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Magnetic modeling of iron oxide copper-gold mineralization constrained by

3D multiscale integration of petrophysical and geochemical data: Cloncurry
District, Australia
Article in Interpretation · August 2013

DOI: 10.1190/INT-2013-0005.1
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Magnetic modeling of iron oxide copper-gold mineralization constrained

by 3D multiscale integration of petrophysical and geochemical data:
Cloncurry District, Australia
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James R. Austin1, Phillip W. Schmidt1, and Clive A. Foss1
Abstract
Magnetite-rich iron oxide copper-gold deposits (IOCGs) are geologically and geochemically complex and
present major challenges to geophysical investigation. They often sit beneath significant cover, exhibit magnetic
remanence, and suffer from self-demagnetization effects. Because remanence in magnetite-bearing drill core
samples is commonly overprinted by drilling, in situ natural remanent magnetization is difficult to measure
accurately, and thus IOCGs cannot be modeled definitively using geophysics alone. We examined structural
controls on a magnetite-rich IOCG in northwest Queensland and the relationships between structure, alteration,
Fe oxides, and mineralization at core to deposit scale. Magnetite within the deposit has a multidomain structure,
and thus it would commonly have an in situ magnetization parallel to the earth’s field. In contrast, pyrrhotite has
a pseudosingle-domain structure and so it is the predominant carrier of stable remanence within the ore system.
Geophysical lineament analyses are used to determine structural controls on mineralization, geophysical filters
(e.g., analytic signal amplitude) are used to help define structural extent of the deposit, and basement geochem-
istry is used to map mineral footprints beneath cover. These techniques identified coincident anomalies at the
intersection of north and northwest lineaments. Leapfrog™ interpolations of downhole magnetic susceptibility
and Cu, Au, and Fe assay data were used to map the distribution of magnetite, copper, gold, and sulfur in 3D. The
analysis revealed that Cu and Au mineralization were coupled with the magnetite net-vein architecture, but that
Cu was locally enriched in the east–northeast-trending demagnetized zone. The results from this suite of geo-
physical, petrophysical, and geochemical techniques were integrated to constrain modeling of the Brumby
IOCG. Brumby can be described as a breccia pipe sitting at the intersection of north-striking, east-dipping,
and northwest-striking, southeast-dipping structures that plunges moderately to the south–southeast. The brec-
cia pipe was overprinted by a relatively late net-vein magnetite breccia and crosscut by a later, magnetite-
destructive, east–northeast-striking fault.
Introduction case of magnetite-rich deposits (e.g., Ernest Henry,

Iron oxide copper-gold deposits (IOCGs) are an Candelaria, Osborne), also highly magnetic. As such,
important source of Australia’s most valuable mineral they make compelling subjects for forward modeling
exports, including iron, gold, copper, and uranium. and investigation of magnetic properties. However, for-
Most IOCGs were initially discovered through regional ward modeling of magnetic data over magnetite-rich
magnetic and gravity targeting, but there is a paucity of sources, such as IOCGs, is problematic due to several
published investigations of their geophysics, particu- geologic and geophysical complexities.
larly in the last decade, and particularly dealing with Geologic complications might include the presence
Cloncurry-type IOCGs (see Webb and Rowston, 1995). of multiple magnetic minerals within a deposit (e.g.,
Furthermore, most studies on the geophysics of depos- magnetite and pyrrhotite); complex overprinting rela-
its do not delve into the structural, metallogenic, or tionships (e.g., magnetite destruction, replacement,
metasomatic processes that control the geophysical and recrystallization); inconsistent or inverse spatial
signatures of deposits. relationships between magnetization intensity and min-
Obviously, IOCG deposits contain large amounts eralization; and difficulties associated with modeling
of iron oxides, which are extremely dense and, in the geophysically complex anomalies using geologically
1
CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering, North Ryde, Australia. E-mail: james.austin@csiro.au; phil.schmidt@csiro.au; clive.foss@
csiro.au.
Manuscript received by the Editor 4 February 2013; published online 29 July 2013. This paper appears in INTERPRETATION, Vol. 1, No. 1
(August 2013); p. T63–T84, 15 FIGS., 2 TABLES.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/INT-2013-0005.1. © 2013 Society of Exploration Geophysicists and American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Interpretation / August 2013 T63

