probit model was employed to identify factors negative net benefit, non-adopter. Adopters were
influencing the adoption of high tunnels defined as those farmers that have erected high
technology. Besides the probit model another tunnels and started production under the
commonly used dichotomous model for structure for at least the past six months, while
technology adoption is a logit model. The logit non-adopters were defined as those farmers that
model is highly preferred when dealing with a do not have the structure and undertook tomato
large sample size because of its flexibility production in an open field.
(Hosmer and Lemeshow, 2000). However, the
two models are equally appropriate in analyzing Thus, the model is expressed as follows in terms
cross-sectional data with a binary dependent of probability formula:
variable and usually give identical results and a
significant difference between the two models is Yi = 1, Yi = 0, i = 1,2,3.......116
attached to their tails (Gujarati, 2004).
Therefore, based on literature, sample size,
nature of the data and trial results from the two
if  
Pr Yi = 1 X = Pr Y *  0 X  
models, the probit model was chosen. There were
two alternatives, the farmer has either adopted or

Pr(1) = Pr X i  +  i  0 X
'
 (3)
not adopted the high tunnel technology. An Pr(1) = Pr i  − X i  

individual i decide to adopt a high tunnel if the Pr(1) =  ( X i ) given  =1
perceived net benefit associated with adoption
choice is higher than the net benefit associated Where  is the cumulative distribution function
with the decision not to adopt. The perceived net of standard normal distribution. β is the
benefit by individual ith is usually expressed as parameters that are estimated by the maximum
the latent model, as shown below: likelihood method and X′ is a vector of exogenous
variables that explains the adoption of high
Yi =  0 + 1 X i1 + ...... +  k X ik +  i ;  i = iidN (0, 2 ) (1)
*
tunnels.
i = 1, 2, 3…116 Therefore, the empirical model was specified as
follows:
HTAdoption =  o +  1 FarmSiz +  2 DstMrkt +  3 FarmerOcc +  4 NoEduYrs
+  5 Male +  6 AcCredit +  7 AccEXT +  8 FamExp +  9 Midaged +  10 Oldaged +  i (4)
Where: HT adoption is High tunnel technology adoption, FarmSiz is farmer size, FarmerOcc is farmer
occupation, AcCredit is access to credit, AccEXT is access to extension, FamExp is farmer experience, and
Midaged is middle-aged.
To get a sensible interpretation of coefficients of addition, the results indicated that the majority
independent variables related to the adoption of (61.2%) of tomato growers was married and this
high tunnel technology, the marginal effects were was true for high tunnels adopters at 20.7%.
computed. The marginal effect of a variable is the Marital status and the high tunnels adoption
effect of unit change of that variable on the status were found to be correlated at a 10%
 
probability of Pr Yi = 1 X , given that other significance level. High tunnels adopters were
secondary and tertiary graduates at 12.9% and
variables are kept constant. 13.8%, respectively. A chi-square test revealed
The marginal effect is expressed as that there was a positive association between the
high tunnels adoption status and education at a
E  i 
Y 1% significance level. Furthermore, it is
 Pr (Yi = 1 X i )  X i  imperative to note that middle-aged (36-59
= =  ( X i ) years) farmers in the study area at 67.2%
X i X i (5) dominated tomato production and the least
(11.2%) were in the age bracket of over 60 years
Results and Discussion of age.
Respondents’ demographic profile The study revealed that 54.3% of farmers were
Approximately 2.5% and 4.0% of farmers had disadvantaged when it comes to access to credit.
adopted the technology in 2010 and 2012, The majority cited a lack of collateral while others
respectively and thereafter following the simply feared the risk associated with credit.
establishment of the protected farming incubator Moreover, subscription to group membership
by LEA in 2011, the number has grown was very low, with only 39.9% subscripted.
significantly. Male farmers were dominant Farmers pointed out that in the past, farmers’
tomato producers (69%) in the district. associations were plagued by disloyalty and
Nonetheless, female farmers had a slight edge in embezzlement of funds, and that led to the
high tunnels tomato production, with almost 15% groups collapsing. Lack of transparency in
of females partaking in the technology compared activities, cash transactions and poor social
to 12% males. The Chi-square statistic shows that cohesion within the association was reiterated as
there was an association between gender and the common problems.
type of farming at a 1% significance level. In
Table 1. Summary statistics of adopters and non-adopter of high tunnel technology.
Variables Type of farmer N Mean Std. Dev Min Max P-value
Farm size (Ha) Adopters 31 5.52 1.04 3.50 8.00 0.001***
Non-adopters 85 4.53 3.11 0.86 8.60
Land allocated to Adopters 31 0.17 0.07 0.03 0.24 0.000***
tomato (Ha) Non-adopters 85 0.34 0.17 0.06 1.00
Distance to the Adopters 30 43.37 20.02 3.00 58.00 0.395
market (km) Non-adopters 72 45.62 13.72 22.00 70.00
Age of head of Adopters 31 41.71 7.36 34.00 60.00 0.035**
household Non-adopters 85 46.87 12.69 22.00 68.00
Farmer Experience Adopters 31 4.03 1.87 1.00 9.00 0.003***
Non-adopters 85 6.58 4.46 0.00 16.00
No of Extension Adopters 31 4.03 3.01 0.00 8.00 0.247
visits Non-adopters 84 3.25 3.27 0.00 10.00
Annual farm Adopters 31 218 80 850.73 75 114 358 246 0.000***
Income 506.19 473 306
(BWPula) Non-adopters 85 119 98 618.83 14 500
266.48
Source: Survey result, 2017 asterisks*, ** and*** significant level at 10, 5 and 1 %, respectively
High tunnels adopters had relatively larger plots income for high tunnels adopters approximately
than non-adopters, with a mean farm size of 5.52 two times that of non-adopters.
ha for high tunnels adopters but the mean area of
land allocated to tomato production by high Constraints that hinder adoption of high
tunnel adopters was less than for open-field tunnels
farmers. In that regard, the findings show that Farmers reiterated prohibitive cost of the high
open field uses more land for tomato production tunnel, lack of technical knowledge, lack of access
than the high tunnel technology. Annual farm to credit and market inadequacy as key
income and farmer experience were also constraints that hinder high technology adoption.
statistically different at 1%, with average farm
The majority of the farmers (53.8%) indicated the technology mainly from South Africa. These
that the cost of high tunnels was one of the major make the investment in the technology trick
constraints (Fig. 2). High tunnel technology especially for medium and small scale farmers
inclusive of complementary inputs requires who are financially challenged. Majority of the
significant (if not huge) start-up capital that farmers cannot meet the collateral requirement
making the technology unaffordable especially by financial institutions for credit qualification.
for smallholders. An average price for a single Cremades et al. (2015) emphasized that
tunnel was BWP 66 508.03 (U$D 6451.28), with appropriate financial assistance is key in the
the least cost of BWP 50 000 (U$D 4850). The adoption of modern technology by farmers.
cost is further exacerbated by external sourcing of
Poor Prices
Inadequate land
Insufficient markets
Inadequate capital
Inadequate knowledge
High cost of high tunnel
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Percentage
Fig. 2. Factors that hinder the adoption of high tunnel.
Note: Frequency totals are more than 100% due to multiple responses
Yet the majority (89.66%) of the farmers was far less than the local production and only
indicated that they were aware of the production one Botswana horticulture market outlet was
system, half of the farmer’s reiterated lack of operational. The same problem was revealed by
knowledge especially the management of crops Farida and Fariya (2014), in Ghana as a major
under high tunnels production system. The marketing constraint for tomato producers.
sampled farmers expressed challenges of disease Farmers also expressed their dissatisfaction
and pests control such as fungus and nematodes. regarding high volumes of fresh tomatoes from
Surprisingly tunnels adopters also reiterated the South Africa even when the local produce was in
same, especially the know-how on the abundance by big retails and chain stores
management of tomato under tunnels, hence operating in the country.
during the outbreak of leaf miner (Tuta
absoluta), the farmers were also hit hard. Farmers in the district also attributed low
Bhatnagar (2014) revealed that protected farming adoption of the technology to lack of collateral
in India remains accessible to a few farmers and decried stringent credit terms and conditions
although subsidies may cover 50 to 90% of initial at financial institutions. Small scale farmers
investment partly due to lack of information. This therefore largely depended on their meagre
emphasized the pivotal role of training, teaching, resources which in most cases are not adequate to
and establishment of technology information- purchase such technology. Farmers were less
sharing platforms to expedite technology impressed by financial assistance offered by the
adoption. government especially that the sub-sector is
considered to be a potential economic diversifier.
Lack of a well-developed value chain or market Other factors indicated by farmers include
for tomatoes makes farmers sceptic to invest in inadequate land and poor prices.
such a relatively costly technology, with no
assurance or certainty on produce absorption by Determinants of high tunnel technology
the market. Currently, there are no tomato value- adoption
adding industries in the country. The newly The binary probit model was estimated with
established processing plant demanded only 32 robust standard errors to correct for
tonnes per month of tomatoes as of 2017, which heteroscedasticity and other misspecification
problems since the data used in estimation were experience was estimated to decrease the
from a cross-sectional survey. As a rule of thumb, probability of adopting high tunnel technology by
values of variance inflation factor (VIF) of greater 2.3% (P>0.05), holding other things constant.
than 10 are regarded as a signal for the existence Farmers who adopted high tunnels were less
of a severe multicollinearity problem in experienced in comparison to non-adopters. This
regression models (Gujarati, 2004). The model might be derived from the fact that as a farmer
had a mean VIF of 5.75 and no correlations were gains experience in a given production system,
noticeable from the correlation matrix, hence experimenting with the system is common,
concluding that multicollinearity was not a leading to modify it to suit them, hence more
problem. experienced farmers are more comfortable and
resist switching to innovations. Experienced
A glance at Table 2 attested the model farmers often receive any radical innovation with
significance at 1% level, with the log-likelihood scepticism, as they are often wary of a system or
function Chi-squared value of 58.68. This meant technology that is different from the one they are
that the model adequately explained the familiar with. This means that the risk aversion
relationships between the dependent and factors increase with increase inexperience. The
independent variables. Consequently, the same was revealed by Mwangi (2012) who noted
hypothesis that the adoption of high tunnels is that more experienced farmers were negatively
not influenced by farm size, head of household's associated with the adoption of greenhouse
education, occupation, farmer's experience, and tomato farming.
access to extension, access to credit, age gender
and distance to the market was rejected at Medium size farms (5-10 ha) allow for the
0.01significance level. It implies that all installation of such big structures and still have
explanatory variables included in the model enough space for other crops, this is in assent
jointly influence the adoption of high tunnels with the descriptive results, as high tunnels
technology in the study area. adopters had larger farms compared to their open
field counterparts. Usually, such technology
Another indicator of the model’s overall fit was comes with complementary inputs such as a
the estimated value of McFadden pseudo-R2 of fertigation system, which allows for efficient
0.621, which considering the cross-sectional application of fertilizer and more land is required
nature of the data indicated that the model had to accommodate the whole technology. The
fair predictive power. findings are in line with various authors
As expected, the regression results (Table 2) including Asfaw et al. (2016), Abara and Singh
showed that farm size, years of education, and (1993) and Akudugu et al. (2012). This presents a
access to extension had a positive and significant serious challenge for the adoption of modern
relationship with the probability of adopting the agricultural production technologies in the study
high tunnel technology. However, the farmer’s area because the majority of farm households in
experience had a negative relationship with the the district operate on a small scale with average
probability of high tunnel adoption. The results farm sizes hardly exceeding five hectares.
show that an additional increase in farming
Table 2. Factors influencing the adoption of high tunnel.
Probit regression Robust Marginal effects
Variables Coef. Std. Err. dy/dx Std. Err. P>z
High Tunnels Adopters
Farm size 0.271 0.121 0.045** 0.020 0.026
Education (No of Years) 0.175 0.064 0.029* 0.016 0.061
Occupation (Farming=1) 0.018 0.750 0.003 0.127 0.981
Farm Experience -0.140 0.080 -0.023** 0.011 0.034
Extension service (Yes=1) 1.473 0.417 0.368** 0.151 0.015
Access to Credit (Yes=1) 0.617 0.545 0.107 0.074 0.145
Middle Aged (36-59) 1.066 0.422 0.144 0.091 0.112
Old Aged (>60) 1.184 0.857 0.320 0.262 0.222
Log_Distance to Markets -0.301 0.322 -0.050 0.051 0.327
Gender (Male=1) -0.705 0.444 -0.140 0.099 0.158
Constant -3.414 1.334
No of Obs (n) 116
Wald chi2(10) 58.68
Prob > chi2 0.000
Pseudo R2 0.612
Log pseudolikelihood -26.102
Source: Survey result, 2017 asterisks* and** significant level at 10 and 5 %, respectively.
Years of education and farm size are estimated to tunnels technology information dissemination
increase the probability of adopting high tunnels through short courses, workshops, and in-field
by 2.9%, and 4.5%, respectively, holding other training in the district and country would be
things constant. It is worth to note that high ideal.
education is assumed to relax the complexity
perception of new technologies and as argued by The study further suggests that tunnel designers
Caswell et al. (2001) and Lapar and Ehui (2004), should consider constructing the structure using
education creates a favourable mental attitude for local materials to cut down costs on the
the acceptance of new practices, especially technology, for instance using treated Eucalyptus
information-intensive and management- poles. This has been a success story in Kenya and
intensive practices. Therefore, farmers with more Nigeria, using a bamboo tree. In addition, both
years of education can comprehend better such the government and the private sector should
production technology and they are willing to establish value-adding industries to help create
invest in sustainable production systems than appealing and reliable markets for farmers and in
those with few years of education. The result is turn, can result in the adoption of such
consistent with findings by Cremades et al. production enhancing technologies like high
(2015), that farmers with a higher education level tunnels.
are more likely to adopt modern new A more intensive study using panel data is
technologies faster. suggested because adoption is a dynamic process
Access to the extension has been labelled as an that needs investigation over time, so a cross-
influential factor in various studies of new sectional study might not be sufficient.
technology adoption (Cremades et al., 2015 Kassa
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Study of pesticide use on bitter gourd production at Jashore district

P. Hajong1*, M.S. Rahman2, M.A. Islam3 and G.C. Biswas4
ABSTRACT
The study was designed to assess the extent of pesticide use and profitability of bitter gourd
production at farm level in selected areas of Jashore district during January-May, 2019.
Average farm size was 0.79 ha and average bitter gourd cultivated area per farmer was 0.07
ha. Most of the farmer cultivated local variety, which is called Gajkorola and some farmer
cultivated hybrid korola such as Gonggajoli, Tia and BARI Korola-1 variety. About ninety-
nine percent farmers sprayed insecticides and fungicides in their fields to protect crops from
different insect pests and diseases. Thirty-nine percent farmers used pheromone trap for
crop protection. A farmer averagely used 11.19 times spray in their fields and its range was 5-
18 times in a season. The average yield of bitter gourd was 16.74 t ha-1 for non-IPM farmer
and 16.16 t ha-1 for IPM farmer. The average total cost of production of bitter gourd was Tk.
203984 ha-1 for non-IPM farmer and Tk. 191246 ha-1 for IPM farmer. Gross return was Tk.
389705 ha-1 and net return was Tk. 185721 ha-1 for non-IPM farmer. While, gross return of
IPM farmer was Tk. 360828 ha-1 and net return was Tk. 169582 ha-1. Benefit cost ratio was
1.91 and 1.89 for non-IPM and IPM farmer, respectively that means bitter gourd production
was profitable. Cent percent farmer reported that IPM technology was time-consuming
method and it was not only the measures to protect pests.
Keywords: Pesticide, IPM technology, Bitter gourd, Cost and return.
1
Scientific Officer, Ag. Econ. Division, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Bangladesh Agricultural Research
Institute, Jashore, Bangladesh.
2
Principal Scientific officer, Ag. Econ. Division, Pulses Research Centre and Regional Agricultural Research Station,
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Ishwardi, Pabna, Bangladesh.
3
Scientific Officer, Entomology Division, ORC, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh.
4
Chief Scientific Officer, Farm Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author’s email: pradip.hajong@gmail.com (P. Hajong)
Cite this article as: Hajong, P., Rahman, M.S., Islam, M.A. and Biswas, G.C.2020. Study of pesticide use on
bitter gourd production at Jashore district. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 110-115.
Introduction
Bangladesh is primarily an agrarian economy. almost all the cucurbit vegetables. It is grown
Agriculture is the single largest producing sector extensively throughout the country round the
of economy. Farmers of Bangladesh are year. The nutritive value of bitter gourd in 100 g
producing a lot of vegetable and the minimum of edible portion are carbohydrate 4.2 g, calcium
recommended dietary allowance of vegetables per 20 mg, phosphorus 55 mg, protein 2.1 g and iron
capita per day is 300 g but its present availability 1.8 g. It is also rich in Vitamin A 210 IU and
is 166.1 g (NFPCSP, 2013). Vegetables are the Vitamin C 88 mg, which plays a vital role in
cheapest source of vitamins, minerals, salts and human nutrition (Singh and Kirtiraj, 2012).
proteins, which are essential elements for human Presently a large number of farmers in different
health. Therefore, it plays an important role in regions of Bangladesh are producing huge
balanced diet for human being as well as it acts as amount of vegetables by using eco-friendly
an income-generating source of the farmers. pheromone trap instead of harmful pesticides
Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) is one of and are being financially benefited by using the
the most popular cucurbitaceous vegetable in trap at lesser cost compared to that of using
Bangladesh for its nutritive and medicinal value pesticides (Anonymous, 2015). Although
(Islam et al., 2013). In Bangladesh summer pesticides may provide temporary relief, it is now
vegetable cultivated 1.27% of total cultivated area widely accepted that indiscriminate and excessive
(BBS, 2019) and among them bitter gourd was use of pesticides and the long-term dependency
important vegetable produced in this season. It is on them threaten the sustainability of
grown extensively throughout Bangladesh; the agricultural production. Indiscriminate use of
fruit is wormicidal and good for rheumatism. pesticides by farmers to control the pest has
Previously it was considered as homestead endangered the safety of the environment and
vegetable but now it is grown as field crop. The increased the chances of accumulation of
cucurbit fruit fly is a highly damaging pest of poisonous residues in the produce. It was
Hajong et al. (2020) Study of pesticide use on bitter gourd production at Jashore district
homestead vegetable in the past years but now it non-judicious use of insecticides is a concern due
is grown as field crop. It has great appeal to the to various potentially harmful health and
diabetes patient. They favor it for controlling environmental effects.
diabetes. Bitter gourd is relatively rich in food
value compared to other summer vegetable. The
60000.00
50000.00
Amount (MT)
40000.00
30000.00
20000.00
10000.00
0.00
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Year
Fig. 1. Annual consumption of pesticides in Bangladesh during 2007 to 2018.
Source: BBS, 2012 and BBS, 2019
In Bangladesh huge amount of pesticide used Sample size and sample selection
every year and it was 38691.86 MT during 2018
(BBS, 2019). Annual pesticide consumption was For present study 90 bitter gourd farmers from
three upazila of Jashore district namely Jashore
more or less same in every year (Fig. 1) and for sadar, Bagharpara and Jhikargacha upazila were
this reason huge amount of foreign currency was purposively selected for data collection. Thirty
spends for import of pesticide from different samples from each upazila were selected for the
countries. Pesticides include different present study. Although there were not sole IPM
insecticides (granular, liquid and powder), farmer, but two IPM farmer considered for data
miticide, fungicide (general, sulphur), herbicide collection from each upazila. IPM farmer also use
and rodenticide, which broadly used in pesticide in their fields. Data were collected from
Bangladesh. each farmer by the prepared questionnaire and
However, very few economic studies (Islam et al., descriptive and statistical method of analysis was
2013; Islam et al., 2017) were conducted on IPM followed.
technology on bitter gourd production. Some Analytical techniques
studies conducted on profitability of bitter gourd
production (Mila et al., 2015). Therefore, much Data were collected from each farmer by the
work is required to enhance the level of pesticide prepared questionnaire. Collected data were
edited, summarized, tabulated and analyzed to
use and draw backs of IPM technology in the fulfill the objectives of the study. Descriptive
study areas. Jashore is the vegetable growing area statistics using different statistical tools like
and grown all types of vegetable such as summer averages, percentages and ratios were used in
and winter vegetable were grown all over the presenting the results of the study. The
year. Among them bitter gourd is the important profitability of crop production was examined
vegetable crops grown in the summer season at based on gross return, gross margin and benefit
Jashore. In Jashore during 2018-19, the bitter cost ratio analysis. Land use cost was calculated
gourd area was 368.42 ha and production was based on per year value of land.
2868 MT (BBS, 2019). The present study
attempts to analyze the pesticide use on bitter Equations for profitability analysis
gourd production in Jashore District of Gross return, GRij = YijPij
Bangladesh. The specific objectives of the study
were as follows: i) to assess the level of pesticide Where,
use on bitter gourd production; ii) to estimate GRij= Gross return (Tk. ha-1)
cost and return of bitter gourd production; iii) to Yij= Quantity produced (Kg ha-1)
estimate the draw backs of use of IPM technology Pij= Price of jth crops received by ith farmer (Tk.
for bitter gourd production. ha-1)
Net return = gross return – total cost
Gross margin = gross return – variable cost
Benefit cost ratio, BCR = Gross return/Total cost
Results and Discussion percent. Again there also aged farmer involved in
the farming (age < 50 years). About seventeen
Socio-economic status, economic profitability percent farmer was old aged farmer (Table 1).
and use of pesticide on bitter gourd production Average family size was 5.00, which was equal to
were discussed below: national average. Majority farmers (81%) were
Socio-economic profile of the respondent literate and rest of the farmer (19%) can sign
farmers their name that means they were not illiterate
farmer. Most of the farmers’ main occupation was
Socio-economic profile of the respondent farmers agriculture and some has business and service.
is required to have an idea about the present farm Those farmer’s whose business and service was
activities, possible development opportunities main occupation, agriculture was their subsidiary
and potentials for more efficient farming. occupation. The average farming experience was
Therefore, information regarding respondents 21.10 years and average experience on bitter
age, education, occupation, family size, farm size, gourd cultivation was 6.88 years. About thirty-six
land use pattern and experience in cultivation percent farmers got training on agricultural crop
were recorded for the study. Major farmers of the production and other related training. Among the
study areas were experienced farmer and they farmers, twenty-one percent farmers got training
works in their farm by inheritance. Most of the from DAE and eighteen percent from research
farmers were young that means their age range institute (BARI).
were 31 to 50 years and it was about sixty-nine
Table 1. Socio-economic profile of the respondent farmers in the study areas.
Farmer attributes Categories Percentage of farmer
Age group (Year) >30 years 14.44
31-40 37.78
41-50 31.11
<50 years 16.67
Family member Male 39.71
Female 32.60
Children 27.70
Level of education Can sign 18.89
Primary 44.44
SSC 24.44
HSC and above 12.23
Source: Field data, 2019.
Land use pattern Extent of level of pesticide use

Most of the farmers more or less have their own Farmer used excessive insecticides and fungicides
land and some other farmer cultivate land by in bitter gourd fields to get better crops and good
share from other or mortgage from other farmer. yields. Farmer used pesticides which adoption
The average farm size was 0.79 ha (Table 2). was high in Jashore district (Hajong et al., 2018).
Average bitter gourd cultivated area per farmer Jashore farmer spends more pesticide (17.12%)
was 0.07 ha, which was only about nine percent on bitter gourd (Table 5) than summer tomato
of the total cultivated land of this area. Most of (6.24%) and panikachu production (3.63%)
the farmer cultivated local variety, which is called (Hajong et al., 2015). For pest control farmer
Gaj corolla and some farmer cultivated hybrid used different types of pesticide in bitter gourd
corolla such as Gonggajoli and Tia variety. fields such as Shobicron 425 EC, Proclaim 5 SG,
Among the sampled farmers, only one farmer Voliam Flexi 300 SC, Marshal 20 EC, Tafgor 40
found to be cultivated BARI released bitter gourd EC, Vertimec 1.8 EC, Actara 25 WG, Confidor 70
variety (BARI Korola-1). WG, Antracol 70 WP, Corolux 25 EC and
Table 2. Land use pattern of the farmers (ha). Dursban 20 EC. Some pesticide used more than
one times. Majority farmer (95.56%) used
Land use pattern Average area (ha) Shobicron 425 EC and it was 14.50% of total
Average farm size 0.79 pesticide spray for controlling fruit fly in bitter
Own cultivated land 0.53 gourd fields (Table 3). Farmer also used bio
Share cultivated land 0.33 pesticide Spinosad such as Success 2.5 SC and
Mortgage in cultivated land 0.28 Tracer 45 SC in bitter gourd cultivation.
Bitter gourd area 0.07
Table 3. Percent distribution of pesticide used in bitter gourd cultivation.

