GENERAL CHEMISTRY OUTLINE 4. Matter +> Properties and Classification of Matter 2. Atoms and Atomic Theory > Law of conservation of mass, Law of co composition, Dalton's atomic theory sa" > Blectrons, protons, neutrons. > Chemical elements, symbols, isotopes, ions > Atomic number, mass number, alse, > Periodic table: groups, periods, main transition elements eae > Avogadro's constant, concept of th fer’ Pt of the mole, mote in ‘A.Dalton’s Atomic Theory Main postulates of Dalton atomic theory are as follows: Matter is composed of very tiny or microsco ies called “atom" Pic partic 4. Atom is an indivisible particle. 2. Atom can neither be created nor destroyed 3, Atoms of an element are identical in size, and in other properties 4, Atoms of different elements are different in their properties, 5. Atoms combine with each other in small whole numbers. 8. Allchemical reactions are due to the combination or separation of atoms. shape, mass, DEFECTS IN DALTON'S THEORY Postulates 2, 3, 4 and 6 are incorrect as described below. > Atom can be divided into a number of sub-atomic Particles: electron, praton, and neutron, > Atoms of an element may be different in their masses, (Hy tHe , tH $ Noi al compounds have smal number of sors, (Decane Ciotizr , Sugar Ciotzz011) > Atoms can be destroyed by fission process (atom bomb, ‘nuclear reactor) ‘On the basis of above defects, Dalton’s atomic theory has failed now. 3. Chemical Compounds: 2 Sate comet ns nt di cee ena eam eat tnt rw ‘mass, molecular mass, % composition, determining 4. Chemical Reactions . > Chemical reaction and the chemical equation: reactants and products, stoichiometric coefficients; (9). (). (8) (aq) states > Chemical equations and stoichiometry, > Sha reactions in ohor: mola luton Stoichiometry of reactions in solution , > Limiting reactant, yields: theoretical, actual, percent yield calculations with 5. Introduction to Reactions in Aqueous Solutions > Nature of aqueous solutions: electrolytes: > Precipitation reactions; titrations 132 6. Gases > Properties of gases. > Gas Laws (Boyle, Charles, Avogadro, Gay-Lussac, Ideal), STP, calculations > Moxture of gases Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures > Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases, dffusion, effusion, > Graham's Law 7. Thermochemistry > System and surroundings energy, work. heat, units of work and heat > Heat capacity. specific heat, law of conservation of, energy > Heals of reaction and calorimetry, exothermic, endothermic reactions > First Law of Thermodynamics, intemal energy, stale functions (A€, aH) > Heats of reactions: AE and aH, enthalpy change, enthalpy diagrams 8. Electrons in Atoms > Bohr atom: electron orbits, quantum numbers > Quantum mechanics: wave particle duality, > Heisenberg's uncertainty principle > Shapes of orbitals: mi (convention: + values first) > Electron spin: m, (convention: we cannot distinguish between electrons in the same orbital) > Electron configurations: Paull; Hund; Aufbau > Electron configurations and the periodic table: s, p, d and f block elements 9. The Periodic Table > Classifying the elements; modem periodic table > Metals, nonmetals, and their ons; metalloids; noble {gases; isoelectronic ions and atoms > Trends: atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, metalic, nonmetallic character, reducing ability of 1 and. 2A metals, oxidizing ablity of halogens, acid-base nature. of oxides 410, Solutions and Their Physical Properties > Solutions solute and solvent > Concentrations: mass %, volume %, 229, mole fraction, mole %, molality, molarity, normaly > Solution process: enthalpy of solution, ideal solutions, ionic soltons, solubity (unsaturated, saturated and ‘supersaturated solutions) > Solubiityof gases: effects of temperature and pressure > Henrys Law > Vapor pressure of solutions: Raoults law, ideal and non- ‘deal solutions 7 Coligave properis of nonlecwohtes and lecrotes (osmotic pressure, freezing pont, boil mass determination a eee > Electrolyte solutions: Arhenius acid, pH, strong acids, strong bases 411, Nuclear Chemistry > Radioactivity: nuclear equations, « and p particles, positrons, y radiation . > Naturally-occurring radioactive isotopes > Nuclear reactions and artificially induced radioactivity > Transuranium elements, > Radioactive decay: hat-lte, rate equation, carbon dating LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWERatter: anything that has mass