Name of pesticide Frequency of pesticide Percentage of pesticide Percentage of farmer
application used involved
Shobicron 425 EC 146 14.50 95.56
Proclaim 5 SG 129 12.81 81.11
Voliam Flexi 300 SC 123 12.21 92.22
Marshal 20 EC 111 11.02 90.00
Tafgor 40 EC 81 8.04 87.78
Vertimec 1.8 EC 64 6.36 71.11
Actara 25 WG 62 6.16 68.89
Confidor 70 WG 61 6.06 67.78
Antracol 70 WP 56 5.56 62.22
Corolux 25 EC 50 4.97 55.56
Dursban 20 EC 48 4.77 53.33
Tracer 45 SC 42 4.17 46.67
Success 2.5 SC 34 3.38 37.78
Average spray 11.19
Source: Field survey, 2019.
Cent percent farmer sprayed insecticide in their They did not fully believe that pheromone trap
fields to protect crops from different insect and controlled insect in their fields. A farmer
disease (Table 4). About sixty-two percent averagely used 11.19 times spray in their fields
farmers used bio pesticide such as Spinosad, Bio- and its range was 5-18 times in a season. About
neem etc. in their fields. Although there was ninety-three percent farmers argued that crop
better IPM technology on bitter gourd production production was not possible without insecticide
a good number of farmers (46.67%) used and insecticides protected crops from insect pests
pheromone trap for crop protection. Again, (Table 4). About sixty-one percent farmer did not
farmer collected insect larva from their fields get training on IPM technology. They did not get
with hand for protecting crops and it was 37.78 any training on IPM technology and 28% farmer
percent. Although the farmer used pheromone did not any knowledge on crop production
trap and they sprayed insecticide in their fields. without pesticide use.
Table 4. Percent distribution on crop protection technology and causes of insecticide use of bitter
gourd.
Pest management method % of farmer Cause of insecticide use % of farmer
Insecticide spray 100.00 Protect crops from insect pest 93.33
Bio-pesticide 62.22 Not training on IPM method 61.11
Pheromone trap 46.67 Not know any other method 27.78
Hand picking 37.78
Cost of bitter gourd production harvesting of bitter gourd. Bitter gourd needed
mancha where it was rearing and keeping the
On an average, the total cost of production of fruits safely. It incurred about twelve percent cost
bitter gourd was Tk. 203984 ha-1 for non-IPM of production for mancha preparation. IPM
farmer and Tk. 191246 ha-1 for IPM farmer. Total farmer used pheromone along with pesticide,
variable cost was Tk. 189024 ha-1 for non-IPM which cost Tk. 20570.00 ha-1. On the other hand,
farmer and Tk. 176286 ha-1 for IPM farmer (Table non-IPM farmer spent about ten percent cost
5). Non-IPM farmer spent more cost than IPM (Tk.33075 ha-1) on the pesticide spray in their
farmer did, because non-IPM farmer used excess fields. For crop protection, non-IPM farmer spent
insecticide Tk. 34929 ha-1 (17.12%) than IPM higher than the IPM farmer dose, because they
farmer Tk. 20570 ha-1 (10.76%). Among the cost spent three times money for pesticide on their
items, cost of labor was the highest Tk. 62850 fields. If farmer spray less pesticide on their fields
ha-1 (30.81%) for IPM farmer and Tk. 63791 ha-1 then it lessen its cost of production.
(33.36%) for non-IPM farmer that means excess
labor need to cultivate, nurturing, spraying and
Table 5. Per hectare production cost of bitter gourd production.

Cost item Non-IPM farmer IPM farmer
Cost (Tk. ha-1) % of cost Cost (Tk. ha-1) % of cost
A. Variable costs
Cost of land preparation 8749 4.29 8540 4.47
Cost of labor 62850 30.81 63791 33.36
Cost of seed 19843 9.73 19647 10.27
Organic fertilizer 8314 4.08 8910 4.66
Chemical fertilizer 23476 11.51 22977 12.01
Cost of irrigation 5175 2.54 5298 2.77
Cost of pesticide/pheromone 34929 17.12 20570 10.76
Cost of mancha preparation 21679 10.63 22814 11.93
Interest on operating capital @ 6.5% 4009 1.97 3739 1.95
Total variable cost 189024 92.67 176286 92.18
B. Fixed cost
Land use cost 14960 7.33 14960 7.82
Total fixed cost 14960 7.33 14960 7.82
C. Total cost (A+B) 203984 100.00 191246 100.00
Source: Authors’ estimation
Returns from bitter gourd cultivation perishable vegetable bitter gourd cannot store for
long time. It needs to consume after harvest as
The average yield was 16.74 t ha-1
for non-IPM
early as possible. Gross return was Tk. 389705
farmer and 16.16 t ha-1 for IPM farmer and
ha-1 and net return was Tk. 185721 ha-1 for non-
average price was Tk. 23.27 kg-1 for non-IPM
IPM farmer. Gross return of IPM farmer was Tk.
farmer and Tk. 22.33kg-1 for IPM farmer. Market
360828 ha-1 and net return was Tk. 169582 ha-1
price was varied from month to month and
(Table 6). Benefit cost ratios were 1.91 and 1.89
season to season. Price became high at early time
for non-IPM and IPM farmer, respectively that
and it decreases with increase the time. Seasonal
means bitter gourd production was profitable.
price fluctuation can be maintained by storage of
the product (Hajong et al., 2014). However, as for
Table 6. Per hectare profitability of bitter gourd cultivation.
Particulars Non-IPM farmer IPM farmer
Yield (ton ha-1) 16.74 16.16
Price (Tk. kg-1) 23.27 22.33
Gross return (Tk. ha-1) 389705 360828
Total cost (Tk. ha-1) 203984 191246
Net return (Tk. ha-1) 185721 169582
BCR (total cost basis) 1.91 1.89
Draw backs on IPM technology use al., 2018). Some other said it was laborious to
make trap and pheromone and someone argued
Pheromone trap was the most effective method it was laborious technology. Fifty percent farmer
used in bitter gourd fields. However, farmer did said that lack of sufficient trap was the main
not use it properly. Cent percent farmer reported cause for not used pheromone in the farmer
that IPM technology was time-consuming fields. Some other farmer but not larger were
method (Table 7). Even IPM farmer used argued that it was less useful method and it need
excessive pesticides and its rank was 1st compared to spray pesticide if pheromone was also use.
to other environment friendly practices (Kamal et
Table 7. Drawbacks on IPM technology.
Draw backs Percentage of farmer Ranks
Time consuming method 100.00 I
Very laborious technology 83.33 II
Lack of sufficient pheromone trap 50.00 III
Less useful method 16.67 IV
Conclusion and Recommendation
This study assesses the extent of pesticide used and the profitability of bitter gourd production at farm
level. Most of the farmers’ cultivated local variety called Gajkorola. Most of production cost involved
in the labor cost. Insecticide spray in bitter gourd fields is important cost item and it varied the cost of
production between IPM farmer and non-IPM farmer. For crop protection non-IPM farmer spent
higher than the IPM farmer dose, because they spent three times money for pesticide on their fields.
Farmers sprayed higher times, which were not necessary and unnecessary insecticide, which was
harmful for human health as well as their health. When they sprayed, they did not use any protection
measures. Although there was pheromone trap for crop protection in bitter gourd fields, they did not
use it properly and spray insecticide with pheromone trap.
Based on the above findings of the study, the following recommendations are given below:
➢ Farmer used huge amount of pesticide on bitter gourd production, which affect on economy,
environment and farmers health, so it should take step to reduce the pesticide use on bitter gourd
production.
➢ Though there was scope of IPM technology on bitter gourd production, it should promote IPM
technology everywhere properly for safe and pesticide free bitter gourd as well as other vegetable
production.
➢ Regular training should be arranged for the farmers to use IPM technology and bio pesticide to
bitter gourd fields.
➢ Agricultural extension and research organization should work together to reduce pesticide use
and awareness of farmer about hazardous use of pesticide.
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Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 110-115, December 2020

ISSN: 2224-0616
Place-based perceptions, resilience and adaptation to climate change by

smallholder farmers in rural South Africa
W.A. Tesfuhuney* and E.H. Mbeletshie
Received 26 September 2020, Revised 18 December 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
Unprecedented global climate change caused by human actions is becoming a challenge to
agricultural systems’ ability to meet and sustain production demands for food and raw
materials for the increasing world population. Climate change has not spared the district,
resulting in extreme weather events such as droughts, erratic rainfalls and increasing frosty
winter days within the district. Smallholder agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa is mainly
dependent on rainfed agriculture, which has increased production uncertainty due to the
increasing variability of climate. This study assesses the management of adaptation and
resilience strategies by smallholder farmers in Joe Gqabi District Municipality in Eastern
Cape, South Africa. The study revealed a significant response to climate variability by
smallholder farmers, which involved the adoption of numerous adaptation and resilience
strategies. The choice of resilience and adaptation strategies among community members is
influenced by a diversity of factors amongst which are; household demographic
characteristics, access to information and technology, household assets endowment and
farmers’ perception of climate change. Results from the study also reveal a lack of public and
private institutional support to the farmers hence the lack of in-depth awareness of climate
change by these farmers. Drawing on the results and conclusions, the study recommends
strengthening the capacity of farmers and institutions for identifying and assessing climate
change. There is an urgent need for proactive management of climate change through
sustaining those attributes that are important for production (resilience) and developing
new socio-ecological configurations that function effectively under new conditions
(adaptation). Implementation of policy interventions that build on farmers’ existing
knowledge is also critical.
Keywords: Smallholders, Farmers’ perception, Adaptation, Resilience, Climate change.
Department Soil, Crop and Climate Sciences, University of the Free State, 205, Nelson Mandela Drive, West
Park, 9301, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
*Corresponding author’s email: TesfuhuneyW@ufs.ac.za (Weldemichael A. Tesfuhuney)
Cite this article as: Tesfuhuney, W.A. and Mbeletshie. E.H. 2020. Place-based perceptions, resilience and
adaptation to climate change by smallholder farmers in rural South Africa. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2):
116-127. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51585
Introduction
Society, in general, has accepted climate change variable in the world (Seneviratne et al., 2012).
as a major global challenge affecting the entire Africa’s climate is driven by a complex of
world, currently and for an unpredictable future. maritime and terrestrial interactions as well as
Thompson et al. (2015) assets that climate the geographical characteristics of the regions
change has and will for an unforeseeable future (Boko et al., 2007). In South Africa, climate
cause environmental perturbations that change has become a key concern. Ziervogel et al.
exacerbate the vulnerabilities of African (2014) state that the 2013 South African Long
agricultural systems. The United Nations, Term Adaptation Scenarios and the Fifth
Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Population Division, UNEP (2015) predicts that Panel on Climate Change (IPCC AR5) for
some of the environmental changes will occur Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 8.5
earlier in some regions than in other regions of predicts that warming in the interior will increase
the world. The African continent is under high by 3-6oC by 2081-2100 relative to the period of
pressure from climatic stresses because most 1986-2005 while precipitation patterns are less
regions have climates that are among the most certain.
Tesfuhuney and Mbeletshie (2020) Place-based perceptions to climate change in rural South Africa
It is generally acknowledged that farmers' vulnerability and increasing adaptive capacity.

perception is increased their awareness of climate Three ways of building resilience have been
change and adapting to it. It has been identified by Food and Agriculture Organization/
documented that the success of adaptation Organization for Economic Co-operation and
measures is dependent on the farmers’ Development (FAO/OECD) (2012) and these
perceptions of climate change (Okonya et al., include reducing exposure to non-climatic on-
2013, Simelton et al., 2013, Moyo et al., 2012, farm shocks, reducing the sensitivity of the
Gbetibouo, 2009; Maddison, 2006). Farmers’ system to shocks like drought by using drought-
perception of climate change refers to an resistant varieties and increasing adaptive
aggregated awareness of the trend in the climatic capacity.
parameters such as rainfall, temperature,
drought and onset and end of the rainy season. Several climate change adaptation and resilience
According to Deressa et al. (2011), socio- studies in South Africa have been conducted at
economic and environmental factors that include the national level, however, it is important to
education, household size, livestock ownership, focus at the local and household level. Therefore,
agro-ecological zone, farm size and access to the study was set to answer the question, how do
credit, influence how farmers perceive and adapt smallholder farmers cope and adapt to the effect
to climate change. In South Africa, a case study of of changing in a climate so that they can be
the Limpopo Basin revealed that about 95% of resilient to future threats of climate change? The
interviewed farmers perceived long-term changes purpose of this study is to increase the knowledge
in temperature (Gbetibouo, 2009). According to of adaptation and resilience with a focus on
Gandure et al. (2011), farmers in Gladstone, a smallholder farmers’ perceptions of the effect of
rural village near Thaba Nchu in the Free State climate change on agricultural crop and livestock
Province, perceive and adapt to long-term production. Therefore, attempts were made to
changes in climate. Farmers’ perceptions of assess smallholder farmers’ ability to employ
climate change and variability that are informed adaptive management and resilience strategies to
by local knowledge help advance understanding climate change and to evaluate the main factors
of climate change and its importance on that affect the implementation of adaptation and
agricultural land-use systems (Amadou et al., resilience strategies to improve the livelihood of
2015). smallholder farmers. The point of departure in
the current research from the other farmer
Due to reliance on rainfed farming in Africa, adaptation studies is that it builds on the existing
climate change increases the vulnerabilities of body of strategies employed by farmers while
food production systems with strong regional drawing parallels and linkages between
variability in the degree of losses in yields (Lobell adaptation and resilience based on local
et al., 2011; Berg et al., 2013; IPCC, 2014). perceptions.
Despite their economic and social status, it is
imperative that smallholder farmers with limited Methodology
resources adapt to these changes to sustain their Study area
livelihoods in the long run. Adaptation is a way
for people to build future resilience and they do The study was conducted in the Joe Gqabi
this by adopting appropriate technology using District in the Eastern Cape Province of South
local knowledge (United Nations Framework for Africa. Joe Gqabi district is located on the
the Convention of Climate Change (UNFCCC, northern border of the province with Free State
2007). Although farmers have adapted and and Lesotho. The district comprises of four local
shown resilience to natural climate changes, municipalities, the Elundini, Gariep, Maletswai
there is a growing fear that farmers may not be and Senqu (Fig. 1). It is the smallest of the seven
able to display the same level of adaptation and districts in the province covering 25,663 km2
resilience to current and future anthropogenic (StatSA, 2011). As of the 2011 census, the district
climate changes (Burton and Lim, 2005). had a total population of 349768, having a very
Analysing adaptation strategies leading to low population density of 13 people per square
resilience, therefore, can help in finding ways of kilometer. Most of the population is concentrated
helping smallholder farmers cope with the ever- in the ex-Transkei areas of Mount Fletcher and
increasing changes in climatic conditions in Sterkspruit. The majority of the population is
Africa and the whole world. black Africans who are about 93.8% of the total
population. Native Afrikaans speakers make up
According to Ifejika (2010), resilience is the about 5.9%; whites are 2.4% while native English
ability of a system to deal with stresses and speakers are about 1.6% of the total population
disturbances while retaining the same basic (StatSA, 2011). Languages spoken in the district
structure and ways of functioning, capacity for include isiXhosa with a majority of 70.5%, Sotho
self-organization and capacity to learn and adapt at 20.2%, Afrikaans at 5.9% and English at 3.4%.
to change. Resilience can be achieved by reducing
According to the JGDM (2015) report on long- experiences warmer winters and this enables part
term climate data analysis, the Joe Gqabi district of the District to be more suitable for cultivation
is well known for its temperature fluctuations, (JGDM, 2015). The district can be divided into
with temperatures ranging between 42oC and - four rainfall zones. Some of the higher mountain
11oC. It is also affected by unseasonal frost and peaks have between 800 mm and 1200 mm of
cold that has a negative impact on agriculture. rainfall a year. The eastern part of the District has
The long-term average maximum temperatures between 600 mm and 800 mm a year; the central
for Joe Gqabi District are mostly between 29oC area has between 400 mm and 500 mm; and the
and 30oC for January (Fig. 1). The area is only western area (Venterstad, Steynsburg and most
suitable for less sensitive crops due to this harsh of Burgersdorp) has less than 500 mm a year
climate. Elundini is lower in altitude and (JGDM, 2015).
South Africa
JOE GQABI
DISTRICT
Eastern Cape
Fig. 1. Map of the study area (Joe Gqabi District) in Eastern Cape, South Africa (right) and ARC-LAN
Maps indicate Average long-term January Tmax (left-top) and long-term median annual
rainfall (left bottom).
Its topography is made of the dry Karoo flatlands Joe Gqabi district is predominantly rural with the
and dry Namakaroo biomes to the west (Gariep wetter mountainous eastern part (Elundini and
and Maletswai). The east (Senqu and Elundini) is Senqu) having communal land as well as
mountainous and wetter with some elements of commercial farming. The western municipalities
the Maloti biome. The vast majority of the district of the district (Gariep and Maletswai) have flat
falls within the Orange River catchment basin
Karoo vegetation and are dominated by extensive
except for Elundini, which falls under the
cattle and sheep commercial farming. Rainfed
Mzimvubu river basin (ECSECC, 2014). The
Orange River is the most important source of crop production dominates the ex-Transkei areas
water in the district. The Gariep Dam is the on the foothills of the Drakensberg Mountains
largest in South Africa and, together with the Fish while irrigation of maize and wheat takes place
River Scheme, is the major source of water for along the Orange River. Subsistence and
irrigation. Many places in Senqu and Elundini emerging farmers are practicing conventional
have a high groundwater development potential. farming systems in the communal land areas.
Nevertheless, it is hard to access by smallholder (DLGTA, 2011).
farmers vulnerable to the effect of climate
change.
According to the DLGTA (2011), there are only demographic, economic aspects of households,
233 hectares of high potential arable land in Joe agricultural activities and farmers’ perception of
Gqabi District. Compounded by limited rainfed climate change, and how farmers adapt and build
arable land for crop production while irrigation resilience to climate change. A questionnaire was
schemes and stock farming play a significant role used to extract data from the 90 sampled
in agriculture. Intensive farming is only farmers. Qualitative data were collected through
implemented in areas where water and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques.
agricultural infrastructure are available. The The researcher was involved in key informant
limited land, which can sustain intensive interviews (KII) with leaders of IBPPC and local
farming, and land which has been identified as agricultural experts to get information on their
having a high agricultural potential, has been knowledge and experiences. Secondary data
reserved for farming to enhance food security and collected from different sources was important in
therefore economic welfare in the district. There building the background information of the
is little agricultural processing in the district study.
(DLGTA, 2011). It is against this background that
farmers’ perceptions, adaptation and resilience Analysis
are examined in the district. Data collected through the questionnaire was
Research design and data collection post-coded and captured using the Excel
spreadsheet. The data were analyzed through
The research was designed in the form of a case descriptive statistics, tables and crosstabs. Data
study. This approach was employed to carry out a from Excel was then exported to Statistical
detailed analysis of farmers’ perception to Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) to carry out a
climate, how they adapt and build resilience to regression using the Logistic Regression Model
changing in climate and variability. According to (LRM). The LRM method was used to analyze the
Yin (2003), a case study constitutes an empirical main factors that affect the implementation of
inquiry that investigates a contemporary adaptation and resilience strategies by
phenomenon within a real-life context and smallholder farmers in JGDM. Based on the
showed the benefit of the tool in answering the information gathered through the survey,
‘how’ and ‘why’ questions. A quantitative therefore, themes were identified as the main
research methodology formed the basis of the factors influencing the adoption strategies. These
study although a qualitative nature was partly themes are demographic factors, farmers’
employed. The quantitative approach enables the perceptions, access to information and
researcher to identify statistical relationships technology, assets and resources and farm
between variables using data from structured and activities. Logistic regression was then used to
validated data collection instruments. Normally analyze how these factors influence the adoption
results from quantitative research can be easily of each strategy. The most dominant strategies
generalized to other populations. In the case of identified by farmers were selected for this
the qualitative approaches, various data can be analysis. The general model of the logistic
collected through probing and follow-up regression is given by:
questions.
𝑌 = 𝛽𝑜 + 𝛽𝑥1 + 𝛽𝑥2 + . . . +𝛽𝑥𝑛
Data collection was carried out with technical
support from Imbumba Beef Production Primary Where, 𝑌 is the adaptation/resilience strategy, 𝛽𝑜
Cooperative (IBPPC), a Non-Governmental is an intercept and 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 . . . 𝑥𝑛 are variables that
Organization (NGO) based in Ladys Grey influence resilience and adaptation strategies
involved in providing extension services to Data collected through qualitative methods were
communal farmers. Enumerators were sought analyzed in a thematic approach. The thematic
from Tsolo Agriculture and Rural Development approach entailed coding this data according to
Institute students who were attached to IBPPC the themes that had been developed for the study
and were familiar with the local communal based on the objectives of the study. Data on
farmers. The data collected by enumerators was farmer perception was categorized into causes
checked and verified and all clarifications were and perceptions of climate change. The climate
dealt with during the survey at the study sites. change impact assessment on farmers’ livelihood
The research employed both a quantitative were divided into positive/negative and further
approach and some qualitative elements for subdivided into categories of impact on crop
additional clarifications. Specific research production, water availability for livestock and
methods that were employed included a socio-economic status. Information from the
household survey, interviews and secondary data statistical and thematic analysis was used to form
review and analysis. The survey collected both the results for the study.
qualitative and quantitative data on
Results and Discussion attributed to the high literacy levels of farmers in

the district together with access to media.
Perceptions on changes in weather patterns
Perceptions on the causes of weather
Data from the survey indicate that all interviewed variability
farmers were aware of temperature changes in
the region within the last 5 years. However, not Part of the survey was to ask farmers to identify
all the farmers agreed as to the direction the extreme weather events that had affected the
temperatures were going. The majority of region since 2005. Results in Table 1, show that
respondents (69%) perceive temperatures to have all respondents said they had witnessed drought
cooled down than warming up. This perception events in their district with an average of 3.2
by farmers is corroborated by the Joe Gqabi events affecting the area. High temperatures and
District Municipality (JGDM) (2015), which late rainfalls were the other events identified by
states that on average there are 150 days of frost 83% and 82% of the farmers, respectively. These
and snow during the year between March and two events can be associated with the occurrence
November in the Senqu and Elundini local of long dry-spell during the rainy season and lead
municipalities. Snowfall has also been witnessed to medium to severe drought events. The
in higher-lying municipalities of Maletswai and frequency of high temperatures and late rainfalls
Gariep in recent years. Results on precipitation since 2005 is 3.0 and 2.4, respectively,
indicate that again all the respondents perceive a frequencies that are very close to that of droughts
change in rainfall patterns in the last 5 years. A for the same period. Snowfall has been observed
greater percentage (86%) perceives that the by 77% of the respondents with an average
district is becoming drier than it was 5 years ago. frequency of 2.9. Inconsistent rainfall and rainfall
These perceptions seem to be supported by the ending earlier than normal were observed by 74%
observed shifts from cereal production to animal and 60% for the respondents, respectively.
husbandry and drought-tolerant crops. Overall, Generally, a number of extreme weather events
100% of the respondents feel that the weather, in have been witnessed within the district, which
general, is changing with 91% attributing these can be a sign of increasing weather variability
changes to climate change. Farmers’ awareness of associated with climate change.
these global environmental events can be
Table 1. Extreme weather events affected the region and perceived causes of extremes from 2005.
Weather Event Farmers observed (%) Frequency
a) Extreme events affected the region intense storms 20% 3.5
Droughts 100% 3.2
Increasing flooding 37% 1.9
Late rainfall seasons 82% 2.9
Rainfall season ends early 60% 2.4
Rains came earlier than normal 32% 2.2
Rains not consistent during the season 74% 3.5
High temperatures 83% 3
Snowfall 77% 2.9
Low temperature 20% 4.8
b) Perceived causes of extreme events
Weather conditions 7% 3.2
Rainfall decrease 4% 3.8
Temperature fluctuation 7% 2.8
Heat waves 11% 2.4
Global warming 2% 1.9
GHG emission 9% 2.1
El Nino effect 4% 4.5
Climate change 56% 5.2
Farmers were further asked to identify what they completely dissociated with climate change. The
perceived as the causes of these weather events results indicate an increasing awareness of
they had observed in their region. Their climate change by smallholders and how it is
numerous responses were categorized into a few affecting the livelihood. To some extent, it was
themes for easy analysis and the results are also difficult to differentiate with the real
presented in (Table 1). The majority of farmers meaning of extreme events for rural communities
attributed the occurrence of these events to but paves a road to open further discussions with
climate change, although the other themes had the effect on their daily activities.
low responses, these themes cannot be
Farmers’ perceptions of climate change indicated only by a meager 17% of the

effect on Agriculture respondents. From the respondents, 25%
attributed global warming to increasing climate
For farmers to identify appropriate strategies to variability, a response that can be linked to a lack
mitigate the effects of climate change, they need of understanding of the connections between
to know the effects and extent of damage posed anthropogenic effects and global warming.
by weather variability. These effects are in the Although the farmers in the district are aware or
form of yield loss, livestock death, pest and have heard about climate change, the results
diseases, etc. The results in Table 2 present the reveal a need to increase this awareness on the
findings from the survey concerning farmers’ linkages between human activities, greenhouse
perceptions of the effects of climate change. An gases and global warming leading to climate
above-average of respondents indicated that the change. Farmers were also asked to highlight the
occurrence of extreme weather events has effects environmental impacts of climate change,
on agricultural production. Above 50% of the especially on their livelihoods. Results in Table 2
farmers indicated that agriculture was being show that about 40% of the farmers believe
affected a lot in terms of yield loss, animal death, climate change is causing a decline in on-farm
reduced quality of produce, disease prevalence production. About 20% of the farmers indicated
and frequency of pest outbreaks. A proportion of that it was affecting the quality of their crop and
51% of the farmers in the district perceives livestock production. Land degradation and
climate change as a purely natural phenomenon increasing costs of production were mentioned by
(Table 2). These natural causes include natural 15% of the respondents. A smaller proportion,
changes in winters, low/high temperatures, less than 10%, of the farmers mentioned the
changes in precipitation and changes in wind death of livestock and an increase in pests and
movement, among others. There is a greater diseases as some of the effects of climate change.
tendency to disregard human influences as
Table 2. Effects of climate change on agricultural production and perception on causes of change.
a) Effect on Agricultural Production Respondents (%)
Not at all Little Average A lot All
Yield loss /Animal death 0% 2% 34% 60% 3%
Reduced quality 0% 19% 24% 53% 3%
More diseases 12% 8% 23% 53% 3%
More pests 14% 18% 13% 54% 0%
b) Perception on the causes type Natural Human Weather Global All
51% 17% 7% 25% 0%
c) Perception on effect to environment Land Prod. Pest Quality High
Degradation Decline* disease produce cost
15% 43% 7% 20% 15%
*Represent for both crop production decline (40%) and animal death (93%).
Assistance given to the farmers selected cattle farmers in the district and average
of 3% of the farmers, had received a lot of
In this study, the unavailability of NGOs and assistance from outside. On further probing,
other private companies working in the rural most farmers indicated that they would
communities indicated the limited assistance has appreciate assistance in terms of training and
reached in the district (Table 3). A range of 60% - information on climate change, capital to
68% of the respondents indicated that no services restructure their farms, help to access modern
like surveys, studies, adaptation, pilot projects technology, help to maintain their farm
and extension, among others, had been offered to equipment and above all more land to expand
the communities in the study area. Due to the their activities.
existence of IBPPC, which works with a few
Table 3. Level of assistance given to rural communities in Joe Gqabi District.
Action Taken % Respondents
Non Few Average Many A lot
Surveys 64% 29% 3% 0% 3%
Climate and meteorology studies 68% 29% 0% 0% 3%
Awareness and training events 60% 10% 19% 3% 8%
Adaptation pilot project 66% 20% 11% 0% 3%
Widespread adaptation efforts 68% 19% 10% 0% 3%
Information about adaptation methods 64% 8% 21% 3% 3%
Extension training and services 61% 13% 19% 3% 3%
Farm adaptation strategies a good and bad season as an adaptation strategy.

To counter the effects of water shortage in the
Changing the planting schedule and camp
district, about 43% of the farmers have sunk
rotation are the most dominant adaptation
boreholes and installed windmills while 77% have
strategies employed by farmers in the district
increased their water reservoir capacity to ensure
(Table 4). Another strategy mostly used by
a continuous supply of water during the dry
farmers engaged in animal husbandry is changing
seasons. An above-average number of farmers
mating, calving and weaning dates (97%). The
have switched to planting fodder crops to feed
strategy ensures that these production systems in
their animals during the dry season when
animal breeding coincide with seasons of
pastures are poor. This is also complemented by
adequate water and pastures. The provision of
49% of the farmers who have installed feedlots in
adequate food and water at these critical stages
their paddocks to supply supplementary feed
reduces loss due to animal starvation and death.
during the dry spells. Considering the decrease in
Changing crop type and increasing small
crop production in favour of animal husbandry, a
livestock holding while reducing large livestock
meagre 32% of the farmers practice zero tillage as
are strategies employed by 92% and 82% of the
a method of conservation farming. The shift from
farmers, respectively. These adaptation strategies
crop to livestock production is supported by 40%
are adopted to counter the frequent droughts and
of the farmers who have adopted the strategy to
long dry spells as they enable farmers to divert to
switch-on to animal husbandry.
farm productions that are drought tolerant.
Farmers also use a flexible cropping schedule for
Table 4. Percentage of farmers Adaptation strategies adopted by smallholder farmers in JGDM (a) and
resilience strategies adopted by farmers in crop farming (b) and animal husbandry (c).
a) Adaptation strategies % Resilience strategy
employed by farmers a) Crop production % b) Animal husbandry %
Borehole/windmill 43 Irrigation Frequency 15 Buying livestock feed 56
Shifting crop -livestock 40 Replanting 86 Storing feed / residue 44
Planting fodder 60 Improve drainage 24 Camp rotation 100
Changing mating/calving/ 97 Delay planting 61 Supplying high energy 78
weaning licks
Changing planting 100 Short maturing cultivar 96 Keeping calves/ lambs 60
schedule / dates / variety on feedlot
Changing suitable crops 92 Drought tolerant 92 Installing water tanks 65
Increase ruminant number 82 Mixed cropping 83 Reducing livestock 24
Camp rotation 100 Planting directly 60 Building animal shelter 100
Increase feedlot in Camps 49 Planting fodder 72 Inoculating/vaccinating 57
Zero tillage practices 32 Water harvesting 81 Culling large animals 36
Increase water reservoirs 77 - - Weaning calves early 48
Fencing off grazing camps 56 - - - -
Resilience strategies against climate variety of crops and drought-tolerant crops. 96%
variability and 92% of the interviewed farmers mentioned
using the practices respectively. Replanting after
Extreme weather events such as droughts, crop failure or destruction by extreme weather is
inconsistent rains, low temperatures among another resilient strategy practiced by farmers to
others, have been witnessed frequently in the maintain low production and minimize risk.
province. Farmers respond to weather variability Farmers mentioned that due to increased
by employing strategies that help then deal with frequency of droughts and dry spells, mixed
challenges brought about by climate change. cropping involving drought-tolerant crops was
Resilience strategies for crop production now common amongst the households with 83%
attest in practicing the strategy. Conservation
Smallholder farmers are often characterized by farming techniques like water harvesting to
farming practices that have evolved to reduce address climate change by improving soil water
vulnerability to external shocks. Recent changes availability for crops is practiced by 81% of the
in climate have prompted farmers to employ respondents. Another drought mitigating
strategies that make them resilient to climatic resilience strategy that has been adopted by the
shocks to remain productive. Table 4 presents the farmers is planting fodder crops used to feed
resilience strategies employed by farmers in animals during long dry spells to ensure livestock
JGDM in crop production. The most common survival. This livestock can be sold and the
resilient strategies identified by the farmers in proceeds used to buy food and inputs for the next
the district include planting short maturing cropping season. Seventy two percent of the
farmers are now committing part of their resulting in animal death. An average number of
cropland to the planting of fodder. An above- farmers engage in animal management strategies,
average number of farmers in the district practice which includes vaccination/inoculation (57%)
ploughing and planting at once and delayed and weaning calves and lambs early (48%). Last
planting, 60% and 61% respectively, to be but not least, 65% of the farmers have installed
specific. This strategy is mainly used to ensure water tanks in the camps to ensure adequate
that the timing of planting coincides with high water supply for animals.
soil moisture content for improved germination
rate. A smaller percentage had already indicated Factors affecting adaptation and
that they own irrigation equipment as resilience strategies
implements hence only 15% of the farmers Identifying strategies employed by smallholder
irrigated their crops frequently as a resilient farmers in JGDM to build resilience to climate
strategy. The results show that 24% of the change has remained an advantage for improving
farmers employed the strategy of cleaning productivity. The success of these strategies is
furrows to improve drainage. Crop resilience influenced by complex factors which according to
strategies employed by farmers ensure that these de Waal and Whiteside (2003) include household
smallholder farmers remain productive in the demography, access to resources, the ability of
face of climate variability. By employing these the community to provide support and access to
strategies farmers, ensure that they retain the information and training. According to the
same basic function after an extreme weather results in Table 5, household size has a positive
event. and statistically significant influence on their
choices of strategies such as crop rotation,
Resilience strategies for animal husbandry
changing crops, building shelters, replanting and
A variety of resilience strategies have been changing mating, calving and weaning dates.
identified by farmers involved in animal These results suggest that farm households are
husbandry (Table 4). However, the most common more inclined to adopt these strategies. These
way amongst them is building shelter for animals findings are consistent with traditional farm
to shield them against the increasing freezing labour demand and supply dynamics.
winters. All the farmers involved in small and Traditionally a large family made up of adults has
large livestock production have some sort of more hands to help with farm activities than a
shelter where animals can shelter during frosty small family. Considering that most of the
winters. Camp/Paddock rotation is another strategies influenced by household size are labour
strategy practiced by all the respondents. This intensive, it is only households with more labour
strategy is similar to shifting cultivation in crop that are likely to implement these strategies.
production ensures that the camp recovers as the
Characteristics such as age, education and size of
animals are rotated from one camp to the other.
the family can influence a household’s objectives.
Sustainability is built as this ensures that there is
Age, in particular, can influence the strategies
no overgrazing on one piece of land. In addition
pursued by a household. In the model in Table 5,
to that, about 78% of the farmers now supply
there is a positive and significant correlation
high energy licks to the animals as a feed
between the age of a household head and the use
supplement. This ensures that the animals are
of strategies such as building shelters, replanting
well fed and do not rely on the pastures only,
and camp rotation. The results support the
especially during dry seasons when pastures are
findings by Yesuf et al. (2008) and Anjichi
poor. As a supplement to suckling, calves and
(2007), who found that in Ethiopia and Kenya,
lambs are kept on feedlot to increase their growth
older household heads were more likely to adopt
rate. This practice is employed by 60% of the
climate change adaptation measures than
farmers and it ensures that calves and lambs
younger farmers were. As expected, the analysis
reach their marketing stage earlier and sold at
results reveal that there is a negative relationship
higher returns. Other resilience strategies
between sex and adoption of resilience and
involving supplementary feeding also include
adaptation strategies such as replanting, camp
buying stock feed during droughts and storing
rotation and changing planting schedule. The
feed from crop residue, which is practiced by 56%
implication being that female-headed households
and 44% of the farmers, respectively.
are less likely to engage in these strategies than
Controlling the size of the stock is another male-headed households are. The results are
resilient strategy used by farmers in the district. consistent with studies in Kenya, Cote D’ivore
The strategy includes culling large animals like and Burkina Faso, which highlighted that male-
cattle (36%) and reducing the livestock headed households were likely to adopt
population within the farm (24%). These technology such as fallowing, use of fertilizers
strategies ensure that loses are reduced during and manure and building erosion structures
drought as large animals and high population (Adesina, 1996; Matlon, 1994; Njuki et al., 2008).
density tend to quickly overgraze the land
Place-based perceptions to climate change in rural South Africa
Table 5. Results of pooled regression and factors influencing the adoption of a strategy for resilience and adaptation to climate change.
Crop Production Livestock Production
Variable Crop Changing crops Re- Short Drought Changing Changing Building Camp
rotation planting maturing tolerant planting mating. calving & shelters/shade rotation
cultivars cultivars schedule weaning dates
a)
x1 0.584*** (-0.220) 0.127 (0.044) 1.275*** (-0.217) -0.744*** (0.224) -0.546** (0.231) 0.100 (0.044) 0.782 (-0.234) 1.103*** (0.215) 0.105 (-0.217)
x2 -0.009 (-0.006) -0.016 (0.008) 0.019** (-0.007) -0.003 (0.008) -0.007 (0.006) -0.002 (0.007) 0.005 (-0.008) 0.016** (0.006) 0.015** (-0.006)
x3 -0.021 (-0.074) -0.008 (0.046) -0.123** (-0.06) -0.026 (0.064) -0.043(0.062) -0.124**(0.052) -0.018 (-0.058) -0.024(0.046) -0.135** (-0.061)
x4 0.118 (-0.253) -0.160 (0.268) 0.168 (-0.252) 0.162 (0.268) 0.117 (0.253) 0.310* (0.255) 0.806*** (-0.275) 0.165(0.272) 0.755*** (-0.26)
x5 -0.002 (-0.004) 0.002 (0.002) 0.001 (-0.003) 0.050 (0.009) 0.005(0.003) 0.007 (0.009) 0.001 (-0.002)
** -0.004(0.006) 0.009 (0.008)
b)
x6 0.765 (0.255) 0.122 (0.253) 0.115 (0.250) -0160 (0.250) 0.169 (0.252) 0.166 (0.260) -0.312 (0.262) 0.988(0.261) -0.323 (0.275)
x7 0.248 (0.297) 0.966** (0.290) 0.188 (0.272) 0.257 (0.201) 0.265 (0.205) 0.850*** (0.260) 0.961 (0.298) 0.890***(0.296) -0.135 (0.261)
c)
x8 0.099* (0.047) 0.089* (0.043) 0.007 (0.039) 0.051 (0.045) -0.033 (0.046) 0.050 (0.044) -0.045 (0.033) 0.090 (0.041) 0.097* (0.045)
x9 0.026 (0.023) -0.050 (0.028) -0.007 (0.025) 0.001 (0.026) -0.027 (0.026) 0.030 (0.024) -0.029 (0.026) -0.065 (0.027) -0.065 (0.020)
x10 -0.002 (0.001) 0.001 (0.002) 0.004 (0.006) -0.007 (0.009) 0.006 (0.008) -0.002 (0.008) -0.001 (0.002) -0.002 (0.002) 0.008 (0.010)
x11 -0.147 (0.210) 0.404 (0.200) 0.137 (0.199) 0.283 (0.196) 0.140 (0.192) 0.240 (0.202) 0.161 (0.194) 0.553* (0.210) 0.349* (0.198)
d)
x12 -0.216** (0.074) -0.020 (0.050) -0.025 (0.064) -0.043 (0.060) -0.018 (0.059) -0.026 (0.064) 0.096 (0.049) 0.345 (0.202) 0.250 (0.201)
x13 0.086** (0.045) 0.098** (0.049) 0.089** (0.043) 0.050 (0.044) 0.033 (0.046) 0.025 (0.041) 0.009 (0.042) 0.008 (0.046) 0.008 (0.045)
e)
x14 0.450 (0.208) 0.308 (0.196) 0.271 (0.188) 0.945*** (0.198) 0.855*** (0.199) 0.946*** (0.191) 0.921*** (0.198) 0.590*** (0.205) 0.295 (0.194)
x15 0.069 (0.085) 0.155** (0.060) -0.024 (0.064) 0.375* (0.203) 0.284(0.154) 0.357 (0.202) 0.250 (0.201) 0.125 (0.204) 0.064 (0.083)
Constant -2.456 (0256) -2.245** (0.549) -0.962(0.234) -0.866(0.684) 0.525(0.584) 1.933***(0.685) -1.568(0.217) -1.056*(0.565) -2.940**(0.642)
*P < 0.10, **P < 0.05, ***P < 0.01 and P- value in parenthesis.
Definition of Variables
a) Demographic: x1=household size [no], x2=age of household head [years], x3= gender of household head [male/female], x4=education level of household head [no formal
education/primary. secondary or tertiary], x5= farming experience [no. years in farming experience]
b) Farmers’ Perceptions: x6=observed any weather changes in the past [no/yes]. x7=have heard about climate change [no/yes].
c) Assets and Resources: x8 – land owned currently [ha]; x9=whether household own light implements [no/yes]. x10 – whether household own heavy machinery [no/yes].
x11=whether farming is a primary occupation [no/yes].
d) Farm Activities: x12=whether involved in animal husbandry [no/yes]. x13=whether involved in crop production [no/yes].
e) Access to Information and Technology: x14=received training on climate change [no/yes]. x15= have access to weather information [no/yes].
According to Yesuf et al. (2008), the education of crops. Table 5 reveals that there is a negative and
the household head has been documented as an statistically significant correlation between
important factor determining the adoption of animal husbandry and implementing crop
technologies. An educated farmer can readily rotation. In general, it is expected that farmers
access relevant information. There is a positive involved in crop production will always adopt
and statistically significant correlation between strategies that enhance and protect crop
adopting strategies such as crop rotation, production. Furthermore, there is a positive and
changing planting schedule and changing mating, statistically significant correlation between crop
calving and weaning dates, and the education production and such strategies as crop rotation,
level of the household head. These results are replanting and changing crops. As expected, the
consistent with the research findings, which farmers involved in crop production tend to
revealed that 93% of the farmers had attended adopt strategies that deal with improving yield
school at least up to the primary level and above. and minimizing risk in particular the smallholder
The farming experience of household heads farmers.
seems to have little or no significant influence on
the choices of resilience and adaptation strategies There is a positive and statistically significant
implemented. Farm experience has a positive and correlation between receiving climate change
statistically significant correlation with planting a training and the implementation of strategies
short variety of crops only. These are unexpected such as building shelters, planting short variety
results because normally farmers with experience crops, planting drought-resistant crops, changing
are expected to adopt technologies that counter planting schedule as well as changing mating,
climate change. However, it should be noted that calving and weaning dates. The results are
in this survey, the average age of farm household consistent with the findings by Yesuf et al.
head is 53 years and the average farm experience (2008), which underscore the role played by
is 13 years. The farming experience may be taken formal and informal institutions in addressing
as very little to affect many strategies. the issue of climate change adaptation by
farmers. A study of the Nile Basin farmers
Farmers’ perceptions of climate change play an revealed that formal agricultural extension,
important role in the selection of particular farmer to farmer extension and access to weather
strategies for resilience and adaptation by information guarantees that farmers apply
farmers. Results in Table 5 show a positive and adaptation measures on their farms as compared
statistically significant correlation between a to those that did not have access to training
farmer’s perception and the implementation of (Deressa et al., 2008). Similarly, there is a
such strategies as crop rotation, building shelters, positive and statistically significant correlation
changing planting schedules and changing crops. between access to information and the adoption
The implication being that farmers who perceive of strategies like changing crops and planting
climate change are more likely to adopt strategies short variety of crops. These results are
to cushion themselves against climate variability understandable as farmers under normal
and the aftermath the changing of climate. circumstances are likely to change crops or grow
short maturing cultivars once they get
Regression results also show that there is a information about looming dry conditions or
positive and statistically significant relationship unreliable rainfall patterns. In the case of JGDM,
between the size of land owned by a farmer and it is regrettable that there is an almost
the adoption of strategies such as crop rotation, nonexistence of government, NGOs and private
changing crops and camp rotation. The results sector service being provided to these farmers.
suggest that the more the land a farmer has, the
easier it is to implement such strategies that Conclusions
require more land to be implemented
successfully. However, these results are Joe Gqabi district is currently experiencing
inconsistent with the findings from a study done climate change effects in the form of increasing
in Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique, which frequency of droughts, erratic rainfalls, and
revealed that farmers cultivating more land are increasing frosty winter days. This has affected
likely to use less amounts of fertilizer across large mostly smallholder farmers’ productivity by
areas but intensify and target small areas (Njuki increasing yield losses, reducing the quality of
et al., 2008). It is also important to understand their products, and increased frequency of pests
that, traditionally, strategies such as crop and diseases, which is now threatening the future
rotation and camp rotation require large pieces of sustainability and food security of these farmers.
land to be effectively practiced. Hence, those Despite the adverse effects of climate change,
farmers with large farms are able to adopt these farmers in the district have continued to engage
strategies in the district. in crop cultivation and animal husbandry year
after year. This study has shown that farmers
As expected there is a negative and statistically have remained productive due to the adoption of
significant correlation between farmers involved agricultural strategies and practices to deal with
in animal production and strategies that involve impacts of climate change and variability. The
study has also shown that these changes in Conflict of interest

agricultural practices have been because of
farmer innovation instead of external drivers. None of the authors has any conflicts of interest
to declare.
The main strategies employed for crop
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Effect of different amounts of feeds on growth and production of fishes

in pond polyculture
S. Sultana1*, M.S. Rahman1, K.A. Jackshay2 and K. Hasan2
Received 28 September 2020, Revised 12 December 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
An experiment was carried out to evaluate the effects of different amounts of supplementary
feeds on growth and production of fishes in polyculture where four different species such as
rui (Labeo rohita), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus) were cultured in 6 ponds under three treatments, each with two
replications. Eighty fish per decimal were stocked along with the stocking ratio of 1:1:1:1 in
all the treatments. Supplementary feeds of rice bran and wheat bran (1:1), at the amount of
5% of body weight were applied in 2 ponds (treatment I) as well as at the amount of 3% of
body weight were used in 2 ponds (treatment II) and 2 ponds (treatment III) were as control
where no supplementary feed was used. Urea and T.S.P were applied fortnightly at the rate
of 60 g decimal-1 and 90 g decimal-1, respectively under all treatments. Physico-chemical and
biological factors such as air and water temperature, transparency, rainfall, pH, dissolved
oxygen, free CO2, total alkalinity, PO4-P and NO3-N, phytoplankton and zooplankton were
studied fortnightly and the limnological conditions were more or less similar in the
experimental ponds under three treatments. The calculated gross and net fish productions
of fishes under treatment I, treatment II and treatment III were 8.87 and 7.33 ton ha-1 yr-1,
7.12 and 5.58 ton ha-1 yr-1 and 4.69 and 3.16 ton ha-1 yr-1, respectively. Percent increased of
net fish productions of treatment I and treatment II were 231.97% and 176.59% higher than
that of treatment III (control). The present study reveals that supplementary feeding in fish
culture should be done along with fertilization because supplementary feeds are very
important to enhance growth of fishes significantly.
Keywords: Amounts of feed, Production of fish, Environmental factors, Pond, Polyculture.
1
Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Mymensingh-2202.
2
Upazila Fisheries Officer, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Govt. of People’s
Republic of Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author’s email: ronybau14@gmail.com (S. Sultana)
Cite this article as: Sultana, S., Rahman, M.S., Jackshay, K.A. and Hasan, K. 2020. Effect of different amounts
of feeds on growth and production of fishes in pond polyculture. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 128-136.
Introduction
Bangladesh is ideally a land for fish production, Bangladesh has ranked 3rd in the world in terms
having one of the highest per capita water ratios of inland fish production in 2018 (FAO, 2018).
in the world. As we know, Bangladesh is a Fisheries sector is playing a very significant role
riverine and maritime country. All these water in the socioeconomic development, and deserve
bodies offer tremendous scope and potentiality potential for future development in the agrarian
for increasing fish production by adopting proper economy of Bangladesh. This sector is
management techniques. The role played by contributing significantly in food security
fisheries resources of Bangladesh in food, through proving safe and quality animal protein;
nutrition, economy, employment, earning foreign almost 60 percent animal protein comes from
exchange as well as socio-cultural heritage of the fish (FRSS, 2018). It contributes 3.61 percent to
nation is, in a word, enormous. our national GDP and around one-fourth (24.41
percent) to the agricultural GDP (DoF, 2018).
Bangladesh is one of the world’s leading fish Over the last three decades, the fish production
producing countries with a total production of has increased more than five times (7.54 MT in
42.77 lakh MT, where aquaculture contributes 1983-84 to 41.34 lakh MT in 2016-17) (FRSS,
56.24 percent to total production (FRSS, 2018). 2018).
Sultana et al. (2020) Effect of different amounts of feeds on growth and production of fishes
The demand of fish for human consumption is Although many attempts have been made to
increasing rapidly day by day with the increasing understand the effect of supplementary feeds but
population. So, it is very important to concentrate in earthen pond, polyculture system use of
on the immediate action to take for enhancing the supplementary feed like rice brane and wheat
production of fish to fulfill the demand of the bran along with fertilizer TSP and Urea, a very
increasing population in terms of food, nutrition, few studies have been done. Considering the
employment as well as foreign exchange dynamic effects of these supplementary feeds, the
earnings. Improved techniques should be applied experiment on the effects of different amounts of
and management practices should be developed
supplementary feeding on production of rui
to get higher fish production. Application of
supplementary diet along with fertilizer is one of (Labeo rohita), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala),
the most important techniques; by applying Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and tilapia
fertilizer, we can increase fish production. (Oreochromis niloticus) was undertaken to
Modern fish culture means improvement of evaluate the effects of supplementary feeding of
cultural practices through adopting different rice bran and wheat bran under three different
measures such as proper amount of treatments.
supplementary diets, proper doses of fertilizer
application, maintenance of physico-chemical Materials and Methods
factors, proper selection of culture species,
disease prevention and various control measures. In order to investigate the effect of different
However, the practice has to be cost effective so amounts of feeds on growth and production of
that it can be applicable among the marginal fishes in pond polyculture an experiment was
people of our country which will contribute to carried out in six ponds. All the experimental
improve their livelihood. So use of rice bran and ponds were arbitrarily numbered as pond no. 1
wheat bran as supplementary diet can be proved (P1), pond no. 2 (P2), pond no. 3 (P3), pond no. 4
very cost effective as well as useful for the (P4), pond no. 5 (P5) and pond no. 6 (P6) for the
production and growth of fishes in polyculture convenience of the research.
system because these are easily available in
Bangladesh. Supplementary diet is known to Experimental layout
increase the carrying capacity of culture systems
and can enhance fish production by many folds. The experimental layout has been given in the
The use of supplementary feed in carp culture has table below (Table 1):
become inevitable for the success of fish culture
(Shahzadi et al., 2006).
Table 1. Layout of the experiment.
Treatment Kind of feed and amount Fish species, ratio and Replication Fertilization
and pond no. used population density
Treatment-I Rice bran and wheat bran Rui: Mrigal: Common 2 Urea 60 g,
(Pond 3 & 5) (l:l) at 5% of body weight carp: Tilapia =1:1:1:1; and T.S.P.
of fishes 80 fishes 90 g
Treatment-II Rice bran and wheat bran -do- 2 decimal-1
(Pond 1 & 2) (l:l) at 3% of body weight fortnightly
of fishes
Treatment- No feed -do- 2
III
(Pond 4 & 6)
Pond preparation and management: All Stocking of fish: After 7 days of fertilization,
kinds of undesirable species were removed from fishes rui (Labeo rohita), mrigal (Cirrhinus
the ponds by netting. Then all the ponds were mrigala), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), and
dried, renovated and cleaned of aquatic tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) were collected
vegetation of the embankment manually. Liming from a fish seed farm and stocked at the rate of
(CaO) was done in all the ponds at the rate of 1 kg total 80 fish per decimal at the ratio of rui:
decimal-1 before 7 days of fertilization. mrigal: common carp: tilapia = 1: 1: 1: 1,
respectively with initial average weight 1.79 kg
Fertilization of pond: Inorganic fertilizers and initial average length 10.64 cm.
were used in the ponds fortnightly with the
Supplementary feeds: The mixture of rice
application of urea at the rate of 60 g decimal-1
bran and wheat bran in ratio of 1:1 were applied
and triple super phosphate was applied at the
once daily in the morning between 8.00 and 9:00
rate of 90 g decimal-1. TSP and urea were a.m. The required amount of feed was mixed with
dissolved in water for 24 hours in a plastic bucket a little amount of water to make it into thick
and then applied with a mug spreading over the 'dough' rolled into balls. The balls were then
pond surface. thrown into the ponds. Application of rice bran
and wheat bran mixture in ratio of 1:1 as each of the ponds and passed through a plankton
supplementary feeding was done under net (mesh-size 55 μ) and finally concentrated to
treatment-I (amount of feed was 5% of the body 100 ml. Then concentrated samples were
weight of fishes) and treatment-II (amount of preserved in small plastic bottles in 5% formalin
feed was 3% of the body weight of fishes). Fish for study under a compound microscope.
sampling was done at an interval of 15 days in
order to calculate the increase in total weight and Counting of plankton: Counting of both
to adjust the amount of feed. phytoplankton and zooplankton were done with
the help of Sedgwick-Rafter Counting Cell (S-R
Study of water quality parameters: cell).
Methods for study of physical parameters Calculation of plankton: The plankton
population was determined by Sedgwick Rafter
Water depth (m): Depth of water of the counting Cell (S-R Cell) using the following
experimental ponds was measured with the help formula (Rahman, 1992).
of a graduated wooden depth meter.
A × 1000 × C
Transparency (cm): Water transparency of the N = ---------------------- ------
experimental ponds was measured by a V×F×L
Secchidisk.
Where, N = No. of plankton cells per liter of
Temperature (°C): Air and water temperature original water, A = Total no. of plankton counted,
data were collected from ‘Weather Yard’ office of C = Volume of final concentrate of the sample in
the Department of Irrigation and Water ml, V = Volume of a field = 1 mm³, F = No. of the
Management, BAU, Mymensingh. fields counted, L = Volume of original water in
Methods for study of chemical parameters liter.
Dissolved oxygen (mg L-1): Dissolved oxygen of The number of phytoplankton and zooplankton
water was measured by portable digital dissolved were expressed as cells L-1.
oxygen (DO) meter (model: DO5509, Lutron, Estimation of growth and production of
made in Taiwan). fishes
pH (Hydrogen-ion concentration): pH was
Finally, the fishes were harvested from all the
determined by a portable digital pH meter
ponds with the help of a cast net and then
(Hanna Instruments, Italy, model-H 196107).
rotenone powder was used for complete
Free carbon dioxide (mg L-1): For determining harvesting and the final length and weight were
free carbon dioxide of water, samples were recorded. Survival rate (%), net and gross fish
collected in 250 ml black plastic bottles and production (ton ha-1 yr-1) were calculated
titrated with 0.022 N sodium hydroxide solution according to the following formulas:
using phenolphthalein as indicator.
i) The survival rate was estimated by the
Total alkalinity (mg L-1): To determine total following formula:
alkalinity, samples were collected in 250 ml black No.of harvested fish
plastic bottles and total alkalinity of water Survival rate (%) = × 100
Initial no. of fish
samples was determined by titrimentric method
using methyl orange indicator. ii) Gross fish production (ton ha-1 yr-1)
Phosphate-phosphours (PO4-P) (mg L-1): =