ang SDS space Mistures: combinations of two or which each substance retains its pnd hence ts own properties more supstances in own chemical dentty Physical Change: change ct state or phage ‘Chemical Change: transtomat ION In Which si are converted into other substay . udstances Aces, " Compound: substance com, 1POSEd of two or mor laments chemically combi eee 160 in fixed proportions Element: substance that cannot be decom, ‘chemical reaction into simpler substances 9 Y 7Y lances Matter wenater SY ohysical _. Homogeneous fue Means Into watter composition) omapencous Dy physical _, Pure substances means int xed compen (variable ee Peston) composition) ese car Compounds —» by chemical 5. clerbents means into Law of Conservation of Mass: The totai mass of the ‘products of a chemical reacuon is the same as the total mass of the reactants (mass remains constant during ‘chemical reaction) Law of Definite Composition (Law of Definite Proportions): The elemental composition of a pure ‘compound is always the same, regardless of ts source Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements form ‘more than one compound, the masses of one element in these compounds for a fixed mass of the other element ‘are in ratios of small whole numbers Atomic Number: number of protons in the nucleus: Maas Number: number of protons + number of neutrons Isotopes: atoms of the same element with different mass Fumbers (carbon-12 and carbon-13) 35 of ‘Atomie Mass Unit (amu): exactly one-welih the mat A carbon-12 atom Atomic Mass (weight): average mass ofthe stoms of 7 ‘lement in amu: mass in g of one mol of the elem ins as Mote (mol): quantity ofa given substance tha contin ‘any molecules or formula units asthe nummer > in exactly 12 g of carbon-12; consists Particles 133 Molar Mass mass ct Ramencally equa: to mass unis ce ng ts Mass % of & Molecule. definite 3'oup of arars that are chemically Donged together lon: electncally.charged panicie obtained from an atom or chemically bonded group of atoms by adding oF removing electrons Cation: Positively Anion: Negatively Charged ton Charged lon Ammonium NH Acetate C2H.0: Cuprous or : Cesena ct Azide No Hydrogen Ht Bromide Br Litho Chlorate Cloy Potassium Kt Gyanice cN Siver agt Flucrige F Sodum Nat Hysroxde oH lode 1 Banum eat Nivate NOs Cadmium ca inte NOs Calum Ca" ———_—Perenorate Cl0« Seat Co Permanganate MnO. Cobalt (ly ie “ Cupne or - Copper (iy CH ey Fer Carbonat cos Lead or 2 pian | Chromate coe Magnesium Mg Dichromate. CxO? Mercureus or Nocera tae Oxide o Mercure of 4». ' Mercury (iy HO” bald on Stannousor ga mi Ste Sutide & Strontium si Sulfate soe Zine 2 Sulfite S32 ‘Alumioum “APY Nitride Ne Chromic or Chromium (ny Phosphate re Ferric or . inane Phosphide po (Chemical Formula: notation that uses atomic symbols with numerical subscripts to convey the relative Proportions of atoms of the different elements in the substance Empirical Formula (Simplest Formula): formula with the ‘smallest integer subscripts Molecular Formula: chemical formula thal gives the exact ‘number of diferent atoms of an element in a molecale RNFAST REVIEW AND. TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER LEAIMolecular stance subeta Formula water H20 nycrogen eee HO ranane Cate CH Molecular Mass / Weight (MW): the sum o masses ale some ate atm Formula Mass / Weight (FW): the sum of the stm: presenti a aan afer Smpaunt whether mole Sm eel Pict sone sec mB Fmd weights of all the atoms in an ‘empirical formula . Molecular Formul Where: n= Molecular or formula ‘empirical formula weight Stoichiometry: Calculation of and products involved in a ch the quantities of reactants Nemical reaction: Nulg) + 3Hx(9)— + 2NHy(gy chemical Feaction 1 3 2 molecule + molecules -+ molecules molecular u Me NH interpretation ime, 3 moles 2moles molar Ne Ho = > Na interpretation 2X17.99 mass + 3X2.02g Boge +P NH interpretation Limiting Reactant or Limiting Reagent (LR): reactant that is entirely consumed when a reaction completes ‘Theoretical Yield: Quantity of product that is calculated to form when all of the LR reacts Actual Yield: Amount of product actually obtained in a reaction Percentage Yield = —SctiZiie = x 100% Atomic Structure and Periodic Table ‘The Nuclear Atomic Model: Protons and neutrons in the nucleus; electrons outside the nucleus The Quantum Mechanical Mode! luantum numbers: n, |, mi, Ms 20M. > Principal Quantum Number. n= 4(K), 2(L), : iectfes the shel or level to