Gross weight(kg)of fish per decimal per month×250×12
Phosphate-phosphorus (PO4-P) of water samples 1000
of the ponds was determined by a digital iii) Net fish production (ton ha-1 yr-1.)
Phosphate Meter (model HI 93717, Hanna
Instruments). Net weight (kg)of fish per decimal per month×250×12
=
1000
Nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) (mg L-1): Nitrate
nitrogen (NO3-N) was determined by a digital Results
Nitrate Meter (model HI 93728, Hanna
Water quality parameters
Instruments.
During the experimental period, a number of
physico-chemical and biological parameters of
Methods for study of biological
pond water like average water depth,
parameters
transparency, air temperature, water
Collection and preservation of plankton temperature, rainfall, dissolved oxygen, free CO2,
samples: Water samples in a 500 ml bottle were pH, total alkalinity, PO4-P, NO3-N, plankton were
randomly collected for quantitative and determined. Fortnightly variations and
qualitative study of phytoplankton and descriptions of all the water quality parameters of
zooplankton of water from different locations of the ponds in all treatments have given below:
Table 2. Study of physical parameters (Mean ± S.D, n=3) during the experiment.
Parameter T-I T-II T-III
Average Water Depth (m) 0.898±0.02 0.90±0.02 0.89±0.01
Transparency(cm) 23.740±0.91 23.60±1.03 23.80±0.87
Air Temperature(°C) 28.430±1.20 28.43±1.20 28.43±1.21
Water Temperature(°C) 27.330±1.45 27.33±1.45 27.33±1.45
Rainfall (mm) 7.8±6.83 7.8±6.83 7.8±6.83
Chemical parameters
The results of the different chemical parameters
of the experimental ponds during the
experimental period have been presented in the
Fig. 1, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Fortnightly fluctuation of chemical

parameters of the ponds under treatment-III.
Biological parameters
The results of the conducted experiment, the
biological parameters such as phytoplankton and
zooplankton cell density (cells L-1), genetic status
and fluctuation of cell densities of phytoplankton
Fig. 1. Fortnightly fluctuation of chemical and zooplankton have been presented in Table 3
parameters under treatment-I. and 4.
Phytoplankton (cells L-1): During the study
period, 26 genera of phytoplankton belonging to
four groups of Chlorophyceae, Bacillariophyceae,
Euglenophyceae and Cyanophyceae were found
in all the six ponds. The average density of
phytoplankton of the ponds under treatment-I
was 76.10 ± 2.72 (x103) cells L-1 and that of the
ponds under treatment-II was 78.02 ± 3.63
(x103) cells L-1 and that of the ponds under
treatment-III was 67.01 ± 2.26 (x103) cells L-1
(Table 4).
Zooplankton (cells L-1): During the experimental
period, different zooplankton belonging to 3
groups of Rotifera (6 genera), Copepoda (4
genera) and Cladocera (2 genera) were found in
all the experimental ponds. The average density
of zooplankton of the ponds under treatment-I
was 8.03 ± 0.43 (x103) cells L-1 and that of the
ponds under treatment-II was 7.92 ± 0.46 (x103)
cells L-1 and that of the ponds under treatment-III
Fig. 2. Fortnightly fluctuation of chemical was 7.09 ± 0.38 (x103) cells L-1 (Table 4).
parameters of the ponds under treatment-II.
Table 3. Generic status of phytoplankton and Zooplankton found in the experimental ponds under
treatments I, II and III.
Phytoplankton
Bacillariophyceae Chlorophyceae Cyanophyceae Euglenophyceae
1. Asterionella1. Closterium 1. Anabaena 1. Euglena
2. Actinella 2. Chlorella 2. Aphanocapsa 2. Phacus
3. Coscinodiscus
3. Pediastrum 3. Gomphosphaeria
4. Cyclotella 4. Scenedesmus 4. Microcystis
5. Diatom 5. Sphaerocystis 5. Oscillatoria
6. Fragilaria 6. Spirogyra 6. Pleurosigma
7. Navicula 7. Tetraedon
8. Nitzchia 8. Ulothrix
9. Tabellaria 9. Volvox
Zooplankton
Crustacean
Cladocera Copepoda Rotifera
1. Daphnia 1. Cyclops 1. Asplanchna
2. Diaphanosoma 2. Diaptomus 2. Brachionus
3. Moina 3. Filinia
4. Nauplius 4. Keratella
(crustacean larva) 5. Polyarthra
6. Trichocera
Table 4. Cell densities of phytoplankton and zooplankton of the experimental ponds during the
experimental period.
Parameters Treatment
T-I T-II T-III
Phytoplankton 76.10±2.72 78.02±3.63 67.01±2.26
(× 103, cells L-1)
Zooplankton 8.03±0.43 7.92±0.46 7.09±0.38
(× 103, cells L-1)
Survival rate, growth and production of fish treatment-I were 8.87 and 7.33 ton ha-1 yr-1; and
those of the ponds under treatment-II were 7.12
Survival rate: The survival rate (%) of fishes
and 5.58 ton ha-1 yr-1; and those of the ponds
were different in the treatments. The mean
under treatment-III were 4.69 and 3.16 ton ha-1
survival rate of rui, mrigal, common carp and
yr-1, respectively (Table 5). The percent increase
tilapia in treatment-I was 93.75% and in
of net yield (kg/decimal/3.5 months) of all fishes
treatment-II was 91.88% and in treatment-III
of treatments I and II over treatment III were
was 86.88%.
232.61% and 176.90%, respectively (Table 5). The
Production of fish: The gross and net productions calculated percent increase of net yield (ton ha-1
of fish of the ponds under treatment I, II and yr-1) of all fishes of treatments I and II over
treatment III have been presented in the Table 5 treatment III were 231.97% and 176.59%,
and Fig. 4. The calculated average gross and net respectively (Table 5).
productions of all fishes of the ponds under
Table 5. Survival rate, growth and production (gross and net) of fishes of the ponds under treatment I,
II and III.
Treatment Survival Final total Initial Production Production *Percent
rate wt. of fish total wt. (kg/decimal (ton ha-1 yr-1) increase
(kg/decimal/ of fish /yr) of net
3.5 months) (kg/ Gross Net Gross Net yield of
decimal) T-I and
T-II over
T-III
T-I 93.75 10.34 1.79 35.47 29.33 8.87 7.33 231.97%
(Rice bran:
Wheat bran=1:1,
5% of body
weight+
Fertilization)
T-II 91.88 8.29 1.78 28.44 22.30 7.12 5.58 176.59%
(Rice bran:
Wheat bran=1:1,
3% of body
weight+
Fertilization)
T-III 86.88 5.47 1.80 18.74 12.60 4.69 3.16 100%
(Control+
Fertilization
*Net production of Treatment III (T-III) was taken for 100%.
of fishes are the outcomes of aquaculture. The
primary productivity of water body is dependent
Gross Net
on physical and chemical factors of water in
8.87 relation to the environmental factors (Rahman,
Gross and Net productions
9 1992).
8 7.33 7.12 Physical parameters
7
(ton/ha/yr)
5.58 Water quality, especially chemical qualities

6 almost completely depend on physical
4.69
5 parameters. So, physical parameters are very
4 important for fish production. There are various
3.16
kinds of physical factors such as water depth,
3 transparency, air temperature, water
2 temperature, rainfall etc. All of these physical
1 parameters directly influence on the survival and
growth of fishes. Sometimes these factors are
0 uncontrollable but can be managed upon a
T-I T-II T-III certain limit by following the proper management
Treatments practices. Depth of a water body has great
significance to the production of aquatic
organisms. During the experimental period,
Fig. 4. Gross and Net productions (ton ha-1 yr-1) of
fortnightly fluctuations of water depth ranged
fish under treatments I, II and III.
from 0.85 to 0.94 m. Jhingran (1975) stated that
Discussion a depth of about 2 m of a pond is suitable from
the viewpoint of biological productivity. Rahman
Quality of the aquatic environment generally (1992) stated that pond should not be shallower
depends on various kinds of factors such as than lm and deeper than 5 m and optimum depth
physical factors, chemical factors, biological should be 2 m.
factors etc. Water qualities of a water body are
very important to achieve the maximum Reid and Wood (1976) reported that
production in fish culture. Suitable water quality transparency of water usually affected by several
is prerequisite to maintain a healthy aquatic factors such as siltation, microscopic organisms,
environment and play a significant role on suspended organic matter, latitude, season and
growth and production of fish and other aquatic the angle, and intensity of sunlight. Transparency
organisms, because good growth and production showed a variation during the study period due to
application of fertilizers and rainfall. Rahman dissolved oxygen show an inverse relationship.
(1992) reported that Secchi disc visibility of 40 According to Rahman (1992), DO content of
cm or less in ponds, if water turbidity is due to productive pond should be 5 ppm or more.
plankton, indicates productivity. The range of
the transparency recorded during the study was During the study period, the dissolved oxygen
more or less within the productive range in all of content of water of the experimental ponds varied
the treatments. Reid (1964) reported that the from 5.0 to 6.3 mg L-1. In many cases carbon-
transparency of water was affected by several dioxide may be considered as a troublesome
factors, such as silting, microscopic organisms, substance but it is the basis of all life on earth.
suspended organic matter, latitude, season, the The basic food production by plants through
angle and intensity of light penetration. photosynthesis is not possible without free
carbon-dioxide. Bound and half-bound carbon-
Growth, production and other biological activities dioxide has profound influence on the water
of fish are directly influenced by air temperature, quality (Rahman, 1992). According to Lagler
which is the very important physical parameter. (1972), free carbon-dioxide more than 20 mg L-1
Throughout the experimental period, the air may be harmful to fishes. During the
temperature was found to vary from 24.8°C to experimental period, free carbon dioxide
33.1°C. The air temperature was high in the concentration of the ponds under treatment-I,
month of July and low in August due to sunshine treatment-II and treatment-III varied from
period, cloudy days, and other seasonal varied from 2.3 mg L-1 to 10.0 mg L-1, 4.0 mg L-1
variations. Water temperature is the most to 8.4 mg L-1 and 4.8 mg L-1 to 12.0 mg L-1,
important physical factor. For 1°C rise of respectively.
temperature metabolic rate of fish increases 10%.
As we know that fish is a poikilothermic animal, pH is treated as the productivity index of water
so, it influences the growth, production and other body that's why it is an important chemical factor
biological activities of fish. During the in fish culture. According to Swingle (1967), pH
experimental period, the water temperature value of 6.5 to 9.0 is suitable for pond fish culture
fluctuated between 25.5°C to 29.5°C among and pH more than 9.5 is unsuitable for fish
treatments I, II and III. Murty et al. (1978) culture. pH less than 6.5 reduces fish growth,
recorded temperature range of 24.50 to 32.50°C physiological activities and tolerance to toxic
suitable for fish culture, which is very similar to substances. Parasites and disease easily attack
the present study. Jhingran (1991) quoted that fish when pH is less than 6.5 (Rahman, 1992).
the suitable temperature range for the growth of The pH value of the experimental ponds under
Indian major carps is from 18.8°C to 37.8°C. treatment-I, treatment-II and treatment-III
varied from 6.8 to 8.2.
Chemical parameters
The term total alkalinity refers to the total
Survival rate and growth of fish depend on concentration of carbonate, bicarbonate and
chemical parameters of the aquatic environment. hydroxide in water expressed in milligrams per
During the experimental period, all of the liter of equivalent calcium carbonate. Alkalinity
chemical parameters were found within the does not directly help aquatic biotic production.
suitable range for fish culture. In alkaline waters, essential nutrients are found
in higher quantities and this is the most
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the most important
important reason for higher biological
chemical factor for all aquatic organisms except
productivity in alkaline waters than in acidic
anaerobic bacteria. Regular supply of dissolved
waters. During the study period total alkalinity of
oxygen is required by all the aquatic organisms.
the ponds under treatment-I, II & III ranged
Suitability of water for fish and other organisms
from 134 to 182 mg L-1. Rahman (1992) reported
can be measured from DO value. The sources of
that total alkalinity of productive ponds should be
dissolved oxygen in pond are primarily through
20 ppm or more and total alkalinity usually may
the photosynthesis of phytoplankton and other
range from zero to several hundred ppm.
aquatic plants and secondarily by diffusion from
According to Boyd (1982), total alkalinity of
the atmosphere. Various bacterial and other
productive pond should be 20 ppm or more and
diseases infect fishes if they suffer from
fish production increases with the increase of
insufficient dissolved oxygen for long time.
total alkalinity.
Oxygen depletion occurs in pond water through
respiration of fish, benthic organisms, Phosphate-phosphorous (PO4-P) is often the most
phytoplankton, zooplankton and decomposition important nutrient related to productivity in
of dead organic materials and release to the aquatic ecosystems (Boyd, 1982). The nutrient
atmosphere when the water is supersaturated phosphorous is a limiting factor for plant growth.
with oxygen. Requirements of dissolved oxygen It is available in very small quantity all over the
by fish vary with temperature, physiological state, world. So, phosphate is very important fertilizer
age, time of the day, species, season, food for fish pond. According to Alikunhi (1957),
composition etc. (Boyd, 1982). Temperature and phosphate-phosphorous ranged from 0.20 to
0.04 mg L-1 are within good productive range. In TSP-90g and urea-60 g decimal-1 fortnightly)
the present experiment, phosphate-phosphorous were 7.12 ton ha-1 yr-1 and 5.58 ton ha-1 yr-1,
ranges of the ponds were slightly higher than respectively. Moreover, those of the ponds under
those mentioned in the above statements may be treatment III (control, no supplementary feed
due to regular fertilization. was used, only fertilization was done) were 4.69
ton ha-1 yr-1 and 3.16 ton ha-1 yr-1, respectively. The
Nitrate-nitrogen is extremely important as a present experiment shows that the net
nutrient in supplying nitrogen for protein production of fishes of treatments I and II were
synthesis. The range of nitrate-nitrogen values 232.61% and 176.90% higher than that under
recorded by Das et al. (2005) ranged from 1.60 to treatment III.
3.22 mg L-1 was more or less close to the values
obtained in the present study. According to Hosen et al. (2014) found higher gross and net
Bhuiyan (1970), nitrate-nitrogen ranged from yields of fish fertilization and artificial feeding
0.06 to 1.00 ppm is of productive rage. application than those in case of only
fertilization. Application of artificial feed
Biological parameters significantly increased the growth and production
Phytoplankton: Fishes mainly take of fish more than two times which indicates that
phytoplankton as their main food source that's artificial feeding in polyculture is very useful for
why the density of phytoplankton population increasing fish production which are more or less
indicates the productive status of a water body. similar to those of the present experiment. Abbas
Its abundance in nature is regulated by multiple et al. (2014) found in an experiment on effect of
environmental factors such as temperature, light, fertilization and supplementary feeding in
dissolved oxygen, pH and nutrient concentration polyculture of carps, that fertilization along with
etc. In the present study, the mean values of the supplementary feed is essential for maximum fish
phytoplankton densities were 76.10 ± 2.72 (x103) yield, which has similarity with those of the
cells L-1, 78.02 ± 3.63 (x103) cells L-1 and 67.01 ± present experiment. Zahid et al. (2013) found
2.26 (x103) cells L-1 in treatments I, II and III, that GIFT strain tilapia's growth and production
respectively. was much better in pond with fertilization and
artificial feed than those in pond with only
Zooplankton: The basic sources of food items for fertilization. Hossain et al. (2013) found highest
fish are zooplankton. During the study period, production of fishes by applying supplementary
the mean values of zooplankton densities were feed (rice bran and mustard oil cake) than those
8.03 ± 0.43 (x103) cells L-1, 7.92 ± 0.46 (x103) in pond where only cow dung was used. Babu et
cells L-1 and 7.09 ± 0.38 (x103) cells L-1 in al. (2013) found significantly higher growth and
treatments I, II and III, respectively. production in pond treated with manure and
artificial feed than those in pond treated with
Survival rate, growth and production of fish
manure and control pond (no manure and no
Survival rate (%): In the present experiment, the artificial feed) in an experiment of monoculture
survival rates were different in different of C. catla in 3 ponds in India which has
experimental ponds. The mean survival rates in similarity with the present experiment. Abdel and
treatments I, II and III were 93.75%, 91.88% and Sweilum (2004) concluded in an experiment of
86.88%, respectively. The survival rate was high tilapia culture using artificial diets, organic
because before fingerlings release, the fertilizers and found best growth and profit in the
experimental ponds were prepared effectively ponds with low level of organic fertilizer along
with appropriate doses of lime, urea and TSP. with artificial diet.
Growth and Production of fish: Fish fed with In the present experiment, all of the physico-
supplementary feed grew faster than with only chemical parameters of the ponds under
fertilization. In polyculture system, the frequent treatments I, II and III were more or less similar
application of organic, inorganic fertilizers, but higher production of fish recorded under
supplementary feed and culture species ratio treatment I than those of treatments II and III
make the maintenance of production and the because of the use of feed as rice bran and wheat
maximum utilization of fish food organisms of bran mixture in ratio of 1:1 at an amount of 5% of
pond ecosystems. In the present experiment, fish body weight and use of fertilizer and
calculated gross and net productions of fish of the supplementary feed at an amount of 3% of fish
ponds under treatment 1 (amount of feed was 5% body weight and use of fertilizers under
of the body weight of fishes and use of TSP-90 g treatments I and II affect the growth and
and urea-60 g decimal-1 fortnightly) were 8.87 production of fish significantly than those in
ton ha-1 yr-1 and 7.33 ton ha-1 yr-1, respectively. In treatment III which was control, in which no
the ponds under treatment II (amount of feed supplementary feed was used and only
was 3% of the body weight of fishes and use of fertilization was done fortnightly.
Conclusion
FAO. 2018. The State of World Fisheries and
The research was conducted to investigate the Aquaculture, 2018. Food and Agriculture
effects of different amounts of supplementary Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
feeds on the growth and production of fishes (rui, p. 16.
mrigal, common carp and tilapia) in polyculture FRSS. 2018. Yearbook of Fisheries Statistics of
system. According to the experiment there is no Bangladesh 2017-18. Fisheries Resources
doubt that, the findings have practical Survey System (FRSS), Department of
importance in maximizing the growth and Fisheries Bangladesh, Ministry of Fisheries
production of different fishes in polyculture in and Livestock, Government of the People’s
ponds. All the ponds under three treatments were Republic of Bangladesh. Vol. 35. p. 129.
fertilized. As regards the productions of fishes, Hosen, M.A., Shahjahan, M., Rahman, M.S. and
the present findings show encouraging results, Alam, M.J. 2014. Effects of artificial feeds on
which can support fish farming and can improve growth and production of fishes in
the socio-economic condition of the fish farmers polyculture, Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech.
significantly. Further research works should be 4(2): 11-15.
done on supplementary feeding of different https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v4i2.22637
percentage of body weight. However, the present Hossain, M.I., Ahmed, S., Reza, M.S., Hossain,
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Bioinformatics: scope and challenges in aquaculture research of

Bangladesh- a review
K.M.S. Rana1*, K. Ahammad1, 2 and M.A. Salam1
Received 31 October 2020, Revised 14 December 2020, Accepted 24 December 2020, Published online 31 December 2020
ABSTRACT
Bioinformatics is one of the ongoing trends of biological research integrating gene based
information and computational technology to produce new knowledge. It works to synthesize
complex biological information from multiomics data (results of high throughput
technologies) by employing a number of bioinformatics tools (software). User convenience
and availability are the determining factors of these tools being widely used in bioinformatics
research. BLAST, FASTA (FAST-All), EMBOSS, ClustalW, RasMol and Protein Explorer,
Cn3D, Swiss PDB viewer, Hex, Vega, Bioeditor etc. are commonly operated bioinformatics
software tools in fisheries and aquaculture research. By default, these software tools mine
and analyze a vast biological data set using the available databases. However, aquaculture
scientists can use bioinformatics for genomic data manipulation, genome annotation and
expression profiling, molecular folding, modeling, and design as well as generating biological
network and system biology. Therefore, they can contribute in specified fields of aquaculture
such as disease diagnosis and aquatic health management, fish nutritional aspects and
culture-able strain development. Although having huge prospects, Bangladesh is still in
infancy of applying bioinformatics in aquaculture research with limited resources. Research
council at national level should be formed to bring all the enthusiastic scientists and skilled
manpower under a single umbrella and facilitate to contribute in a collaborative platform.
Besides, fully-fledged bioinformatics degree should be launched at University levels to
produce knowledgeable and trained work force for future research. This review was
attempted to shed light on bioinformatics, as young integrated field of bio-computational
research, and its significance in aquaculture research of Bangladesh.
Keywords: Bioinformatics, Aquaculture, Bangladesh.
1
Department of Aquaculture, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.
2
Fisheries Laboratory, University of Tokyo, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan.
*Corresponding author’s email: ranakms@bau.edu.bd (K.M.S. Rana)
Cite this article as: Rana, K.M.S., Ahammad, K. and Salam, M.A. 2020. Bioinformatics: scope and challenges in
aquaculture research of Bangladesh- a review. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 137-145.
Introduction
Bioinformatics, a new era in computational with other field of life sciences, bioinformatics
biology, was first introduced to refer the study of has bright prospects in aquaculture
information processes in biotic systems (Hesper (Aquainformatics), especially in skirmishing
and Hogeweg, 1970). Since then this branch of aquatic diseases and epizootics, domesticating
science has undergone rigorous development improved brood stock, evolving advanced
with advanced genetic and networking breeding and culture techniques, cost effective
technology. Today’s scientists view sustainable feed development as well as
bioinformatics as an interdisciplinary field of life maintaining congenial aquatic environment.
sciences for conceptualizing biological systems by However, aquaculture is the food producing
integrating biological information with computer sector that has brought worldwide recognition for
based informatics technique. By nature, Bangladesh occupying top 5th position in global
bioinformatics aims at multifaceted biological context (FAO, 2018). In order to sustain this
problems solving, ranging from molecular sector by reducing production cost, the vast
biology to physiological processes by the digitally available aquaculture information need
exchange of information and databases through to be integrated and synthesized through
networks (Vinithkumar, 2006). In accordance computational technology to create public
Rana et al. (2020) Bioinformatics: scope and challenges in aquaculture research of Bangladesh- a review
databases of established aquaculture systems and transcriptomics, metabolomics etc.) data

methodologies. Such cloud databases, output of produced from high throughput technologies
aquainformatics, could save valuable money and (Fig. 1) to shape the unstructured data into
time of the aquaculture scientists by guiding logically structured big frame-work for exploring
towards well defined and specific sectors of the general biological phenomena (Khalil and
interest. In this review, the authors tried to focus Hill, 2005). Consequently, researchers can
on different tools of bioinformatics and its connect the complex biological processes by
importance in aquaculture of Bangladesh. drawing link between in vitro systems and in
vivo animal biology and interpret the results of
Bioinformatics tools and databases for any deviation (Mohanty et al., 2019).
aquaculture research Importantly, the tools must be user friendly and
The Bioinformatics tools are basically the globally available on internet to the mass
software programs designed for collecting, scientific research community for better
organizing, retrieving and analyzing large implications. However, these tools are broadly
amount of multiomics (genomics, proteomics, classified under four categories (Danish et al.,
2017):
Fig. 1. Integration of biological data through bioinformatics.
Some commonly used bioinformatics tools in

a. Homology and similarity tools- identify fisheries and aquaculture described by Meena et
resemblance of novel query sequences having al. (2020):
unidentified structure and function comparing
database sequences whose structure and function i. BLAST (The Basic Local Alignment Search
Tool)- primarily compares query gene and
have been revealed. protein sequences against available references in
b. Protein function analysis- compare query public databases. Currently available in several
protein sequence with the secondary (or derived) forms including PSI-BLAST, PHI-BLAST, BLAST
protein databases containing information on 2 sequences etc.
motifs, signatures and protein domains to ii. FASTA (FAST-All)- compare query
determine biochemical function. sequences of nucleotide or peptide with a
sequence database based on rapid sequence
c. Structural analysis- compare structures algorithm.
with the known structure databases.
d. Sequence analysis- conduct detailed iii. EMBOSS (The European Molecular Biology
analyses (such as evolutionary analysis, Open Software Suite)- a new, open access
software analysis bestowed with around 100
identification of mutations, hydropath regions, programs (applications) for sequence alignment
CpG islands, compositional biases etc.) to and database searching with sequence patterns
ascertain the specific function of the query along with protein motif identification and
sequence. domain analysis, nucleotide sequence pattern
analysis, codon usage analysis for small genomes
and so on.
iv. ClustalW- a common purpose multiple submissions from comprehensive sequencing

sequence alignment program for DNA or proteins projects (Benson et al., 2013). The three
to yield biologically meaningful multiple organizations namely the DNA DataBank of
sequence alignments of divergent sequences, Japan (DDBJ), the European Molecular Biology
determines the best match for the selected Laboratory (EMBL), and GenBank at NCBI work
sequences and visualizes the identities, altogether on constant data sharing basis as part
similarities and differences by lining them up. of the International Nucleotide Sequence
Database Collaboration (INSDC) (Benson et al.,
v. RasMol and Protein Explorer (derivative 2013). The Protein Data Bank (PDB), in
of RasMol) - widely used for structural display of particular, contains 3D structural data on
DNA, proteins, and smaller molecules. biological macromolecules (i.e. protein sequences
Moreover, Cn3D, Swiss PDB viewer, Hex, Vega, and structures) for more than 30,000 global
Bioeditor, Bioviewer, Chime etc. are also good repositories including many marine organisms
names of bioinformatics software tools used in (Vinithkumar, 2006). Thereafter, for
fisheries and aquaculture research. strengthening aquatic bioinformatics through
biographical and ecological analyses, the Micro-
A large volume of biological data are mined and Mar database of marine microbial genome has
analyzed by software tools using the available recently been developed with a view to collecting
databases to harvest invaluable biological DNA diversity information from Marine
information. Biological databases work as the prokaryotes (Vinithkumar, 2006). Besides the
libraries of life-sciences-information in primary nucleotide database there are also some
bioinformatics, which are developed from latest databases for being used in bioinformatics
scientific researches, high-throughput such as protein sequence databases, proteomic
technology, available literature and databases, protein structure, carbohydrate
computational analysis (Attwood et al., 2011). structure, protein model, protein-protein and
GenBank is a renowned publicly available other molecular interactions, RNA databases,
inclusive database containing nucleotide signal transduction pathway databases, metabolic
sequences of more than 240000 named pathway and protein function, gene expression
organisms, which is produced and monitored by (mostly microarray data) databases (Kamble and
the National Center for Biotechnology Khairkar, 2016).
Information (NCBI) and being enriched
continuously by individual laboratories and batch
Table 1. Bioinformatics tools used in “Omics” database management (Mohanty et al., 2019).
Frequently used bioinformatics tools Databases
✓ Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST)- compares nucleotide or protein Genomics/
sequences against databases that contain many archived sequences. transcriptomics
✓ Primer-BLAST- uses Primer 3 to design PCR primers to a sequence template.
✓ Splign- used for computing cDNA-to-Genomic sequence alignments.
✓ GenBank: BankIt/ Sequin-both are web-based sequence submission tool to the
GenBank database.
✓ Sequence Read Archive (SRA) Submission-stores sequencing data from the
next generation of sequencing platforms including Roche 454 GS System,
Illumina, Life Technologies AB SOLiD System.
✓ Translate- Translates a nucleotide sequence to a protein sequence. Proteomics
✓ FindMod- Predict potential protein post-translational modifications and
potential single amino acid substitutions in peptides.
✓ Mascot -Sequence query and MS/MS ion search from Matrix Science Ltd.,
London.
✓ ProtParam- Physico-chemical parameters of a protein sequence (amino-acid
and atomic compositions, isoelectric point, extinction coefficient, etc.).
✓ ScanProsite-Scans target sequence against PROSITE or a pattern against the
UniProt Knowledgebase (Swiss-Prot and TrEMBL).
✓ Protein Data Bank (PDB)- archive-information about the 3D shapes of
proteins, nucleic acids, and complex assemblies.
✓ MS-Fit- correlating Mass Spectrometry data (parent masses only, not fragment
masses) with a protein in a sequence database which best fits the data.
✓ Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) Pathway- a collection of High throughput analysis
databases, utilized for data analysis in genomics, metagenomics, metabolomics
and other omics studies, modeling and simulation in systems biology, and
translational research.
✓ Biocarta.
However, biological databases, based on their genome sequence), secondary (derived

sources of information, can be grouped into information from primary and composite
primary (information of the sequence or databases; e.g. SCOP developed at Cambridge
structure alone; e.g. Gen bank and DDBJ for university, CATH at university college of London,
eMOTIF at standford etc.) and composite itself a crucial aid in the sequencing process.
(information from variety of primary database Furthermore, the rapid and cost effective
sources in one platform, e.g. The NCBI nucleotide manners of next generation sequencing (NGS)
and protein databases provides free access) platforms have proved its efficiency in decoding
databases (Kamble and Khairkar, 2016). Table 1, whole genome sequences of various organisms
enumerates the widely used bioinformatics tools ranging from human to microscopic viruses
for efficient and standard management of including fish genomes with complex polyploidy
“omics” data and databases. levels (Oliver et al., 2015; Krampis and Wultsch,
2015). The development of rapid and reliable
Practical application of Bioinformatics in DNA sequencing techniques (Sanger and
aquaculture research Coulson, 1975; Maxam and Gilbert, 1977) have
Bioinformatics work to organize large biological produced large scale sequencing data that are
data, develop appropriate tools and resources for need to be analyzed by efficient bioinformatics
analysis, interpret the results in biological methodologies equipped in powerful computers
manner and make databases available for global with sufficient memory. For instance, the
analytical research. Thus, bioinformatics enable shotgun sequencing techniques applied in Phage
researchers to browse existing biological Φ-X174 and Haemophilus influenza genome
information and submit their experimental sequencing has generated sequences of tens of
findings to global databases (e.g. DNA Data Bank thousands of small DNA fragments, ranging from
of Japan). Consequently, these approaches pave 35 to 900 nucleotide bases and required the
the way to uncover common principles of assembly of a complete bacterial genome (Sanger
biological systems and highlight novel features. et al., 1977; Fleischmann et al., 1995). The
Table 2 shows bioinformatics data sources and terminals of these sequenced shotgun clones
their potential application. Therefore, overlap and can be assembled using
Bioinformatics can be employed by aquaculture computerized similarity search algorithms (a
researchers for numerous applications such as: critical area of bioinformatics research) into the
complete genome (Mount, 2004;
i. Genomic data manipulation, genome Abdurakhmonov, 2016). Additionally, manual
annotation and expression profiling: genome annotation and prediction are literally
Bioinformatics tools are indispensable part of impossible, therefore require computerized
genome sequencing. For example, currently bioinformatics tools. The first genome annotation
available BLAST/sequence alignments, in computer program was designed by Owen White
addition to handling, analyzing, comparing, in 1995, to aid analysis and annotation of H.
relating, and visualizing DNA sequences, provide influenza genome (Fleischmann et al., 1995).
Table 2. Sources and utilization of bioinformatics data in different subject areas (Kamble and Khairkar, 2016).
Data Sources Research Areas
Genomes 1) Phylogenetic analysis
2) Linkage analysis relating specific genes to diseases
3) Characterization of protein content metabolic pathways
4) Characterization of repeats
5) Structural assignments to genes
Raw DNA sequence 1) Identification of introns and exons
2) Separating coding and non-coding regions
3) Forensic analysis
4) Gene product prediction
Protein sequence 1) Multiple sequence alignments algorithms
2) Sequence comparison algorithms
3) Identification of conserved sequence motifs
Gene expression 1) Mapping expression data to sequence, structural and biochemical data
2) Correlating expression patterns
Macromolecular structure 1) Protein geometry measurements
2) Secondary, tertiary structure prediction
3) 3D structural alignment algorithms
4) Surface and volume shape calculations
5) Intermolecular interactions
However, all presently available gene annotation RNA transcripts, other functional sequences etc.),
and prediction software have been developed bioinformatics tools recognize the start-stop
based on White’s principles (Abdurakhmonov, regions, introns, exons, motifs, repeats, and other
2016). In the process of gene finding and regulatory, sensory or signaling regions within a
annotation (e.g. searching protein-coding genes, genome which may vary between genes and
among organisms. Bioinformatics tools are also and derived information on structure, dynamics,
essential in gene and protein expression surface properties, and thermodynamics of
profiling. The popular gene expression complex biological systems. However, the
techniques, viz., serial analysis of gene expression bioinformatics tools for modeling and designing
(SAGE), expressed sequences tags (ESTs), are highly diversified (Abdurakhmonov, 2016).
massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS),
transcriptome profiling, or RNA-Seq, and other iii. Generating biological network and
microarray profile data often produce biased system biology
biological measurement because of their extreme Bioinformatics can aid fisheries and aquaculture
noise-prone nature. Bioinformatics tools researchers in developing aquatic biology
therefore are required to separate signal from network. Bioinformatics approaches including
noise in high-throughput gene expression molecular sequence analysis, prediction,
researches (Abdurakhmonov, 2016). annotation and molecular modeling, which
Bioinformatics is also required in protein comprise the nucleus for building, organizing,
identification (detecting complex sequence and systematizing biological networks of
similarity) by protein microarrays and high- molecules (e.g., metabolic, protein-protein
throughput mass spectrometry using protein interactions etc.) (Abdurakhmonov, 2016). Such
sequence databases (Loo et al., 1999; Tom et al., networks for cellular processes, (which are the
2013). integration of various forms of genome data such
ii. Molecular folding, modeling, and design: as DNA-RNA-proteins sequences, secondary
metabolites, gene expression data etc.) are both
Aquaculture scientists can apply structural physically or functionally connected and
bioinformatics in identification of three therefore useful to understand complex relations
dimensional (3D) structures of complex protein among cellular processes and other biological
from aquatic organisms. They can also use networks. However, sustaining such biological
molecular modeling, and folding to anticipate the networks for understanding system biology, a
possible function and model behavior of any simulative, iterative, and model-oriented
molecular structures including proteins. They can bioinformatics approaches are required
also fold the molecule to its native functional 3D (Ma’ayan, 2011). Examples of such networks are
structure, and design therapeutic drugs for many the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes
complex fish diseases by applying structural (KEGG), BioCyc database collection,
bioinformatics. It also helps in denovo designing BRaunschweig ENzyme DAtabase (BRENDA),
of complex bimolecular (e.g. protein, enzyme) Reactome, Comparative Toxicogenomics
structures and their possible interactions (Selkoe, Database etc (Abdurakhmonov, 2016).
2013; Abdurakhmonov, 2016). By virtue of, the
function of protein is strongly correlated to its iv. Database development:
primary structure, resulting from the coding DNA A database is a planned and structured
sequences. Homology modeling, based on organization of relevant data. A user, seeking
homology patterns in primary protein structure, information, gets access to a database by an
is used to predict important structural formations integrated set of computer software, which is
and interaction sites of a query protein termed as “database management system
comparing with other homologous proteins of (DBMS)”. The DBMS works to assure consumer
known structure. Determination of secondary, access to all the contained data, at the same time
tertiary, quaternary as well as 3D structures is execute the entry of defined data, subsequent
very crucial for identifying exact function of storage, revision, supervision, and retrieval. The
query protein, whereas failure to fold into native DBMS requires modeling (hierarchical and
structure may result in toxic or inactive proteins network models), clustering, query languages and
(Sloan et al., 2016). In this regards, query optimization as well as visualization
bioinformatics through energy landscape and algorithms for managing large datasets to
modeling of protein folding approaches can facilitate users with extraction of information
mitigate the problem (Selkoe, 2013; (Mount, 2004; Abdurakhmonov, 2016).
Abdurakhmonov, 2016). Take for example, the Therefore, application of bioinformatics is a
“Iterative Threading Assembly Refinement” (I- prerequisite for successful database development
TASSER) is an open access popular web server and convenient management. A large extent of
/stand-alone software tools widely used for bioinformatics tools have been employed to
structural and functional characterization of develop an exclusive number of databases, which
proteins in a comparative scale (Yang and Zhang, are different in their data definition, application,
2015). Moreover, bioinformatics through format, and access types (Table 1).
molecular modeling (quantum chemistry
approaches) shed light on the molecular behavior
Aquaculture fields for bioinformatics biotechnology was primarily based on phenotypic

devoted research superiority selection and chromosomal
manipulation. This trend has largely been
a. Disease diagnosis and aquatic health
management
replaced by gene sequencing and annotation. The
second (next-generation sequencing) and third-
Molecular and DNA based diagnostic tools generation sequencing technologies can produce
incorporating bioinformatics can provide early terabits of data which require annotation using
detection (prior to signs and symptoms) of fish bioinformatics platform (such as Illumina
disease. This is done either by direct sequencing sequencing) to produce information on genes
of pathogen DNA, amplifying specific sequences underlining the performance and production
or detecting DNA and gene expression using traits. By analyzing the results aquaculture
nucleic acid microarrays as bioinformatics tools scientists can contribute to new strain
(Altinok and Kurt, 2003). Although many more development of aquaculture species. However,
are to come, bioinformatics based DNA detection the majority of aquaculture species genomes have
tools are available for infectious hematopoietic been sequenced using the Illumina technology
necrosis virus (IHNV), viral hemorrhagic and few have been supplemented with third-
septicemia virus (VHSV), viral nervous necrosis generation sequencing technologies such as
virus (VNNV) and Renibacterium salmoninarum PacBio sequencing (FAO, 2017). Whole genome
(Mohanty et al.,2019). Moreover, bioinformatics information are available now for more than 30
can be applied in aquatic disease monitoring by fish species viz. puffer fish (Takifugu rubripes
assessing environmental variables, genetic and Tetraodon nigroviridis), medaka (Oryzias
factors of the host fish as well as virulence of the latipes), zebrafish (Danio rerio), Atlantic salmon
pathogenic agents by interpreting genomics, (Salmo salar), Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua),
proteomics and next-generation sequencing data three spine sticklebacks (Gasterosteus
on bioinformatics platforms such as “linux”. aculeatus), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
Correspondingly, vaccination with nucleic acid mykiss), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), hilsa
(enhanced immunity in host), detecting stress shad (Tenualosa ilisha) etc (Mohanty et
resistant protein for improved fish wellbeing, al.,2019;Mollah et al., 2019). Genome
specific drug development etc. are some practical annotation on bioinformatics platform of these
implications of bioinformatics in aquatic health species could answer hundreds of their
management (Viarengo et al., 2007; Banerjee et evolutionary and behavioral phenomena that are
al., 2017). crucial from aquaculture perspectives.
b. Fish nutritional aspects Status of bioinformatics associated
aquaculture research in Bangladesh
Bioinformatics, nutrigenomics data in particular,
produce information on diet mediated gene Biological research including aquaculture has
expression, deviation from normal metabolism undergone modernization through the
and associated health status (Ngoh et al., 2015; incorporation of bioinformatics, a
Ganguly et al., 2018). Therefore, worth to multidisciplinary approach relating statistics,
conclude on dietary impact of different test diets computer technology and molecular biology.
and cost effectively select the best one for Bioinformatics, though a global lucrative tools for
aquaculture. Bioinformatics also aid in assessing biological research, is yet not that flourished in
flesh quality of fish by metabolic and mineral aquaculture research of Bangladesh. Still no
profiling of edible muscle, hence, can anticipate agricultural university in Bangladesh is offering
presence of fish allergen (IgE mediated food bachelor degree in bioinformatics, although there
hypersensitivity) and associated public health are some semester courses relating
hazard (Godiksen et al., 2009; Mohanty et al., bioinformatics under different majors in some
2019). universities of Bangladesh. It is imperative that
Bangladesh Agricultural University has launched
c. Suitable strain development for bachelor degree “Bioinformatics Engineering”
aquaculture offered from the Faculty of Agricultural
Bioinformatics in combination of biotechnology Engineering and Technology in 2020, realizing
and informatics can contribute in brood stock the need for well developed multidisciplinary
improvement and domestication. Besides the bioinformatics course and to avail quality
traditional genomic biotechnology (e.g. selective graduate as well as experts in this field.
breeding, polyploidy, gynogenesis, androgenesis, Nevertheless, with few exceptions, many
sex reversal and gene transfer), and DNA marker researchers/research-students/research groups
based genome mapping technology, genome are conducting need based bioinformatics
sequencing along with transcriptomic analyses research in the country but without collaborative
has open a new era of fish breeding. Traditional and integrative approach. Therefore,
Bangladesh Bioinformatics and Computational
Biology Association (BBCBA) have been formed accredited curricula in Bangladesh. Such
and working since 2016, to bring the nation-wide initiative will obviously inspire learner-based
bioinformatics venture under a single umbrella discoveries with improved analytical skills.
with better collaboration.
Challenges of bioinformatics associated
Compared to the developed countries, where aquaculture research
bioinformatics tools have been used exclusively in
fisheries and aquaculture research, Bangladesh is Genome based biotechnology, the core of modern
still a novice. Even our neighboring country India biological invention and discoveries,
has gained enviable progress in this field. India fundamentally relies on bioinformatics to analyze
has developed a good number of databases, for large data sets. Efficient data mining, analysis, re-
instance, Biotechnology Information System analysis, and sharing by bioinformatics are the
Network (BTIS net), Environmental Information keys to successful genome research (FAO, 2017).
System (ENVIS), Agricultural Research However, integration of bioinformatics in
Information Network (ARISNET), The Indian biological research (such as aquaculture) is still
Ocean Biodiversity Information System limited by the inadequate informatics
(IndOBIS) etc with exclusive provision for marine background of the biological scientists
bioinformatics (Chavan et al., 2004; (comprising the end users). Again, informatics
Vinithkumar, 2006). However, application of experts often have insufficient biological
bioinformatics has drastically reduced the knowledge therefore availing “training-scientists”
operation cost of high throughput omics with combined expertise is very difficult. This
technology and has good potential in developing driving force has challenged biology students to
countries like Bangladesh. This is because balance between biological experiments and data
bioinformatics projects do not require traditional analysis using supercomputers. The super
large funding for world class laboratory computers or high-performance computer
development rather high speed internet clusters (HPC) are the basic equipment to
connectivity with some powerful computers and conduct bioinformatics analyses. Such
enthusiastic manpower is merely sufficient computational dependency has created two
(Sikder, 2008; Islam, 2013). Furthermore, the bottlenecks; one is associated with the complex
vision and ongoing development of Bangladesh and less user-friendly software platforms, and the
government in information and communication second one is extravagant purchasing and
technology (ICT) along with open access to the maintenance cost (FAO, 2017). Notably, users
scientific publications, databases and digital need to have basic knowledge of command lines
depositories have ease the way of incorporating to use bioinformatics platforms (e.g., Unix or
bioinformatics in aquaculture research. A good Linux). Furthermore, purchasing and
example of Bangladeshi scientists’ contribution maintaining HPC with regular updates is next to
using bioinformatics (the Illumina HiSeqX impossible for the developing countries like
Platform) is the first draft genome assembly of Bangladesh as often costing over US$1 million.
hilsha (Tenualosa ilisha), which has pave the way Although, cloud computing could be an option in
of identifying genes responsible for physiological, this regard but requires a certain level of
ecological and behavioral adaptations of the high infrastructure and IT resources to undertake
valued fish species (Mollah et al., 2019). bioinformatics analyses.
Correspondingly, such genomic researches Conclusion
associated with bioinformatics on different
aquaculture species can answer to hundreds of Bioinformatics could create major changes in
questions on aquatic drug design (aquatic aquaculture research of Bangladesh by
pharmacology), effective feed development, stock developing common knowledge base of
management, resistant bred development as well aquaculture within a single hub. Such sharing of
as evolutionary biology of commercial fish information would save valuable time and effort
species. It is encouraging that a good number of of aquaculture scientists and at the same time
people (students/researchers) from Bangladesh would reduce haphazard funding for similar
are obtaining higher academic degrees by doing research. Therefore, bioinformatics based
research on bioinformatics every year from research is indispensable for making aquaculture
abroad. The Bangladesh government as well as more sustainable and cost effective in the
native scientists working in international country. However, economic and logistic support
platforms can utilize this large folk of young, from both the government and private sectors are
innovative scientists to develop world class crucial to flourish aquainformatics in
bioinformatics institute as well as globally Bangladesh.
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Effects of feeding pomegranate peel silage on feed intake and growth

performance of Turkey bred sheep
A.G. Moradi, F. Rahmani*, A.S. Aziz and M.F. Qiami
ABSTRACT
The experiment was conducted to determine the effects of feeding pomegranate peel silage
with beet top silage, wheat straw, alfalfa hay, barley, cotton seed cake and mineral plus on
feed intake and growth performance of Turkey bred sheep in research farm of Agriculture
Faculty, Kabul University. Twelve, two and half years old turkey bred sheep with (57.240 ±
5.28) kg average initial body weight were used in a completely randomized design (CRD).
Animals were caged individually in 3 groups and 4 replications. Groups included in this
experiment were, first group (Control) or T1 pomegranate peel silage (PPS) 0%, second group
or T2 (5% PPS) or 106 g and third group or T3 (10% PPS) or 211 g. In addition, animals were
fed with 633 g barley, 633 g alfalfa hay, 211 g cotton seed cake, 106 g beet top silage, 4 g
mineral plus with the same amount and wheat straw for control group or T1, T2 and T3, 528
g, 422 g and 317 g in dry matter (DM) basis, respectively once in a day at around 8 am.
According to statistical analysis, there was a highly significant difference between groups in
feed intake and significant difference in growth performance of sheep. According to L.S.D
test, it was shown that the second group (T2) was better in feed intake and growth
performance compared to other groups. The FCR of T1, T2 and T3 were 12.43, 7.88 and 15.13,
respectively and the FCE were 8.05, 12.69 and 6.61 in control group, T2 and T3, respectively.
Results of this study suggest that feeding (5%) pomegranate peel silage with wheat straw,
alfalfa hay, cotton seed cake, barley, beet top silage and mineral plus affects the feed intake
and growth performance of Tukey sheep.
Keywords: Turkey Sheep, Pomegranate peel silage, Beet top silage.
Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Sciences, Kabul University, Kabul, Afghanistan.

*Corresponding author’s email: rfaizrahman2014@gmail.com (F. Rahmani)
Cite this article as: Moradi, A.G., Rahmani, F., Aziz, A.S. and Qiami, M.F. 2020. Effects of feeding pomegranate
peel silage on feed intake and growth performance of Turkey bred sheep. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2):
146-154. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51588
Introduction
Pomegranate (Punica grantum L.) belongs to reduce the amount of cereals fed to the animals,
Punicaceae family and it is one of the oldest reducing not only the feeding cost of ruminant
known edible fruits (Seeram et al., 2006). The production but also reduce the food competition
edible part of the pomegranate (aril) is about 55 (Salami et al., 2019).
to 60% of total fruit weight and consists of about
75 to 85% juice and 15 to 25% seeds (Abbasi et Pomegranate peel attracts attention due to its
al., 2008). Due to the potential benefits of apparent wound healing properties (Chidambara
pomegranate fruits on human health (Lansky and et al., 2004), immune modulatory activity
Newman, 2007), and the development of (Gracious et al., 2001), antibacterial activity
industrial technologies to obtain more appealing (Navarro et al., 1996) anti-atherosclerotic and
products (e.g. ready-to-eat arils or ready-made anti-oxidative capacities (Tzulker et al., 2007).
juices and extracts; Shabtay et al., 2008), there Anti-oxidative activity has often been associated
has been a great increase in the demand and with a decreased risk of various diseases (Whitley
production of those fruits. Consequently, the et al., 2003). In a previous study it was found
agro-industries yield large amounts of residual that Pomegranate peel had the highest
biomasses, the pomegranate by-products (seeds, antioxidant activity among the peel, pulp and
peels and pulp). At present, the disposal of these seed fractions of 28 kinds of fruits commonly
processing wastes represents a cost, which makes consumed in China as determined by FRAP
imperative to find alternatives. In this regard, (Ferric reducing antioxidant power) assay (Li et
their use in ruminant feeding would contribute to al., 2006). Edible parts of pomegranate fruit
Moradi et al. (2020) Effects of feeding pomegranate peel silage on feed intake of Turkey bred sheep
(about 50% of total fruit weight) comprise 80% toward increased BW gain in bull calves. They
juice and 20% seeds. Fresh juice contains 85% suggested that the antioxidant and
water, 10% total sugars and 1.5% pectin, ascorbic immunomodulatory properties of pomegranate
acid and polyphenolic flavonoids. Dried peels might improve immune function, which
pomegranate seeds contain the steroid estrogen could benefit calf health. On the other hand,
estrone (Heftaman and Bennett, 1996; Moneam Oliveira et al. (2010) found that feeding a
et al., 1988). pomegranate extract to young calves for the first
70 days of life suppressed the intake of grain and
The pomegranate tree (Punica grantum L.) is the digestibility of fat and protein, likely because
important in tropical, subtropical, and of the high tannin content.
Mediterranean regions (Al-Rawahi et al., 2013).
Pomegranate is one of the most popular fruits in N2O is a dangerous greenhouse gas and expected
Afghanistan and the world. Kandahari to increase by 35-60% by 2030 with an increase
pomegranate has the best quality and it is the in demand for meat and dairy products (IPCC,
most popular variety between 48 varieties 2007). PP containing tannins may improve N
available in Afghanistan. Production of utilization efficiency and thereby decrease the N
pomegranate in Afghanistan was 181765 tons content of manure, which, in turn, may affect
with total harvesting area of 15621 acres in 2018 N2O emissions because less N is available to the
(CSO, 2019). denitrifying bacteria that use the manure as
substrate. The addition of saponins from PP can
By 2050, the world will need to feed an additional thus modify the C and N contents of sheep
2 billion people and require 70% more meat and manure. Sheep (Ovis aries L.) produce 8 kg of
milk. The increasing future demand for livestock enteric methane (CH4) gas per animal per year
products, driven by increases in income, (Broucek, 2014) and by using PP in animals
population, and urbanization will impose a huge ration the amount of CH4 may reduce.
demand on feed resources. A huge quantity of
fruit and vegetable wastes and by-products from Dried pomegranate contains 90.15 % dry matter
the fruit and vegetable processing industry are and 9.85 % moisture; it contains 96.57% organic
available throughout the world that encourages to matter and 3.43% ash. Also 6.52% protein, 3.46%
using it as a new source feeds in animal ration Ether extract, 10.50% crude fiber, 76.09% NFE,
formulation. 29.36% NDF, 19.22% ADF, 3.90% ADL, 10.14%
hemicellulose, 15.32% cellulose available in
In a previous study, Shabtay et al. (2008) pomegranate peel composition and 4287 kcal kg-1
demonstrated that dietary supplementation with dry matter for gross energy (Table 1).
fresh pomegranate peels promoted a significant
increase in feed intake, with a positive tendency
Table 1. Chemical composition of dried pomegranate peel.
Chemical composition (%)
Dry Matter 90.15
Organic matter 96.57
Ash 3.43
Protein 6.52
Ether extract 3.46
Crude fiber 10.50
NFE 76.09
NDF 29.36
ADF 19.22
ADL 3.90
Hemicellulose 10.14
Cellulose 15.32
Gross energy (Kcal kg-1 DM) 4287
Amino acid composition of dried pomegranate isoleucine and methionine recorded the moderate
peels (mg 100g-1 DM) that illustrated in (Table 2) values (3.51 and 3.02 g 100g-1 CP, respectively);
cleared that dried pomegranate peel (DPP) meanwhile, threonine showed the lowest value
protein contained a much higher content of (2.12 g 100g-1 CP). Essential amino acids
essential amino acids (arginin, histidine, leucine, recorded (51.30 g 100g-1 CP) of total amino acid
lysine, phenylalanine, and valine). The in DPP, while non-essential amino acids (alanine,
corresponding values were 8.23, 7.56, 7.16, 7.23, aspartic, cystine, glutamic, glycine, proaline,
7.14, and 5.33 (g 100g-1 CP) for the same amino serine, and tyrosine) recorded (48.37 g 100g-1
acids, respectively. On the other hand, both CP).
Table 2. Amino acids content of dried pomegranate peels.