which the eleon Secegs. ; ‘Quantum Number: |= (8), 10), 202), 3(0-~i 2-1 identifies the subshell ait oveste = ic Quantum Number. m= +4 k ‘shape of the subshell: orientation of atomic orbital spin ‘uantum number > Spin Quantum Number: Ms = +53 134 nberg's Uncertainty Principle: It 1s impossible 10 determine simultaneously the exact postion and the exact ‘omentum of a fast moving body ike an electron Paul's Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in the Same atom may have the same set of all four quantum Pumbers Hund's Rule of Multiplicity: in the ground state of an atom, electrons are distributed among the orbitals of @ Subshell in @ way that gives the maximum number of Lnpaired electrons with parallel spins. Aufoau Principle (Building-up Principle): A scheme sed to reproduce the electronic configurations of atoms by successively filing subshells with electrons in a specific ‘order (orbitals with lower energy first), Periodic Properties of the Elements ‘Atomic Size: within a period, decreases from left 10 "ght; within a group, increases from top to bottom, Size of Cation: within a period, decreases from left to "ight; within a group, increases from top to bottom ‘Size of Anion: within a period, decreases from left to Fight; within a group, increases from top to bottom lonization Energy (energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in the ground state): within a period, increases from left o right; within a group, decreases from top to bottom Electron Affinity (energy change when an electron is ‘added to a gaseous atom in the ground state): within a Period, increases negative value from left to right; within a ‘group, no clear trend Basicity of Metal Oxides: within a period, decreases {rom lef to right; within a group, inereases from top to bottom Acidity of Non-metal Oxides: within a period, increases {rom left to right; within a group, decreases from top to bottom Metallio Property (ceducing propery): within @ period, decreases from left to right; within a group, increases from top to bottom ‘Non-metallic Property (oxidizing property): within a Period, increases from left o right within a group, ‘decreases from top to bottom Electronegativity (measure ofthe abilty of an atom in a molecule to draw bonding electrons to itsel): within a Period, increases from left to right; within a group, ‘decreases from top to bottom. EAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB—NMAT REVIEWER LEARIChemical Bond tt Bond one en oem ore Combat Bond fered by shanng ot eletons between ) formed by transfer of ms ss of actor emus > Normal and coordinate covalent bonds > Formal charge and oxidation nursoer > Fomal Charge (FC) = Group "No mi unshared e's minus No.of covalent bong Ue NO of > The higher the Bond order, the shorer the bong and the greater the bond strength "*" the bond length lneasing bond length tnple Bond < double bond « seat le bond Decreasing bond length: tn ‘single bond Metalic Bond: a crystal ofthe met arrangement ofthe posite ions, and the valence electrons move throughout the crystal atiractedo the positive cores of al the positive ions iple bond > double bond » 'al Consists of a regular Balancing of Oxidation Reduction (Redox) Reactions 1. Write the two hal-reactions: one for oxidation, the other foc reduction 2, Balance all atoms aside from H and 0 3, Balance H and O For acid medium: excess 0 + 2H" + H:0 excess H > Ht For basic medium: excess 0+ H,0 + 20H: excess H+ OH > H:0 4. Balance electrons 5. Add and simplify Polar and Non-Polar Bonds. Non-Polar Covalent Bond: equal sharing of a pair of e In diatomic molecules consisting of identical atoms in identical atoms with identical neighbors, Polar Covalent Bond: unequal sharing of a pair of e's in ‘dentical atoms with different neighbors when two bonded ‘atoms are dissimilar Polar and Non-Polar Molecules: consider polarity of Bends, then geometry of molecule > Nompolar bonds —> non-polar molecu! > Polar bonds but symmetrical -» nonpolar molecules > Polarbonds and not symmetrical > parm Resonance Hybrid: structure intermediate between Contibuing resonance siucures; contfbung sructes have equivalent bonds (same strenat ‘resulting to more stable structure Valence Shell Electron Pair Repuision (WSerr) Eon shamans Rowat mean ‘8 far apart as possible. The st f os Bingen bstoasone LEARNFAST Bonding nan boring Shape ct cpa epace molecule 61 ceahediat 5 1 | square pyramidal fa Tg | square pianar a | ‘T-shaped 3 ‘ near Hybrid Orbitals: ming of atomic orbitals to form a hybnd (eg. sp. sp? sp") The number of hybnd orbitals is equal to the number of pure atomic orbs that med Phases of Matter: consider intermolecular forces of altraction 1 len-dipole 2 Dipote- where R = 0,082 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure: P, = P; +P; +P, Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes: At constant temperature and pressure, the volumes of gases used or produced in a chemical reaction stand in ratios of small whole numbers. The volume ratio is given by the Coefficients of the gases in the chemical equation, Avogadro's Principle: Equal volumes of all gases at the ‘Same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. Critical Temperature: temperature at which a gas cannot be liquefied with increase in pressure. All substances above this temperature exist as a gas. Critical Pressure: pressure required to liquely @ gas at its critical temperature Liquids Vapor Pressure: pressure of vapor in equilibrum with @ liquid at a given temperature REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWERng Point Pe St hn tne vapoy Beads equal 0 the extemal pregyne Y2P2" Pressure of iy ritance offi o fo ce Tension: EOS he ng Siteon fhe Haid caused by sna 8 On the Yermolecular forces of attraction Solids Molecular Solids: atoms or mo} ec taemolecuar forces ules held together by Hatalic Solids: positive cores of atoms 4a"s9a" of electrons (metalic bonding) e ogether by lnie Salis: ations and anions held together by the owccalatracton of opposite charges (one bona Covalent Network Solids: atoms held together i networks or chains by covalent Seether in arge bonds ‘Thermodynamics > Tells whether the reaction is spontaneous or not First Law of Thermodynamics: from one form into another, but it. ror destroyed. ‘Second Law of Thermodynamics: Every spontaneous ‘change is accompanied by an increase in entropy. Gibb’s Free Energy: Reactions tend to seek a minimum in energy and a maximum in randomness. Third Law of Thermodynamics: At absolute zero the ‘entropy of a perfect crystalline substance may be taken as. zero Energy can be converted ‘can neither be created Solutions Moiarity, solution Motality, m: Number of moles of the solute per kilogram of the solvent Mole Fraction, X lumber of moles of the solute per iter of the Number of moles 8 * Total moles of solution equivalent Equivalent Point: point in a tiation when an equiva ‘mount of tant has been added tothe analyte solution Coligative Properties: depend on the number of Particles and not on the kind of particle Raouits Law: Pertains to ideal solutions in which the inlarmolecuiar forces between molecules ar ‘essentially the same. : Ke for 1. Boling Point Elevation, ATs= Ks m where: Water is 0.52°C per molal solution 7 phere: Krfor 2. Freezing Point Depression, ATf = Kim w! water is 1.86°C por mola! solution irpH at some Buffers: solutions capable of maintaining the eae {airy constant value even when small 2m 136 base are added, could be @ mixture of a weak acid and the ‘Sait of ts conjugate base (e g. HOAC-OAC) or a mixture of ‘@ weak base and the salt of its conugate acid (eg NHa- Nite) Henderson-Hasselbaich Equation: il DH = hy + og ot here pH = og [Hand pka = - og Ka {1 = molar concentration of a conjugate base [HA] = molar concentration of a undissociated weak acid ™) ‘The equation can be rewriten to solve for pOH [HB*) {HB"] = molar concentration of the conjugate base (M) 8] = molar concentration of a weak base (M) Nuclear Chemistry Balancing Nuclear Reactions - Types of Nuclear Reactions: 1, Radioactive Decay process in which an unstable Nucleus is changed by the emission of radiation a apha decry By - rn Sue 125) 25 ®. gamma radiaton [2514] + 125re + y ted sat» ground sate 131, tye 0 epdecsy Hy BShyeg Og d.pastoncacay He Hye 6. electron copie 81, ghrp + 0 at, e(orbital etectron) -» 8x, orbital electron) -» Sh 2, Transmutation. process in which one nucteus is transformed into another through bombardment by various subatomic particles or ions 3, Nuclear Fission: process in whi ‘split into lighter ones. 1,4 235y 14250, yy al, ot gg > Sova Shere hn ich a heavy nucleus is 4, Nuclear Fusion: process in whi ich light nuclei are fused into heavier one Val 5 2y 4°, Hh os 24% Vt yH = Hey LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWERWAMGIARY LVWN - 8H TWIHOLOL ONY MaIARY LSVINUys) Periodic Table of the Elements. ut