Amino acid composition of dried pomegranate peels (mg 100g-1 DM)
Essential amino acids
Arginine 8.23
Histidine 7.56
Isoleucine 3.51
Leucine 7.16
Lysine 7.23
Methionine 3.02
Phenylalanine 7.14
Threonine 2.12
Valine 5.33
Subtotal 51.30
Nonessential amino acids
Alanine 5.05
Aspartic 8.11
Cystine 1.02
Glutamic 13.52
Glycine 12.41
Proline 3.22
Serine 3.02
Tyrosine 2.02
Subtotal 48.37
Not determined 0.33
Minerals in DPP were found to be Ca, P, K, Na, Vitamins determined in DPP that composed of
and Mg at levels of 342, 120, 150, 68, and 56 mg vitamin B1 (Thiamine), vitamin B2 (Riboflavin),
100g-1 DM, respectively. In addition, the DPP vitamin C (L-Ascorbic acid), vitamin E (α-
contained a considerable amount of Zn, Mn, Cu, Tochoferol), and vitamin A (Retinol). The
Fe, and Se at levels of 1.08, 0.86, 0.65, 6.11, and corresponding values of vitamins determined
1.07 mg 100g-1 DM, respectively. above were 0.141, 0.09, 13.26, 4.13, and 0.181 mg
100g-1 DM of DPP (Table 3).
Table 3. Mineral and Vitamin content of dried pomegranate peel.
Mineral Content of Dried Pomegranate Peel (mg 100g-1 DM)
Macro-elements
Calcium (Ca) 342
Phosphorus (P) 120
Potassium (K) 150
Sodium (Na) 68
Magnesium (Mg) 56
Micro-elements
Zinc (Zn) 1.08
Manganese (Mn) 0.86
Cupper (Cu) 0.65
Iron (Fe) 6.11
Selenium (Se) 1.07
Vitamin content of dried pomegranate peel (mg 100g-1 DM)
B1 (Thiamine) 0.141
B2 (Riboflavin) 0.090
C ( L-Ascorbic acid) 13.260
E (α-Tocopherol) 4.130
A (Retinol) 0.181

kg were divided in a completely randomized
This experiment was carried out on November design (CRD) into three groups (Table 4), this
and December months of 2019 for 21 days at the experiment was done to know the effects of
research and experimental farm of Agriculture pomegranate peel silage along with beet top
Faculty, Kabul University, Kabul, Afghanistan, silage, wheat straw, alfalfa hay, barley, cotton
which lies on 34º31'4.5687 latitude (N) and seed cake and mineral plus, on feed intake and
69º8'18.2174 longitude (W). Twelve female growth performance of turkey bred sheep.
Turkey bred sheep, aged two and half years old
with an average live body weight of 57.240 ± 5.28
Table 4. Experimental groups.
Groups Concentrate Forage

1. Control 45 (%) 25 (%) wheat straw + 30 (%) alfalfa hay
2. 5% PPS 45 (%) 20 (%) wheat straw + 30 (%) alfalfa hay + 5 (%) PPS
3. 10% PPS 45 (%) 15 (%) wheat straw + 30 (%) alfalfa hay + 10 (%)
PPS
The experimental diets (Table 5) calculated to shops, the peels were sun-dried and then cut into
cover the requirements of total digestible small pieces then treated with urea to make silage
nutrients (TDN), protein, calcium and and was ready to use after 30 days. PPS were
phosphorus for 60 kg Sheep according to NRC used in diets with different levels, 0%, 5% or 106
(1998). g and 10% or 211 g. Animals were fed 633 g
barley, 106 g BTS, 4 g mineral plus, 211 g cotton
Wheat straw, alfalfa hay, Barley and cotton seed seed cake, 633 g alfalfa hay with the same
cake and Mineral plus bought from the related amount and wheat straw for control group (T1),
markets of the city, beet tops, after harvesting T2 and T3, 528 g, 422 g and 317 g in DM basis,
they cut into small pieces, sun-dried and then it respectively once in a day at around 8 am. Fresh
was treated with urea to make silage, after 30 water and salt were available all times for
days the silage were ready to use. The animals.
pomegranate peels were collected from the juice
Table 5. Amounts of diets used in the turkey sheep diet during the experiment (%).
Feed Ingredient Control (T1) T2 T3

Barley 30.00 30.00 30.00
Beet top silage 5.00 5.00 5.00
Mineral plus 0.19 0.19 0.19
Cotton seed cake 10.00 10.00 10.00
Alfalfa hay 30.00 30.00 30.00
Wheat straw 25.00 20.00 15.00
PPS 0.00 5.00 10.00
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00
Chemical composition (%)
Dry Matter 84.74 84.03 85.00
TDN 96.00 91.89 93.85
Protein 22.82 22.63 22.89
Calcium 0.88 0.86 0.88
Phosphorus 0.43 0.42 0.43
Energy : protein 4.21 4.06 4.10
Fig. 1. The process of making silage from pomegranate peels and beet tops.
Daily amount of experimental ration weighed Economic evaluation was done using the
before feeding and feed residues were weighed relationship between feed costs (local market
the following morning before feeding the diet. price of ingredients) and sheep live body weight
Body weight changes were weekly recorded gain. Economic evaluation was calculated as
before they fed diet. follow: The cost for 1-kg gain=total cost {Afghani
(AF)} of feed intake/total gain (kilogram).
Collected data of feed intake and live body
weight, were subjected to statistical analysis as Results and Discussion
one-way ANOVA procedure and the groups
comparison done with Least Significance There was a highly significant difference between
Differences (L.S.D) test using MS. Excel. groups in feed intake and significant difference in
weight gain of turkey sheep, according to L.S.D
Average daily gain (ADG) were found by dividing test it was shown that T2 (5% PPS) was better in
the total weight gain to days of experiment. FCR both feed intake and growth performance
were calculated by dividing the total feed intake compared to other groups. In table 6 it is shown
on total weight gain and FCE calculated by that feed intake of control group, 5% PPS and
dividing total weight gain on total feed intake and 10% PPS were 36.008, 39.667 and 38.005 kg,
multiply by 100. respectively and the weight gain was 3.863, 5.034
and 2.513 kg, respectively.
Table 6. Effects of dietary supplementation with PPS on feed intake and weight gain of turkey bred sheep.
Groups Parameter Means Standard P-value

deviation
Control Feed Intake 36.008a 0.81 0.003035
5% PPS (Kg) 39.667ab 0.46
10% PPS 38.005c 1.38
Control Weight Gain 3.863a 0.69 0.048267
5% PPS (Kg) 5.034b 3.81
10% PPS 2.513c 0.50
Tannins are considered to have both adverse and Result of feed intake that illustrated in table 7
beneficial effects in ruminants (Makkar et al., recorded that when 5% PPS and 10% PPS used in
2003). High concentration of tannin may reduce rations of experimental animals, the feed
feed intake, digestibility of protein and consumption increased but the increase was
carbohydrates, and animal performance through higher when 5% PPS used compared to 10% PPS
their negative effect on palatability and digestion group. These results in disagreement with those
(Reed, 1995). reported by Sadq et al. (2016) who showed that
final body weight was significantly (P<0.05)
Pomegranate peel is rich in tannins, which were higher in Karadi lambs fed 1% or 2%
previously shown to have both adverse and pomegranate peel as compared with lambs fed
beneficial effects in ruminants (Makkar, 2003). 4%. In addition, incorporation DPP at level of 1 or
Moderate concentrations of condensed tannins (2 2% significantly (P<0.05) decreased dry matter
to 4% of DM) in the diet of sheep improve intake.
production efficiency in ruminants without
increasing feed intake, as manifested by increases Result of weight gain that illustrated in table 7
in wool growth, BW gain, milk yield, and showed that using 5% PPS group, gained higher
ovulation rate (Aerts et al., 1999). The findings of body weight in comparison to 10% PPS group.
this study were in agreement with this statement The result of this study is in agreement with
because when 10% PPS used the feed intake and Abarghuei et al. (2013), who stated that the
weight gain was low, due to its high Tannin tendency to similar live weight gain in all groups
content. can be attributed to an internal mechanism
related to lambs, but the inclusion of PP as half of
Also the current study is in harmony with Saeed the forage had a clear negative effect on the
et al. (2017) showed in their study that higher dry lambs. Abarghuei et al. (2013) suggest that PP
matter intake (DMI), organic matter intake contains high concentrations of saponin, which
(OMI) and nitrogen intake (NI) of wheat straw by reduces protein digestibility due to negative
lambs fed T2 as compared T1 may due to improve effects on digestion, and decreases feed
rumen condition as a result of anti-oxidative consumption by reducing the palatability.
property of pomegranate peel (PP) (16) (17) However, result of the current study is in
demonstrated that addition of PP significantly disagreement with Kotsampasi et al. (2014) who
enhance feed Intake. Those workers suggested stated that the addition of PP to the total mixed
that anti-oxidative and immunomodulatory ratio (TMR) at concentrations of 0, 120, and 240
properties of PP might improve immune g kg-1 did not significantly affect live weight, live
function, which could benefit calf health. weight gain, DM consumption, and feed
utilization.
Table 7. Feed intake and growth performance of experimental animals.
Items Control 5% PPS 10% PPS

Live Body weight (kg)
No. of Animals 4 4 4
Initial weight (kg) 58.973 ± 3.210 59.101 ± 6.880 53.645 ± 2.580
0-7 57.433 1.642 54.872 1.822 54.015 1.575
8-14 59.533 2.100 55.691 0.819 53.714 -0.301
15-21 60.126 0.593 57.051 1.360 54.595 0.881
22-28 61.870 ± 3.620 64.135 ± 3.640 56.158 ± 2.970
Final weight (kg)
Total body weight gain (Kg) 2.898 ± 0.690 5.034 ± 3.810 2.513 ± 0.500
Experiment Duration (days) 21 21 21
Average Daily Gain (ADG, g day-1) 138.00 ± 0.030 239.700 ± 0.180 119.600 ± 0.030
Feed Intake
Feed consumption (Kg day-1 as fed) 1.905 2.099 2.011
Feed consumption (Kg DM-1 basis) 1.715 1.889 1.810
Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) 12.430 7.880 15.130
Feed Conversion Efficiency (FCE) 8.050 12.690 6.610
Data of economic evaluation (Table 8) shows that and depressed the price of ration cost and
using PPS at different levels reduces the cost of recorded the best relative economic efficiency
ration but the cost was very low when 5% PPS (Omer et al., 2019).
used in ration compared to 10% PPS. The cost of
In addition, these results were in agreement with
one Kg weight gain in control group, 5% PPS and
those found by Denek and Can (2006); Omer and
10% PPS were 329, 193 and 396 Afghani (AFN),
Abdel-Magid Soha (2015) who noted that the use
respectively. The result of this study was in
of agro-industrial by-products in sheep rations
agreement with Omer et al. (2019) who stated in
has been successfully adopted as a strategy to
their study that dried pomegranate peel can be
reduce feeding costs and also to cope with the
used safely in sheep feeding at level of 1% because
need to recycle waste material.
this level realized the best growth performance
Table 8. Economic evaluation of the experiment.
Item Control 5% PPS 10% PPS

Daily Feed Intake (fresh, Kg) 2.354 2.779 2.889
Price of 1 Kg of Feed Ration 19.330 16.640 16.440
Daily feeding cost ($) 45.500 46.300 47.500
Average Daily Gain (kg) 0.138 0.240 0.120
Feed Cost AFN / Kg of gain 329 193 396
Conclusion https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-007-1158-x
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Economics of shifting land from field crops to hog plum (Spondias

mombin L.) cultivation in southern Bangladesh
M.H.K. Sujan1*, A.K. Ghosh1, M. Sultana2, F. Islam2 and F.T. Sadia2
ABSTRACT
The study was carried out to analyse the economics of shifting land from field crops to hog
plum cultivation in southern Bangladesh during July to September 2018. A total of 120
farmers were selected by using multistage stratified random sampling technique to collect
primary data. Result of the study shows that the per hectare average total cost of hog plum
cultivation was Tk. 94,126. The average yield of hog plum was 7.97 t ha-1. Net return from
hog plum cultivation was Tk. 126,921 per hectare. By cultivating hog plum, farmers obtained
56 to 93% higher net return than the other existing cropping patterns. Since the BCR (2.94),
NPV (Tk. 2215,000) and IRR (59%) were very high, the land shifting decision towards hog
plum cultivation was sensible. However, BCR was very low in the initial stages of hog plum
plantation. Initial investment support from public or private sector could facilitate the
growth of this cultivation practice.
Keywords: Influencing factors, Land shifting, Multiple regression, Profitability, Project analysis.
1
Dept. of Development and Poverty Studies, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
2
Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author’s email: mhksujan@sau.edu.bd (M.H.K. Sujan)
Cite this article as: Sujan, M.H.K., Ghosh, A.K., Sultana, M., Islam, F. and Sadia, F.T. 2020. Economics of
shifting land from field crops to hog plum (Spondias mombin L.) cultivation in southern Bangladesh. Int. J.
Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 155-163. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51589
Introduction
Per capita income, food production and GDP of promising higher profitability (Islam and Sujan,
Bangladesh has been increasing over the time 2016). Amaechi (2015) found that hog plum
(BBS, 2019). With the social and economic farmers would have both economic and aesthetic
development of the country, food consumption benefit if they cultivate it on their fallow or
pattern has changed in favour of high value crops cultivable lands. Hog plum is grown well
such as fruits and vegetables from staple food throughout the southern parts of the country
crops (Joshi, 2005). In recent years, demand for (Rahman, 2015). The soil and climatic conditions
fruits has grown much faster than the demand of of Bangladesh, especially southern regions, are
food grains. Production and distribution of fruits suitable for hog plum cultivation. In 2018-2019,
have opened up a great opportunity for achieving the area under hog plum production was about
food, nutritional and financial security of the 18,437 acres and the total production was about
country (Khandoker et al., 2017). The 40,623 metric tons (BBS, 2019). Moreover, huge
consumption pattern of the people depicts that portions of lands in southern parts of the country
there has been a constant increase in demand for are now substituting to hog plum cultivation. The
fruits as compared to other crops in recent years. growth rates of yield, production and area of hog
The total cultivable land under fruits production plum are increasing year after year. Hog plum
raised from 0.86% in fiscal year (FY) 2014-15 to has emerged as an important option for crop
2.80% in FY 2018-19 (BBS, 2019). In 2019, diversification in the southern parts of the
national fruits production was about 4.95 million country (Islam and Sujan, 2016). With this
metric tons and around 11.06 lakh acres of land option, people of those parts of the country
were used for that purpose (BBS, 2019). Among ensure a continuous source of income even
the various fruits; banana, mango, jackfruit, litchi without their conventional agricultural practices.
and guava are mostly important as these are The land alteration decisions are generally
being commercially cultivated in Bangladesh. investigated at the macro level by using
Besides these, the cultivation of hog plum is distributive lag model, which capture the role of
gaining popularity among farmers due to its different economic and non-economic factors of
Sujan et al. (2020) Economics of shifting land from field crops to hog plum cultivation
decision making process. However, research Analytical techniques

works related to land shifting behaviour from
field crops to fruits cultivation are very rare. a) Tabular technique: Collected data were
Khandoker et al. (2014) attempted to analyse the edited, summarized, tabulated and analysed to
impact of shifting land from cereal crops to fulfill the purpose of this study. Descriptive
Jujube cultivation in northern region of statistics like averages, percentages and ratios
Bangladesh. Sarker et al. (2014) and Khandoker were used in presenting the results in a tabular
et al. (2017) investigated the profitability of form. The profitability of hog plum cultivation
shifting land from field crops to mango was examined on the basis of gross return (GR),
cultivation in northern Bangladesh. However, gross margin (GM), net return (NR) and benefit
there was a serious dearth of literature on the cost ratio (BCR) analysis. Besides, the imputed
production and distribution of hog plum fruits in value of family labour was taken into account in
southern Bangladesh. Therefore, an attempt was the time of total cost approximation. Per year
taken to analyse the economics of shifting land lease value of land was considered for
from field crops to hog plum cultivation in determining the land use cost. Project analysis
southern Bangladesh. and sensitivity analysis were also included on the
paper. Net Present Value (NPV), Benefit Cost
Methodology Ratio (BCR) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
A micro-level study based on primary cross- were calculated (at 5% discount rate) with the
section data was designed to attain the objectives following formulas used by Sarker et al. (2014)
of this study. The methodology of the study was and Khandoker et al. (2017):
mainly about the sampling procedure, collection
of data and analytical framework. Net Present Value (NPV): The net present
value (NPV) of an investment is the discounted
Area selection: The study was conducted in value of all cash inflows and cash outflows of the
two major hog plum (amra) growing districts of project during its lifetime. It can be computed as:
Bangladesh, namely Jhalokathi and Pirojpur. n
Jhalokathi sadar upazila and Pirojpur sadar Bt − C t
upazila under Jhalokathi and Pirojpur district, NPV = ∑
(1 + r)t
respectively, were selected purposively for t=1
administering questionnaire survey. For this Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR): The benefit cost
study, primary data were collected by using pre-
ratio (BCR) of an investment is the ratio of the
tested questionnaire during the month of July to
September, 2018. discounted value of all cash inflows to the
discounted value of all cash outflows during the
Sampling technique and sample size: A life of the project. It can be estimated using the
multistage stratified random sampling technique following formula:
was followed to select sample farmers for the
Bt
study. At first, two districts were selected n
(1+r)t
purposively considering their higher quantities of BCR = ∑ Ct
hog plum (amra) production. In the second t=1 (1+r)t
stage, one upazila from each district and two
villages from each upazila were selected Internal Rate of Return (IRR): Internal rate
accordingly. Finally, sixty farmers were selected of return (IRR) is the rate of return at which the
randomly from each district amassing a total of NPV of a stream of incomes is nullified. The IRR
120 farmers from the total study areas. is computed as:
Population stratification was necessitated for
n
common heterogeneity among agricultural Bt − Ct
household (Nyariki, 2009). Special attention was r=∑ =0
(1 + r)t
given to ensure the representativeness of t=1
different aged plantation of hog plum. Collected
Where, Bt = Total benefit (Tk. ha-1) in time t
data were rearranged based on the span of hog
plum cultivation. The respondents were Ct = Total cost (Tk. ha-1) in time t
categorized according to their stage of hog plum r = Rate of interest (discount rate)
cultivation as 1st year, 2nd-3rd year, 4th-5th year, t = Number of years (t = 1, 2, 3 … … 20)
6th-10th year, 11th-15th year and 16th-20th year.
The IRR was calculated with the following formula:

Present worth
of cash flows
Internal Rate Lower Difference between at lower discount rate
= + ×
of Return (IRR) discount rate two discount rates Absolute difference between
the present worth
of the cash flows
b) Statistical technique X8 = Food crop (wheat/rice) requirement at

home (’1000 Tk.)
Multiple regression model α = Intercept
The OLS regression model was used to analyse β1, β2, … … … β8 = Coefficients of the respective
the factors influencing the extent of land shifting variables to be estimated
behaviour, where both the economic and non- Ui = Random error
economic factors were considered as explanatory
Results and Discussion
variable. The relative income was included as
explanatory variable to test its extent of Intercropping with hog plum
influence. The following multiple linear
regression function was fitted for present study- A portion of the sample farmers practice
intercropping with hog plum. Among the
Y = α + β 1 X1 + β 2 X2 + β 3 X3 + β 4 X4 + β 5 X5 + β 6 X6 intercrops, majority of the farmers (23.33%)
+ β7 X7 + β8 X8 +Ui preferred intercropping with potato & arum
followed by bitter gourd & cauliflower (20.83%),
Where, Y = Shift of area from field crops to hog snake/water gourd & cabbage (18.33%), sweet
plum cultivation (decimal) gourd & tomato (17.50%), papaya (15.0%), Indian
X1 = Relative income (’1000 Tk. ha-1 year-1) spinach & red amaranth (13.33%), chili (11.67%)
X2 = Yield (t ha-1) and brinjal (10.83%) (Table 1). The study also
X3 = Education (years of schooling) found that 14.17% of the farmers did not adopt
X4 = Farm size (decimal) any intercrops with hog plum cultivation. Reason
X5 = Age of the farmers (year) behind that no intercropping might be the extra
X6 = Hog plum farming experience (year) care for hog plum saplings.
X7 = Non-farm income (’1000 Tk. ha-1 year-1)
Table 1. Types of crops cultivated in hog plum field as intercrop.
Types of crop % farmers responded Average
Pirojpur Jhalokathi
Potato & Arum 25.00 21.67 23.33
Bitter gourd & Cauliflower 21.67 20.00 20.83
Snake/Water gourd & Cabbage 20.00 16.67 18.33
Sweet gourd & Tomato 16.67 18.33 17.50
Papaya 16.67 13.33 15.00
Indian spinach & Red amaranth 15.00 11.67 13.33
Chili 13.33 10.00 11.67
Brinjal 11.67 10.00 10.83
No intercrops 15.00 13.33 14.17
Cost of hog plum cultivation (including largest share (33%) of the total cost. On an
intercrops) average, labour cost contributed 27% of the total
cost. Fertilizers cost shared only 6% of the total
For estimating the cost of production, all the cost. Farmers in the study areas spent on an
variable cost i.e. land preparation, human labour, average Tk. 14,787 (16% of total cost) per hectare
sapling, manures, fertilizer, insecticides, etc. were for cultivating intercrops. The cost for saplings
calculated per hectare basis. Both cash cost and and supporting sticks were Tk. 20,232 and Tk.
imputed value of family supplied inputs were 4,130 per hectare, respectively and incurred on
included in the calculation. Interest on operating the first year only. Land preparation cost was Tk.
capital (IOC) was also considered for determining 14,165 and incurred at the beginning of the
the cost of hog plum cultivation. The cost of land project. Most of the cases, in the first year,
use was calculated on the basis of per hectare farmers took extra care of hog plum saplings. For
lease value of land. Table 2 represents the cost of this reason, the cost and benefits from
hog plum cultivation in different years. The intercropping in the first year were comparatively
average total cost of hog plum cultivation in all low.
years was Tk. 94,126 per hectare of which 65%
were variable cost. Land use cost comprised the
Table 2. Cost of hog plum cultivation including intercrops (figured in Tk. ha -1).
Particulars 1st year 2nd-3rd 4-5th 6-10th 11-15th 16-20th All years
year year year year year
Observations 20 20 20 20 20 20 120
A. Variable Cost 91506 49521 56229 60445 59029 51108 61306 (65)
Hired labour 11876 9873 16794 22197 24679 19737 17526 (19)
Family labour 10917 7246 7386 6376 5310 5194 7072 (8)
Land preparation 14165 0 0 0 0 0 2361 (3)
Saplings 20232 0 0 0 0 0 3372 (4)
Manures 7398 2122 1511 495 1100 2538 2527 (3)
Fertilizers
Urea 1628 1420 1524 1361 1137 1257 1388 (1)
TSP 3980 3730 2573 1976 2365 1886 2752 (3)
MoP 1824 1129 1047 986 1328 1205 1253 (1)
Gypsum 220 192 147 171 0 124 142 (0)
Insecticides 3492 2758 3869 3578 4036 3579 3552 (4)
Irrigation 4268 3683 4587 3921 3890 2968 3886 (4)
Stick 4130 0 0 0 0 0 688 (1)
Intercrop 7376 17368 16791 19384 15184 12620 14787 (16)
B. Fixed cost 33575 32525 32693 32798 32763 32565 32820 (35)
Interest on operating 2288 1238 1406 1511 1476 1278 1533 (2)
capital
Land use cost 31287 31287 31287 31287 31287 31287 31287 (33)
Total Cost (A+B) 125081 82046 88922 93243 91792 83673 94126 (100)
Note: Figures in the parentheses indicate the percentage of total cost.
Profitability of hog plum cultivation highest net return was also found in the 11th-15th
year (Tk. 297,825 ha-1 year-1) followed by 6th-10th
In the study areas, average yield of hog plum was year (Tk. 286,904 ha-1 year-1). Average gross
7.97 t ha-1 year-1. Farmers did not get any yield margin and net margin of hog plum cultivation
from hog plum cultivation in the first year. They were Tk. 159,741 and Tk. 126,921 per hectare,
started getting yield from 3rd years of plantation. respectively. In the study areas, farmers have to
On 4th year, yield was 5.32 t ha-1. The highest spend on an average Tk. 12 for producing 1 kg
amount of yield (15.15 t ha-1) obtained from 11 to hog plum. The average undiscounted BCR on
15 years old hog plum garden. After 15 years, total cost was 2.47. Higher cost incurred in the
yield rate had decreased. Returns from hog plum first couple of years for hired labour, land
cultivation in different years are presented in preparation, sapling, manures and sticking with
Table 3. Average gross return per hectare was Tk. no return from hog plum influenced the BCR to
221,047 per year. The average gross return from be lowest in the initial years of plantation.
intercrops was Tk. 29,867 per hectare. The
Table 3. Profitability of hog plum cultivation with intercrops.
Particulars 1st year 2 -3rd year 4 -5th 6 -10th 11 -15th 16 -20th Average
year year year year
Sample 20 20 20 20 20 20 -
A. Total cost (Tk. ha-1) 125081 82046 88922 93243 91792 83673 94126
Variable cost 91506 49521 56229 60445 59029 51108 61306
Fixed cost 33575 32525 32693 32798 32763 32565 32820
Cost of intercrops 7376 17368 16791 19384 15184 12620 14787
B. Yield of hog plum (kg ha )
-1 0 1830 5320 14250 15150 11245 7966
C. Price (Tk. kg-1) 24 24 24 24 24 24 24
D. Gross return of hog plum (Tk. ha-1) 0 43920 127680 342000 363600 269880 191180
E. Gross return of intercrop (Tk. ha-1) 20381 35194 39505 38147 26017 19958 29867
F. Total gross return (Tk. ha-1) 20381 79114 167185 380147 389617 289838 221047
G. Gross margin (Tk. ha-1) -71125 29593 110956 319702 330588 238730 159741
H. Net return (Tk. ha-1) -104700 -2932 78263 286904 297825 206165 126921
I. BCR on TC (undiscounted) 0.16 0.96 1.88 4.08 4.24 3.46 2.47
J. Per unit production cost (Tk. kg-1) - 51 18 7 6 8 12
Returns on investment in hog plum on Table 4 and Table 5. For assessing benefit-cost
cultivation ratio (BCR) and net present value (NPV), the
costs and returns were discounted at 5% rate of
Most of the cases, opportunity cost of capital is
interest.
considered as the discount rate for project
analysis. The results of this calculation presented
Table 4. Financial analysis of hog plum cultivation project in the study areas.
Year Gross cost (Tk.) Gross benefit Discount factor at PW of cost at 5% PW of benefit at
(Tk.) 5% 5%
1 125081 20381 0.952 119125 19410
2 82046 79114 0.907 74418 71759
3 82046 79114 0.864 70874 68342
4 88922 167185 0.823 73156 137544
5 88922 167185 0.784 69673 130994
6 93243 380147 0.746 69579 283672
7 93243 380147 0.711 66266 270163
8 93243 380147 0.677 63111 257298
9 93243 380147 0.645 60105 245046
10 93243 380147 0.614 57243 233377
11 91792 389617 0.585 53669 227801
12 91792 389617 0.557 51113 216953
13 91792 389617 0.530 48679 206622
14 91792 389617 0.505 46361 196783
15 91792 389617 0.481 44154 187412
16 83673 289838 0.458 38332 132778
17 83673 289838 0.436 36506 126455
18 83673 289838 0.416 34768 120434
19 83673 289838 0.396 33112 114699
20 83673 289838 0.377 31535 109237
Total 1141780 3356780
Net present worth (PW of benefit at 5%)−(PW of cost at 5%) 2215000
BCR (PW of benefit at 5%)÷(PW of cost at 5%) 2.94
Table 5. Financial analysis of hog plum cultivation project in the study areas.
Year Incremental Discount factor PW of benefit Discount factor PW of benefit
benefit at 55% at 55% at 60% at 60%
1 -104700 0.645161 -67548.39 0.625000 -65437.50
2 -2932 0.416233 -1220.40 0.390625 -1145.31
3 -2932 0.268537 -787.35 0.244141 -715.82
4 78263 0.173250 13559.06 0.152588 11941.99
5 78263 0.111774 8747.78 0.095367 7463.74
6 286904 0.072112 20689.33 0.059605 17100.81
7 286904 0.046524 13347.95 0.037253 10688.01
8 286904 0.030016 8611.58 0.023283 6680.00
9 286904 0.019365 5555.86 0.014552 4175.00
10 286904 0.012493 3584.43 0.009095 2609.38
11 297825 0.008060 2400.56 0.005684 1692.94
12 297825 0.005200 1548.75 0.003553 1058.09
13 297825 0.003355 999.19 0.002220 661.30
14 297825 0.002164 644.64 0.001388 413.32
15 297825 0.001396 415.90 0.000867 258.32
16 206165 0.000901 185.74 0.000542 111.76
17 206165 0.000581 119.83 0.000339 69.85
18 206165 0.000375 77.31 0.000212 43.66
19 206165 0.000242 49.88 0.000132 27.29
20 206165 0.000156 32.18 0.000083 17.05
Total 11013.85 -2286.13
The benefit cost ratio (BCR) was calculated by Sensitivity analysis

dividing the present worth of the gross benefit by
The effects of adverse changes in the project are
the present worth of the gross cost. BCR was 2.94
estimated by sensitivity analysis. Three adverse
at 5% discount rate, which implies that the
situations are assessed for the project under this
project was profitable. The simplest discounted
study. The first situation is constant return but
cash flow measures of the project worth is the net
cost increased by 10%. The second situation is
present worth (Khandoker et al., 2017) which is
constant cost but return decreased by 10%. The
determined by subtracting present worth of costs
third situation is both cost increased and return
from present worth of benefits. The estimated net
decreased by 10%. The results of sensitivity
present worth of the project was Tk. 2215,000
analysis are presented in Table 6. At 5% discount
per hectare.
rate, greater than one BCR, positive NPV and
Average earning capacity of capital used in a higher IRR than opportunity cost of capital imply
project over the project life is represented by that investment in hog plum cultivation was
internal rate of returns (IRR). It refers to that remunerative for 10% increased cost with
discount rate which negates the present worth of constant return, 10% decreased return with
cash inflows and outflows. In the project of hog constant cost, even at the worst situation of 10%
plum cultivation, IRR was 59%. This opportunity increased cost with 10% decreased return.
was highly acceptable because it was much higher
than the opportunity cost of capital.
Table 6. Result of sensitivity analysis of hog plum cultivation.
Situation BCR at 5% NPV at 5% (Tk.) IRR (%)
Current situation 2.94 2215000 59
Cost increased by 10% but return constant 2.67 2100822 53
Cost constant but return decreased by 10% 2.65 1879322 52
Cost increased and return decreased by 10% 2.41 1765144 46
Profitability of existing cropping patterns short duration vegetables. A total of 18 types of

other than hog plum cropping patterns were found. Mostly followed 8
Cropping patterns followed by farmers before shifting
cropping patterns are presented in Table 7. The
land to hog plum cultivation highest percentage (22.50%) of farmers
mentioned that they followed Fallow-T. Aus-T.
Farmers of the study areas follow various types of Aman cropping pattern followed by Boro-Fallow-
cropping pattern. Most of them cultivate two T. Aman (20.00%), Pulse-Fallow-T. Aman
crops in a year. Some of them cultivate three (12.50%), Potato-Fallow-T. Aman (10.00%) and
crops also. Before starting hog plum cultivation, Boro-Fallow-Fallow (8.33%) in their field before
they cultivated mainly Boro, T. Aman, T. Aus, starting hog plum cultivation.
Pulse crops (mostly Kheshari), Potato and some
Table 7. Cropping patterns followed by the farmers before starting hog plum cultivation.
Types of Cropping pattern % farmers responded All
Pirojpur Jhalokathi
Fallow-T. Aus-T. Aman 21.67 23.33 22.50
Boro-Fallow-T. Aman 23.33 16.67 20.00
Pulse-Fallow-T. Aman 11.67 13.33 12.50
Potato-Fallow-T. Aman 8.33 11.67 10.00
Boro-Fallow-Fallow 6.67 10.00 8.33
Wheat-Fallow-T. Aman 5.00 6.67 5.83
Boro-Fallow-Vegetables 3.33 5.00 4.17
Boro-T. Aus-Fallow 3.33 1.67 2.50
Others 16.67 11.67 14.17
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00
Profitability of cereal crops cultivation in shifting land to hog plum cultivation. Details
the study areas about the calculation are presented on Table 8.
Total cost for Potato-Fallow-T. Aman pattern was
Potato-Fallow-T. Aman was the most profitable Tk. 152,535 and net return was Tk. 56,438 per
cropping pattern (BCR on TC was 1.37) before
hectare. Per hectare total cost for Pulse-Fallow-T. return of different cropping pattern varies from
Aman pattern was Tk. 105,250 whereas it was Tk. Tk. 9,391 (Boro-Fallow-Fallow) to Tk. 56,438
126,355 for Wheat-Fallow-T. Aman pattern. (Potato-Fallow-T. Aman). Estimated BCR on
Boro- Fallow-T. Aman pattern required Tk. total cost ranged from 1.16 to 1.37 along with
91,783 as total cost, which was lower than that of different practiced pattern. On the other hand, it
Boro-T. Aus-Fallow (Tk. 93,237 ha-1). The net ranged from 1.49 to 1.84 based on variable cost.
Table 8. Profitability of cereal crops cultivation (figured in Tk. ha -1).
Cropping pattern Total Total Gross Gross Net BCR BCR on
Cost Variable Cost Return Margin Return on TC TVC
Potato-Fallow-T. Aman 152535 113572 208973 95401 56438 1.37 1.84
Pulse-Fallow-T. Aman 105250 77050 137878 60828 32628 1.31 1.79
Wheat-Fallow-T. Aman 126355 91477 160470 68993 34115 1.27 1.76
Boro-Fallow-Vegetables 121208 89715 151510 61795 30302 1.25 1.69
Boro-T. Aus-Fallow 93237 61235 111682 50447 18445 1.20 1.82
Boro-Fallow-T. Aman 91783 61018 109222 48204 17439 1.19 1.79
Fallow-T. Aus-T. Aman 65785 48921 77626 28705 11841 1.18 1.59
Boro-Fallow-Fallow 58691 45627 68082 22455 9391 1.16 1.49
Relative profitability of hog plum plum cultivation whereas it was 62% and 34%
cultivation in contrast to other prevailing higher for Potato-Fallow-T. Aman and Wheat-
crops Fallow-T. Aman cropping pattern, respectively.
However, in monetary term, per hectare total cost
The costs and returns of different cropping incurred for hog plum cultivation was Tk. 35,435
pattern were compared with hog plum cultivation more than that of Boro-Fallow-Fallow cultivation
to analyse the comparative profitability. The cost whereas it was Tk. 58,409 less than that of
of hog plum cultivation were higher than that of Potato-Fallow-T. Aman cropping pattern.
Boro-T. Aus-Fallow, Boro-Fallow-T. Aman,
Fallow-T. Aus-T. Aman and Boro-Fallow-Fallow The gross return and net return from hog plum
cropping pattern. On the other hand, for Potato- cultivation were higher than that of all the
Fallow-T. Aman, Pulse-Fallow-T. Aman, Wheat- inspected cropping patterns. Hog plum
Fallow-T. Aman and Boro-Fallow-Vegetables cultivators secured 69% higher gross return than
cropping pattern, the production cost were higher that of Boro-Fallow-Fallow cropping pattern.
than that of hog plum cultivation. Details Farmers obtained 56 to 93% higher net return
information regarding relative profitability of hog than the cropping patterns analysed in this study.
plum cultivation are presented on Table 9 and BCR of hog plum cultivation was also higher than
Table 10. Total cost of Boro-Fallow-Fallow that of any other examined cropping patterns.
cropping pattern was 38% lower than that of hog
Table 9. Relative profitability of hog plum cultivation with other prevailing crops.
Comparing points Boro-T. Aus- Boro-Fallow- Fallow-T. Aus- Boro-Fallow-
Fallow T. Aman T. Aman Fallow
Total cost lower than hog plum (Tk.) 889 2343 28341 35435
Total cost lower than hog plum (%) 1 2 30 38
Gross return lower than hog plum (Tk.) 109365 111825 143421 152965
Gross return lower than hog plum (%) 49 51 65 69
Net return lower than hog plum (Tk.) 108476 109482 115080 117530
Net return lower than hog plum (%) 85 86 91 93
Table 10. Relative profitability of hog plum cultivation with other prevailing crops.
Comparing points Potato-Fallow- Pulse-Fallow- Wheat-Fallow- Boro-Fallow-
T. Aman T. Aman T. Aman Vegetables
Total cost higher than hog plum (Tk.) 58409 11124 32229 27082
Total cost higher than hog plum (%) 62 12 34 29
Gross return lower than hog plum (Tk.) 12074 83169 60577 69537
Gross return lower than hog plum (%) 5 38 27 31
Net return lower than hog plum (Tk.) 70483 94293 92806 96619
Net return lower than hog plum (%) 56 74 73 76
Factors influencing the land shifting Estimated results indicate that the relative
decision towards hog plum cultivation income from the crops had played a positive role
for shifting land towards hog plum cultivation.
Multiple linear regression analysis was done for Farm size also had a positive influence on land
investigating the influence of different factors for shifting decision. The variable age is negatively
shifting land from field crops to hog plum significant and indicates that older farmers were
cultivation. Estimated results are presented on less interested for shifting their land. Food crop
Table 11. The explanatory variables included in requirement had a negative impact on land
the model explained around 82.95% of variations shifting behaviour. It imply that higher the
in land shifting behaviour. The significant F- requirement of food crops, less likely to shift land
value (73.38) indicates that all the explanatory towards hog plum cultivation and vice-versa.
variables included in the regression model were
important.
Table 11. Factors influencing the land shifting decision of farmers towards hog plum cultivation.
Explanatory Variable Parameters Co-efficient Sd. Error P-values
Intercept β0 69.845*** 25.834 0.008
Relative income (Tk. ha-1 year-1) β1 0.639* 0.354 0.074
Yield (t ha-1) β2 0.049 8.830 0.996
Education (years of schooling) β3 0.431 2.088 0.837
Farm size (decimal) β4 0.108* 0.063 0.091
Age of the farmers (year) β5 -0.818* 0.428 0.059
Hog plum farming experience (year) β6 0.245 1.491 0.870
Non-farm income (Tk. ha-1 year-1) β7 0.094 0.880 0.915
Food crop requirement (Tk.) β8 -0.696* 0.366 0.060
R2 82.95%
F-value 73.38
Note: *** and * indicate significant at 1%, and 10% level, respectively.
Conclusions J. Agric. Forest. Fish. 3(1): 1-6. Retrieved

from:
The study was conducted to analyse the http://www.openscienceonline.com/journal/arch
economics of shifting land from field crops to hog ive2?journalId=706&paperId=1275
plum cultivation. Results of the study show that BBS. 2019. Year book of Agricultural Statistics of
lower cost of production and higher return from Bangladesh. Bangladesh Bureau of
hog plum cultivation than that of any other Statistics, Statistics Division, Ministry of
cropping pattern influenced the farmers to shift Planning, Government of the People’s
their land from field crops to hog plum Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
cultivation. Findings also reveal that BCR of hog Retrieved
plum cultivation was its lowest limit in the initial from: http://www.bbs.gov.bd/PageWebMenuCo
stage of production but it turned out to be higher ntent.aspx?MenuKey=234
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grown well would increase the relative income Policy Research, New Delhi, India. Retrieved
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crops. Motivation should be given to the farmers http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/Consul
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Khandoker, S., Miah, M.A.M., Khatun, M., Hoq,
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Mitigation of land scarcity situation through tenure practices: a study on

two selected villages in Jashore district of Bangladesh
A.K. Ghosh* and M.H.K. Sujan
ABSTRACT
Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries with immense pressure on
agricultural land in rural areas. Mainstream of the rural households depend on either
agriculture or its associated activities for their livelihood. However, rural land distribution is
highly skewed, majority of them are landless. Under such a land scarce situation, farmers in
rural areas have been gradually inclining towards land tenancy. Present study steered to
explore the nature and volume of temporary land transaction through tenancy agreement in
studied areas and to scrutinize its role in aligning land distribution. In 2017, a total of 166
farmers were randomly selected from two different villages in Jashore district for study.
Result of the study administrated that land tenancy practice has been significantly
mitigating land disparity among rural farmers. Study also explored that comparatively rich
farmers are leaning towards tenant out land and most of these lands tenanted in by the
landless and marginal farmers. Consequently, on an average landless farm could
significantly increases their cultivable land from 0.01 acre to 0.98 acre compared to the
marginal farm 0.31 to 0.73 acres. At the same time, cultivable land of medium farm has
decreased as of 3.74 acres to 2.83 acres in studied villages.
Keywords: Land lease, Land scarcity, Landless, Mortgage, Tenancy.
Dept. of Development and Poverty Studies, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author’s email: ashoke1971@yahoo.com (A.K. Ghosh)
Cite this article as: Ghosh, A.K. and Sujan, M.H.K. 2020. Mitigation of land scarcity situation through tenure
practices: a study on two selected villages in Jashore district of Bangladesh. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech.
Introduction
Bangladesh is an agrarian country and land is to continue cultivation as well as utilize their
considered as a very precious asset among the spare family labor. Earlier studies also showed
rural farm households. However, land increasing trend of rented in land to the total
distribution is very uneven and as a result major cultivable land. The amount of rented in land was
share of cultivable land owned by very few only 23.4% in 1988 which has increased to 32.8%
people. On the other hand, mainstream of the in 2000, 39.8% in 2008, and 47.5% in 2014 (Sen,
rural households are either landless or near 2018). Generally, land tenancy refers to the
landless (Raihan et al., 2009). A key factor of temporary possession or occupancy of land that
rural poverty is landlessness and limited access to belongs to other persons. In that cases, owners
cultivable land. The extent of landlessness is very allow tenant to use their land for a certain period
high in South Asian countries like 22.0% in India of time for which owner receive some fixed
and 49.6% in Bangladesh (Kabir et al., 2014, amount of cash, goods or services. Nature of land
Rashid, 2015). Landlessness often materializes tenancy practices varies from time to time and
the manifestation of poverty, datedness and place to place. Studies show that more than one-
powerlessness of the majority of rural sixth of the total cultivated lands in Bangladesh
households. This situation has been worsening are operated under different tenurial
gradually because of abnormal population arrangements (Griffin et al., 2002; Taslim and
pressure, dearth of land, low productivity in Ahmed, 1992). Three major types of land tenure
agriculture, split of family, river erosion and practices are very common in rural Bangladesh
alteration of cultivable land in different purposes such as; land lease, sharecropping and mortgage.
(Rahman and Manprasert, 2006; Rana et al., Land lease refers to utilization of land by the
2019). Under such a situation, land poor farmers tenant who pays fixed amount of rent for certain
find tenancy as an alternative and viable option duration. In case of sharecropping agreement,
Ghosh and Sujan (2020) Mitigation of land scarcity situation through tenure practices in Bangladesh
tenant utilize land in return of paying certain assistance of local Union Parshad. A total of 166
portion of output produced from that land. households were randomly selected for
Mortgage agreement accomplished when tenant discussion and necessary data collection. Sample
keep a significant amount of money to the owner includes all type of farmers; tenant, land owner
and utilize their land until they paid back the and non-tenant. Non-tenant farmers were also
given amount. included (as it was random sample) to have
holistic evidences regarding tenancy and its
Considering the importance of land tenancy, gravity in these localities. Such approach was
several studies have conducted on land tenure commenced to validate certain vibrant answers
and its associated poverty related issues. Haque like, percentages of farmers and land under
and Jinan (2017) conducted a study to examine tenancy in these villages. Data regarding
the impact of land tenure system on socio- characteristics of the respondent, land
economic characteristics of the farmers in ownership, land tenancy, its associated
Mymensingh district. They found a positive information and problems were collected using
relationship between tenure categories and pre-tested interview schedule during May to
annual incomes of the farmers. Islam and June, 2017. Besides, focus group discussion
Maharjan (2015) conducted a study in two (FGD) and participatory rural appraisal (PRA)
upazilas under Comilla and Tangail districts, were conducted with local leaders and
Bangladesh and found that the technical neighboring people to assess the status of land
efficiency of the farmers were varied among tenure practices in the study areas and to cross
different farm categories. Their study also check the collected data.
revealed that land rent had significant positive
impact on the technical efficiency of the farmers. Analytical technique
Nasrin and Uddin (2011) conducted a study in Collected data were analyzed by using descriptive
two villages under Sadar upazila of Mymensingh statistics to attain the objectives of this study and
district to measure relative efficiency of farming to obtain meaningful results. Various descriptive
under tenancy systems. They found that cash statistical measures like sum, average,
tenants earned more profit than share tenants percentages, etc. were used in tabular form to
from Boro rice production. All the above ascertain the objectives.
mentioned studies have addressed abundant
issues regarding landlessness, land tenure Results and Discussion
practices, its forms and effects on profitability
and productivity. Still ample of issues in micro Land holding sizes among different farm
level have not yet explored. Present study is an categories
endeavor to grasp such issues; as to The scarcity of cultivable land has been
reconnaissance the nature of tenure practices, increasing day by day due to the rapid population
volume of land transacted not only among growth in Bangladesh. Consequently, land
diverse classes of farmers but also in the locality. holding size is getting small to smaller and finally
This study also investigated the contribution of this process leads to the landlessness. Table 1
existing tenancy practices to mitigate the severe shows different categories of farmers on the basis
land scarcity among landless and marginal of their owned cultivable land. Result shows that
farmers. 9.04% farmers were landless with very tiny
amount of land (up to 0.04 acre of land). Besides,
Methodology a significant portion (22.29%) of the farmers
Date sources were on marginal farm (with 0.05-0.49 acre)
Primary data was collected from two adjacent category. Result also shows that 55.42 and
villages namely, Lebutala and Kodalia under 13.25% of the respondents were on small (with
Sadar upazila of Jashore district, Bangladesh. A 0.50-2.49 acre) and medium farmer (with 2.50-
list of farm households was collected with the 7.49 acre) category, respectively.
Table 1. Different farm categories with their average sizes of cultivable land.
Farms categories No. of H.H. (%) of H.H. Average farm size (in acre)
Landless 15 9.04 0.01
Marginal 37 22.29 0.31
Small 92 55.42 1.15
Medium 22 13.25 3.74
All farms 166 100.00 1.20
Note:
1. H.H. refers Household
2. Landless farm indicates land up to 0.04. Marginal farm is with 0.05-0.49 acres of land, small farm is with 0.50-2.49 acres
of land, medium farm is with 2.50-7.49 acres and large farm with 7.50 acres of land and above.
Moreover, same table shows that the average The reason behind this behavior was to secure
farm size of the landless and marginal farmers their household food requirement by using
were only 0.01 and 0.31 acres, respectively. It was unemployed family labor. On the other hand,
also found that the small farmers were enjoying upper part of the well-off farmers was tenanted
on an average about 1.15 acres of land compared out their land. Results reveal that a higher
to 3.74 acres by the medium farmer. percentage (93.33%) of landless farmers was
tenanted in and 91.89% of the marginal farmers
This implies that land scarcity existed in rural were also engaged in similar practices.
Bangladesh and it is unevenly distributed; half of Additionally, a less percentage (13.51%) of the
them having very tiny piece of land or without marginal farmers was tenanted out their land. It
land. On the other hand, upper one-fifth of the was also found that 31.52% of the small farmers
farmers having handsome amount of cultivable tenanted in land against 25.00% of them were
land. tenanted out. In case of medium farm, only
Farm categories and land tenure 9.09% cases were found as tenanted in and
practices 45.45% as tenanted out their land. Findings of
this study also depict that on an average 47.59%
Findings of the study show that almost all of the of the farmers among all categories tenanted in
poor farmers (landless and marginal) were and 22.89% were tenanted out their land.
engaged with land tenancy activities (Table 2).
Table 2. Different farm categories with their engagement in tenure practices.
Farm categories Total No. of Tenant in land Tenant out land
H.H. No. of H.H. % of H.H. No. of H.H. % of H.H.
Landless 15 14 93.33 0 0.00
Marginal 37 34 91.89 5 13.51
Small 92 29 31.52 23 25.00
Medium 22 2 9.09 10 45.45
All farms 166 79 47.59 38 22.89
Types of tenancy and land transaction 2.70% of the marginal farms were engaged in
leased, sharecropped and mortgaged out their
Different types of tenancy practices observed in land, respectively. Among the small farmers,
studied villages. Result comes out as landless and 10.87% were leased in against only 1.09% leased
marginal farmers greatly absorb tenanted in land out of their land. In case of sharecropping, 9.78%
through mortgage, sharecropping and leasing and 8.70% of the small farms sharecropped in
agreements. Results also express that about and out, respectively. Again 10.87% and 15.22%
33.33%, 20.00% and 40.00% of the landless of the small farmers were found mortgaged in
framers leased, sharecropped and mortgaged in and out of their land, respectively. None of the
land, respectively (Table 3). The incidence of medium farmers were found leased in land
mortgage in land is comparatively higher for its except 13.64% of them were found leased out.
secured and durable nature of agreement. It is Only 9.09% of the medium farms were
worth to mention that none of the landless sharecropped in land against 27.27% of
farmers were found tenanted out their land. sharecropped out. None of the medium farmers
Result also reveals that 21.62% of the marginal was mortgaged in land except few (4.55%)
farmers leased in land followed by 35.14% mortgaged out their land.
sharecropped and 32.43% mortgaged in land,
respectively. Again, a few 8.11%, 2.70% and
Table 3. Farm categories under different tenure practices.
Types of land tenancy Farm categories
Landless Marginal Small Medium
Incidence of leasing 33.33 29.73 11.96 13.64
Lease in H.H. 33.33 21.62 10.87 0.00
Lease out H.H. 0.00 8.11 1.09 13.64
Incidence sharecropping 20.00 37.84 18.48 36.36
Sharecropping in H.H. 20.00 35.14 9.78 9.09
Sharecropping out H.H. 0.00 2.70 8.70 27.27
Incidence of mortgage 40.00 35.13 26.09 4.55
Mortgage in H.H. 40.00 32.43 10.87 0.00
Mortgage out H.H. 0.00 2.70 15.22 4.55
Result suggests that landless and marginal sharecropped in 7.47 and mortgaged in 6.20
farmers are mostly tenanted in land; through acres of land against very little 0.81, 0.33 and
leasing, sharecropping and mortgaging. All this 0.35 acres of land out through leased,
land came from medium and small farmers as sharecropped, and mortgaged. Result also
they have enough land and sometimes felt labor denotes that small farmers acquired 5.84, 5.89
shortage in family. However, many of the small and 7.38 acres of land through leased,
farmers were found tenanted in land as they were sharecropped and mortgaged in land,
capable of handling much land with their family respectively. On the other hand, 0.66, 6.22 and
labors. Table 4 represents quantity of land 7.96 acres of land were transferred out through
transected among different categories of farmers. leased, sharecropped and mortgaged,
It is evident that landless farmers were received respectively. Very little amount of land (2.32
5.10, 2.31 and 7.09 acres of cultivable land acres) was found as sharecropped in among the
through leasing, sharecropping and mortgaging medium farmers against 4.54, 17.33 and 0.66
in land, respectively. They did not lease, acres of land out through leased, sharecropped
sharecrop and mortgage out any land. On the and mortgaged, respectively.
other hand, marginal farmers were leased in 3.11,
Table 4. Farm categories and quantities of land transaction through different tenure practices.
Types of land tenancy Farm categories and quantity of lad under tenancy (in acre)
Landless Marginal Small Medium
Land under leasing 5.10 3.92 6.50 4.54
Lease in land 5.10 3.11 5.84 0.00
Lease out 0.00 0.81 0.66 4.54
Land udder sharecropping 2.31 7.80 12.11 20.65
Sharecropping in land 2.31 7.47 5.89 2.32
Sharecropping out land 0.00 0.33 6.22 17.33
Land under mortgage 7.09 6.55 15.34 0.66
Mortgage in land 7.09 6.20 7.38 0.00
Mortgage out land 0.00 0.35 7.96 0.66
Changes in land holding sizes among and medium farmers owned as much as 105.84
farm categories and 82.36 acres of land constituting about
52.95% and 41.21% of the total land, respectively.
Result of the study straightly indicates that Same table also shows that landless farmers
medium farmers tenanted out more than one- gained a significant portion (7.25%) of the land
fourth of their land which was tenanted in by through tenancy. Similarly, marginal farmers also
landless and marginal farmers (Table 5). This has tenanted in 8.40% of land with 0.75% tenanted
increased cultivable landholding among poorer out. Moreover, small and medium farmers
section of the farmers. Result of the study received 9.56% and 1.16% of land in compared to
demonstrates that all together landless farmers 7.42% and 11.27% of land out. Overall findings of
owned 0.11 acres of land which was only 0.06% of the study reveal that out of 199.87 acres of total
the total cultivated land. On the other hand, land, a significant portion was (26.37%) tenanted
marginal farmers possessed 11.56 acres of land in and tenanted (19.44%) out.
and that was 5.78% of total land. However, small
Table 5. Farm categories, quantity of land holding and percentage of total land tenant in and out.
Farm Number of Land holding % of total land % of land % of land
category households (in Acre) tenant in tenant out
Landless 15 0.11 0.06 7.25 0.00
Marginal 37 11.56 5.78 8.40 0.75
Small 92 105.84 52.95 9.56 7.42
Medium 22 82.36 41.21 1.16 11.27
All farms 166 199.87 100.00 26.37 19.44
Result straightly shows that all farm sizes itself reduces the land size of medium farmers.
moderated through land transaction among This was transpired as because tenancy practices
different categories of farmers. Farmers from acted as a catalyst to mitigate uneven land
poorer section received substantial amount of distribution problems. Table 6 reveals that
land compared to the land rich farmers. change in possession of cultivable land after
Consequently, cultivable landholding sizes of engaging with tenancy practices. It is found that
poor farmers increased significantly. This process tenancy practices lead to increase the
landholding size significantly from 0.11 to 14.63 land holding increased from 105.84 to 110.10
acres for all landless farmers while 0.01 to 0.98 acres with per household 1.15 to 1.20 acres.
acres per household. Similarly, total land Moreover, the land possession situation has
possession of all marginal farmers have increased decreased significantly 82.36 to 62.15 acres for all
from 11.56 to 26.85 acres with an increment of medium farmers and 3.74 to 2.83 acres per
0.31 to 0.73 acres of land per household. household.
However, very little change in land possession
was observed among small farmers as their total
Table 6. Possession of cultivable land before and after tenancy agreement.
Farm category Total cultivable land owned (acre) Cultivable land under tenancy (acre)
Total land Land per H.H. Total land Land per H.H.
Landless 0.11 0.01 14.63 0.98
Marginal 11.56 0.31 26.85 0.73
Small 105.84 1.15 110.10 1.20
Medium 82.36 3.74 62.15 2.83
Problems encountered by tenant farmers 20.59% found competition in tenancy market.
However, small farmers faced problem differently
Although tenancy practices have been playing an as 31.03% found shortage of capital, 10.34%
important role to redistribute the cultivable land found uncertainty in tenancy market, 17.24%
temporarily but still some problems are faced by worried about the absence of legal contract,
the farmers. Table 7 exhibits that poorer section 24.14% found higher rent and 17.24% did not find
of the farmers mainly faced the problem of any problems. Medium farmers were always
shortage of capital (57.14%), higher payment for privileged as 50% of them found problem as land
land (21.43%) and competitive land tenancy tenancy market operated through verbal contract
market (21.43%). Similarly, among the marginal and another 50% did not find any problems.
farmers, 38.24% mentioned lack of capital,
35.29% mentioned higher rent for land and
Table 7. Nature of the problems encountered by different categories of farmers under tenancy.
Nature of the Farm Categories (No. of Respondents)
problems
Landless (14) Marginal (34) Small (29) Medium (2)
Lack of capital 57.14 38.24 31.03 0.00
Uncertainty 0.00 0.00 10.34 0.00
Only verbal contract 0.00 0.00 17.24 50.00
Higher rent 21.43 35.29 24.14 0.00
Severe competition 21.43 20.59 0.00 0.00
Not mentioned 0.00 5.88 17.24 50.00
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Result clearly shows that majority of landless and Tenancy acted as an equalizer to mitigate land
marginal farmers faced capital shortage and its distribution problems. Tenancy market is harshly
related problem as they are economically competitive. Majority of the land poor farmers
vulnerable section of the society. Obviously, find difficulties to acquire land due to lack of
tenancy market was competitive as there were capital. This problem can be addressed through
large number of land poor farmers against easy access of government loan. Moreover, few
limited quantity of available cultivable land. Few non-government organizations have already
small farmers also faced problem of capital initiated easy loan for tenant farmers.
shortage. Medium farmers did not find any
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Socioeconomic characteristics and constraints of participatory pond fish

farmers in Mymensingh district, Bangladesh
M.N.A.S. Mithun*, M.S. Kowsari and S. Sheheli
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted to determine the socioeconomic characteristics and constraints of
participatory pond fish farmers in Muktagachha upazila (sub-district) under Mymensingh
district of Bangladesh. Data were collected by using a structured interview schedule during
01 to 31 October 2018 from a sample of 100 fish farmers (50% of total population) who were
selected randomly from a population of 200. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics,
rank order and coefficient of correlation. The majority of the participatory pond fish farmers
(90%) faced medium to low constraints. Among 22 constraints, lack of training on
aquaculture was identified as the most critical one, followed by high price of various inputs.
The least important constraint of the farmers was crisis of water in dry season. It was
revealed that fish farming experience, annual family income and training exposure were
significantly associated with the constraints of participatory pond fish farmers. It is
therefore recommended that the Department of Fisheries (DOF) and other related
organizations can offer credit facilities, proper training and suitable extension services to
minimize the constraints of participatory pond fish farmers and meet the increasing demand
of fish in Bangladesh.
Keywords: Pond fish farmer, Characteristics, Constraints, Participatory, Bangladesh.
Dept. of Agricultural Extension Education, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.

*Corresponding author’s email: nuralom38764@bau.edu.bd (M.N.A.S. Mithun)
Cite this article as: Mithun, M.N.A.S., Kowsari, M.S. and Sheheli, S. 2020. Socioeconomic characteristics and
constraints of participatory pond fish farmers in Mymensingh district, Bangladesh. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov.
Tech. 10(2): 170-176. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v10i2.51591
Introduction
Bangladesh has favorable resources along with role in its national economy (FRSS, 2017). More
agro-climatic conditions, which makes it one of than 11 % of the population directly or indirectly
the more suitable countries for fish farming dependent on the fisheries sector for continuing
(Shamsuzzaman et al., 2020; Ahmed et al., their livelihood (DOF, 2016). A large number of
2012). Bangladesh is blessed with the world's people have improved their socioeconomic
largest flooded wetland and considered as the conditions through fish farming activities in
third largest aquatic biodiversity in Asia after Bangladesh (Ara, 2005). The fisheries sector
China and India (Shamsuzzaman et al., 2016). contributes 3.61% to the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) of the country and 24.41% to the
Bangladesh is one of the world's leading fish agricultural GDP (DOF, 2017). Besides an
producing countries with a total farming of 42.77 economic contribution, fish farming contributes
lakh metric ton, where aquaculture farming to food security as a major source of animal
contributes 56.24% of the total fish farming protein (DOF, 2018; Khan et al., 2018).
(DOF, 2018). Bangladesh ranked 3rd in inland
open water capture production and 5th in world Over last two decades, to meet the increasing
aquaculture production (FAO, 2018). Fish foreign demands of fish and fishery product,
supplements about 60% of Bangladeshi people’s aquaculture has expanded tremendously (Rana,
daily animal protein intake (DOF, 2018). Fish is a 2016). Ponds cover only 3.5% of the total inland
popular complement to rice in the national diet, water of Bangladesh whereas they contribute
giving rise to the adage Maache-Bhate Bangali (a about 31% of the total inland fish production thus
Bengali is made of fish and rice) (Ghose, 2014). playing a vital role in fresh water fish production
(DOF, 2017). About 52.92% of total fish
Fish farming in Bangladesh is an essential production comes from inland culture. The areas
agricultural sub-sector, which plays an important
Mithun et al. (2020) Socioeconomic characteristics and constraints of participatory pond fish farmers
of inland open water body, inland closed water Therefore, the researchers undertook this
body and pond are 3.92, 0.77 and 0.37 million research keeping in mind the following
hectares, respectively (DOF, 2017). But, the objectives: to describe the socioeconomic
farming of inland open water is decreasing day by characteristics of the fish farmers; to determine
day (Sheheli et al., 2019). In this situation, to the constraints of participatory pond fish
meet the increasing demand of fish in farmers; and to explore the relationships between
Bangladesh, improvement of participatory pond socioeconomic characteristics and constraints of
fish culture is essential. participatory pond fish farmers.
Now-a-days, participatory pond fish farming has Methodology
been proved a profitable and smart business
comparing to the rice or other agricultural Study area
cultivations (Das et al., 2018). The production The study was carried out in Kheruajani union of
from participatory pond is increasing very Muktagachha upazila (sub-district) under
sharply due to dissemination of adaptive Mymensingh district of Bangladesh (Fig. 1). The
technologies such as Tilapia, Koi, Magur, Shing, Upazila located between 24º75´ and 24º83´
Pungas, Sarputi, Rui, Catla, Mrigel etc. through North latitudes and between 90º26´ and 90º67´
effective extension services by the Department of East longitudes. A huge number of farmers are
Fisheries, government and non-government involved with fish farming and have received
organizations (Sheheli et al., 2019). extension services from Department of Fisheries
However, during participatory pond fish farming, (Sheheli et al., 2013). Good communication
the farmers of the study area usually face some facilities and consequently less expense for
constraints associated with it. Although, a large conducting the study and researchers’ perception
number of people are involved in participatory about better cooperation from the fish farmers
pond fish farming in that area, no specific study motivated the researchers to select the study
on the emerging constraints is reported yet. area.
Fig. 1. Map showing the study area.
Method of data collection and analysis of data standard deviation and rank order were used for
categorization and describing the variables.
A total of 100 fish farmers (50% of total
Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation
population) were selected randomly from a
coefficient (r) was used for testing the
population of 200 fish farmers which constituted
relationship between the socioeconomic
the sample of this research. Data were collected
characteristics and constraints of participatory
by using a structured interview schedule through
pond fish farmers (Equation 2).
face to face interview with the selected fish
farmers during 01 to 31 October 2018. Extent of ∑(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥⃐)(𝑦𝑖 −𝑦
⃐)
𝑟𝑥𝑦 = ………………………… (2)
constraints of participatory pond fish farmers √∑(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥⃐)2 ∑(𝑦𝑖 −𝑦
⃐ )2
was the focus variable and eleven socioeconomic
characteristics of the fish farmers were selected Where,
as explanatory variables namely age, level of rxy = Pearson’s product-moment correlation
education, household size, farm size, area under coefficient
fish farming, fish farming experience, annual ⃐ = Means of the variables x and y,
x⃐ and y
family income, training exposure, extension respectively
media contact, organizational participation and
knowledge on fish farming. The study identified Results and Discussion
22 major constraints of participatory pond fish Socioeconomic characteristics of the fish
farmers. farmers
The major constraints of participatory pond fish In this section, summary of the socioeconomic
farmers were measured by using a 4-point rating characteristics of the fish farmers have been
scale (Islam et al., 2013). The respondents were presented in Table 1. The findings revealed that
asked to rate each problem as high, medium, low the majority (90%) of the fish farmers were
and not at all, with corresponding score of 3, 2, 1 young to middle aged and maximum of them
and 0, respectively. Thus, the constraint scores (65%) had primary to secondary education. Fish
ranged from 0 to 66, where 0 indicates no culture requires technicalities regarding the use
constraint and 66 indicates severe constraint. and management of instruments (Olaoye et al.,
Moreover, a constraint facing score (CFS) was 2013), where education can play a significant role
employed to identify the critical constraints in in enabling farmers' understanding of
participatory pond fish farming (Equation 1). technicalities as well as constraints resolution.
Other researchers (Amin et al., 2016; Pandit and Most of the fish farmers (80%) were belong to
Basak, 2013) also used similar formula to identify medium to large sized family and the highest
the critical constraints in their respective studies. proportions (90%) of them had small to medium
𝐶𝐹𝑆 = (Ph × 3) + (Pm × 2) + (Pl × 1) sized farm. The majority of the fish farmers
+ (Pn × 0) … … … … … … … … … (1) (62%) mainly used their small sized farm area for
fish culture and most of them (86%) had medium
Where, CFS = Constraint Facing Score, Ph = to high income. Maximum of the fish farmers
Number of responses with high constraints, Pm = (75%) had medium to high farming experience.
Number of responses with medium constraints, Farmers with high experience can predict farm
Pl = Number of responses with low constraints production and market situation (Olaoye et al.,
and Pn = Number of responses with no 2013). Majority of the farmers (59%) received no
constraint. training on aquaculture, followed by short
duration training (37%) and the highest
Thus, the CFS of individual constraint could
proportions (86%) of them had low to medium
range from 0 to 300, where 0 indicating no
extension contact. Access to extension providers
constraint and 300 indicating high constraint of
renders good sources of information for
participatory pond fish farmers.
diversified farm activities (Odini, 2014). The
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) highest proportions of the farmers (85%) had low
version 20 and Microsoft Excel version 13 was to medium organizational participation and most
used for data management. Descriptive statistics, of them (98%) had high knowledge on fish
for instances, frequency, percentage, mean, farming for increasing their fish production level.
Table 1. Characteristics profile of the respondents (n=100).

Socio-economic characteristics Frequency Percentage Mean SD*
Age (year)
Young (18-35) 35 35
Middle age (36-50) 55 55 37.95 9.84
Old (>50) 10 10
Level of education (year)
Illiterate (0) 08 08
Can sign only (0.5) 15 15
Primary (1-5) 30 30 8.05 3.65
Secondary (6-10) 35 35
Higher secondary (>10) 12 12
Household size (number)
Small (up to 4) 20 20
Medium (5-6) 56 56 6.37 1.76
Large (>6) 24 24
Farm size (ha)
Landless(0.02 ha) 0 0
Marginal(.02-0.2 ha) 0 0
Small (0.21-1 ha) 55 55 1.52 1.02
Medium (1.01-3 ha) 35 35
Large (>3 ha) 10 10
Area under fish farming (ha)
Small ( up to 1 ha) 62 62
Medium (1.01-3 ha) 33 33 1.13 0.88
Large (> 3.01 ha) 5 5
Annual family income (“000” Tk.)
Low (up to 50) 14 14
Medium (51-80) 56 56 249.72 310.09
High (> 80) 30 30
Fish farming experience (year)
Low ( up to 15) 25 25
Medium (16-30) 45 45 13.31 8.44
High (> 30) 30 30
Training exposure (days)
No training (0) 59 59
Short duration (up to 5) 37 37
16.42 16.24
Long duration ( > 5) 04 04
High (>9) 15 15
Extension media contact (score)
Low ( 0-9) 31 31
Medium (10-18) 55 55 7.42 3.66
High (>18) 14 14
Organizational participation (score)
Low ( up to 5) 59 59
Medium (5-8) 31 31 2.16 1.95
High (>10) 10 10
Knowledge on fish farming (score)
Low (up to10 ) 00 00
Medium (11-20) 02 02 25.22 2.44
High (>20 ) 98 98
SD* stands for Standard Deviation
findings reveal that more than half of the
Extent of constraints of participatory
respondents (68%) faced medium constraints,
pond fish farmers
while 10% and 22% of them faced high and low
The extent of constraints of participatory pond constraints, respectively. The findings lead to
fish farmers has been presented in the Fig. 2. The illustrate that the majority of the participatory
pond fish farmers (90%) faced medium to low that the farmers faced medium to low constraints
constraints. Our findings are supported by the (91.3%) in practicing small scale aquaculture in
findings of Rahman et al. (2014), who indicated Thakurgaon district of Bangladesh.
80
68
70
Respondents (%) 60
50
40
30
22
20
10
10
0
Low (up to 22) Medium (23-46) High (above 46)
Category
Fig. 2. Extent of constraints of participatory pond fish farmers (n=100).

Table 2. Constraints of participatory pond fish farmers (n = 100).
Constraints Extent of constraints CFS* Rank
High Medium Low Not at all order
Lack of training on aquaculture 60 30 10 00 250 1
High price of various inputs 65 21 11 03 248 2
Fear to start participatory farming 60 30 05 05 245 3
Lack of preservation technology 55 30 05 10 230 4
Poor transportation facilities 45 40 10 05 225 5
Lack of marketing facilities 55 20 15 10 220 6
Lack of skilled labor 45 35 15 05 220 6
Lack of scientific and technical 55 20 12 13 217 7
knowledge
Security constraints (theft and animosity) 50 25 15 10 215 8
Low profitability 42 38 12 08 214 9
Adulteration of feed 49 26 15 10 214 9
Lack of enough capital to invest 40 40 10 10 210 10
Natural calamities (flood, drought) 33 47 15 05 208 11
High interest on credit 45 28 05 22 196 12
Fluctuation of market price 35 35 20 10 195 13
Unavailability of quality fry 36 34 18 12 194 14
Poor extension service 35 35 15 15 190 15
Lack of credit facilities 40 25 15 20 185 16
Land unavailability 20 50 20 10 180 17
Disease occurrence 40 20 20 20 180 17
Inbreeding constraint 30 20 26 24 156 18
Crisis of water in dry season 25 25 30 20 155 19
CFS *: Constraint Facing Score
For determining the extent of individual productivity of the farms efficiently and
constraint, a Constraint Facing Score (CFS) was effectively (Ituma and Ukah, 2017). Training
computed and represented in Table 2. The makes the trainee more qualified and fit to
findings show that lack of training on aquaculture perform a task more effectively but in the study
was the most important constraints of fish area, more than half of the fish farmers (59%)
farmers in participatory pond fish farming (CFS received no training (Table 1). As a result, they
= 250). Training enhances fish farmers' ability to faced many constraints in participatory pond fish
manage farms and contribute maximum farming.
The high price of various inputs (CFS = 248) was Fear to start participatory farming with a CFS
the second important constraints reported by the score of 245 was reported as the third important
respondents. The farmers of the study area faced constraints of fish farmers in participatory pond
constraints of various inputs such as high price of fish farming. Most of the fish farmers of the study
fish feeds, chemicals and drugs for disease area were afraid of starting participatory pond
control, etc. Islam et al. (2013) found high price fish farming because of illiteracy, lack of
of fish feed as third ranked constraint in their experience, personal conflict, lack of motivation
research constraints as faced by the fish farmers by the extension personnel, etc.
in practicing semi-intensive climbing perch
farming. Onemolease and Oriakhi (2011) and Correlation between socioeconomic
Rahman et al., (2014) reported high cost of characteristics and constraints of
fishing inputs as a major problem in fishing participatory pond fish farmers
activities.
Table 3. Result of correlation analysis between explanatory variables and focus variable.
Focus variable Explanatory variables Correlation coefficient (r) with 98 df
Age -0.158
Level of education 0.005
Household size 0.115
Constraints of Farm size -0.132
participatory pond fish Area under fish farming -0.113
farmers Fish farming experience -0.358**
Annual family income -0.288**
Training exposure -0.237*
Extension media contact 0.018
Organizational participation -0.037
Knowledge on fish farming -0.112
Notes: **: Significant at 1% level of probability; *: Significant at 5% level of probability, df: Degrees of freedom
The negative significant correlation (r = -0.288) participatory pond fish farming. Therefore, it is
of annual family income with the constraints of highly recommended that the respective
participatory pond fish farmers clearly pointed authority like Department of Fisheries should
out that the fish farmers having high income can provide better interventions, like training and
minimize the undesirable loss during extension services, to the farmers in regard to
participatory pond fish farming. Azad et al. participatory pond fish farming that would
(2014) and Rahman (2011) found similar improve the profitability of fish production.
relationship between the concerned variables. Moreover, different credit organizations (both
GOs and NGOs) should provide easily accessible
The training exposure had significant and credits to increase participatory pond fish
negative relationship (r = -0.237) with the farming within the study area.
constraints of participatory pond fish farmers,
indicating that training exposure enables farmers Acknowledgements
to manage their fish farming activities effectively.
Islam et al. (2013), Rahman (2011) and Uddin et The authors express their sincere gratitude to fish
al. (2020) reported similar findings in their farmers and DOF in Mymensingh district,
respective research. Bangladesh, for providing valuable information.
Special thanks are extended to those people who
Conclusions helped under different capacities in this research.
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(Anabus testubineus) farming. Bangladesh Existing status and practices of fish farming
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Ituma, O.E. and Ukah, N.J. 2017. Training skill Progress. Agric. 24: 191-201.
needs of secondary school agricultural https://doi.org/10.3329/pa.v24i1-2.19172
science graduate in fish farming in Ebonyi Sheheli, S., Kowsari, M.S. and Mithun, M.N.A.S.
state, Nigeria. Int. J. Bus. Manag. Soc. Res. 2019. Participatory pond fish production as
3: 186-191. an income generating activity: A farm level
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Khan, A.Q., Aldosari, F. and Hussain, S.M. 2018. 163-170.
Fish consumption behavior and fish farming Uddin, M.N., Kabir, K.H., Roy, D., Hasan, M.T.,
attitude in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Sarker, M.A. and Dunn, E.S. 2020.
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418. In: Proceeding of the 10th International Grassland Congress, Helsinki.
o Feng, H. and Tang, J. 1998. Microwave finish drying of diced apples in a spouted bed. J. Food Sci. 63 (4): 679-683.
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IJARIT 10 (2) Dec 2020 (Full Issue)

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IJARIT 10 (2) Dec 2020 (Full Issue)

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ISSN: 2224-0616

International Journal of Agricultural Research,

An International Online Journal

IJARIT Research Foundation

Volume 10 Issue 2 December 2020

Prof. Dr. Md. Shahjahan

Dr. M.S.A. Mamun

International Journal of Agricultural Research, Innovation and Technology (IJARIT) is

IJARIT Research Foundation

Prof. Dr. Md. Shahjahan, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh

Dr. Rajib Biswas, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109 (USA)

Mr. Delwar Hossain Ripan, Edith Cowan University, Perth (Australia)

Mr. Wangchuk Tenxin, Royal Institute of Management, Thimphu (Bhutan)

Mr. Cj Liyanaarachchi, Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka (Sri Lanka)

Mr. Babul Aktar, BRAC Tanzania, Dodoma (Tanzania)

Mr. Frnacis Chimpeni, University of Malawi, Mulanje, Malawi (Central Africa)

Mr. Ali Samandi, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran (Iran)

Published by: IJARIT Research Foundation

The published issues are available in the website at http://www.ijarit.webs.com &

Correspondence should be addressed: Executive Editor, International Journal of Agricultural

© IJARIT Research Foundation

Volume 10 Issue 2 December 2020

Scope of using ICT for knowledge management on adaptation

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 1-6, December 2020 2

Table 1. Distribution of the respondents according to use of mobile phone.

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 1-6, December 2020 3

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 1-6, December 2020 4

Selected Characteristics Correlation Value of ‘r’ with 83 df

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 1-6, December 2020 5

References expert meeting on “How to feed the world in

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 1-6, December 2020 6

Soil physicochemical properties under eucalyptus tree species

Fig. 1. Map of the study area.

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 7-14, December 2020 8

Plant material and nursery management Soil sampling

Soil properties Values Soil rating (Landon, 1991)

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 7-14, December 2020 9

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 7-14, December 2020 10

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 7-14, December 2020 11

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 7-14, December 2020 12

chemical properties in Munessa montane Guide. Oregon State University, Extension

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 7-14, December 2020 13

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 7-14, December 2020 14

Application of probiotics and prebiotics for promoting growth of

1Fisheries and Marine Resources Technology Discipline, Khulna University, Bangladesh.

*Corresponding author’s email: joy@fmrt.ku.ac.bd (J. Bir)

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 15-20, December 2020 16

Feed used/1000 biomass

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 15-20, December 2020 17

Sampling and growth measurement Results and Discussion

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 15-20, December 2020 18

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 15-20, December 2020 19

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 15-20, December 2020 20

Comparative analysis of chickpea with boro rice

Gazipur- 1706, Bangladesh.

University, Gazipur- 1706, Bangladesh.

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 21-28, December 2020 22

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 21-28, December 2020 23

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 21-28, December 2020 24

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 21-28, December 2020 25

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 21-28, December 2020 26

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 21-28, December 2020 27

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 21-28, December 2020 28