realistic bodies. The relationships between lithology, The study highlights some of the issues associated
brecciation, structure, magnetite content, and miner- with modeling IOCGs and provides a framework for
alization are extremely complex, particularly in the con- adding geologic constraint to geophysical modeling
text of geophysical quantification, and have not been procedures. The results add to the current understand-
adequately researched to date. ing of the geophysical expression of IOCGs and may
Geophysical issues include remanence, self-demag- provide some insights that should assist exploration
netization, and nonuniqueness of inversions (see Clark, for magnetite-rich (Cloncurry, Candelaria, and Tennant
1997). Magnetism within any body will be comprised of Creek-type) IOCGs, and similar deposits globally.
induced and remanent magnetization, and it is impor-

tant to consider both when modeling geologic bodies. Geologic background
However, measurement of remanence is often ne- Geologic setting
glected, and its importance in IOCGs is poorly under- The Brumby Cu-Au Prospect is located in the south-
stood. Self-demagnetization occurs in all magnetic east of the Mount Isa Inlier, in the highest grade meta-
bodies; however, the effects are negligible for suscep- morphic region of the Eastern Succession. It is located
tibilities of less than about 0.1 SI (Osborn, 1945; Stoner, approximately 32 km northeast of Osborne Mine, 17 km
1945; Zietz and Henderson, 1956; Emerson et al., 1985; west of Cannington Mine, and 3.5 km south of the Light-
Hillan, 2013). Magnetite-rich IOCGs typically display ning Creek prospect (see Figure 1). It is hosted within
susceptibilities of greater than 0.5 SI (e.g., Anderson the Kuridala Formation, a metasedimentary sequence
and Logan, 1992; Clark, 1988, 1994; Austin and Foss, of psammites and pelites, which are considered by
2012; Austin et al., 2012) so the self-demagnetization ef- many (e.g., Beardsmore, 1988; Foster and Austin, 2008)
fects can be substantial. Hence, understanding and to be temporally and lithologically equivalent to the Sol-
quantifying the effects of remanence and self-demag- diers Cap Group. The sequence contains stratiform
netization are critical to the understanding of IOCGs units of amphibolite that are generally thought to have
and how to interpret them. Nonuniqueness is unavoid- formed as mafic sills (e.g., Hatton and Davidson, 2004)
able in magnetic modeling; however, it can be during the later part of Soldiers Cap Group deposition,
mitigated through the application of geologic and and they are thought to be equivalent to the Toole Creek
petrophysical constraints. Thus, it is imperative to try Volcanics (Beardsmore, 1988). The Brumby Prospect
to integrate any geophysical, petrophysical, and geo- sits only 10 km south of the giant ca. 1500-Ma Squirrel
chemical data available in 2D and 3D to constrain Hills Granite, and it appears to sit above, potentially
geophysical modeling. in the roof zone of, the temporally equivalent Brumby
This paper is a case study on the Brumby Prospect, Granite. Peak metamorphism in the area is upper
amphibolites facies (Foster and Rubenach, 2006). The
an IOCG target hosted within amphibolite facies rocks
prospect is hosted within a sequence of variably altered
in the Mount Isa Eastern Succession. The area in which
psammites, biotite schist/gneiss, and amphibolites,
it lies was covered by an aerial magnetic survey, and
which are overprinted by variably deformed magnet-
the prospect was initially discovered by the drilling
ite-diopside-actinolite-albite breccias, a magnetite net-
of a magnetic bull’s-eye target in the early 1990s. Mag-
vein complex (Williams, 1993) and by later chlorite
netic remanence within the prospect is not well under-
matrix, subrounded clast breccias and associated chlo-
stood, and the potential effects of remanence and rite-sulfide-carbonate fracture infill veining.
self-demagnetization on modeling of the target are
largely untested. Furthermore, the relatively small size
Regional geology
of the prospect presents an opportunity to try to unravel The Mount Isa Inlier is among the world’s most pro-
some of the complex interrelationships within an IOCG: ductive mineral provinces, containing Cu, Au, IOCG,
from mineralogy and alteration at a hand-sample scale, Ag-Pb-Zn, and U deposits (Williams, 1998). The Mount
to geophysical expression and structural controls at Isa Inlier was formed between ca. 1.9 and 1.5 Ga via a
deposit to regional scales. complex history, including three depositional phases
This study on the Brumby Prospect aims to assess and associated “cover sequences,” four major magmatic
the relationships between lithology, brecciation, struc- events, and one major orogenic event. For a detailed
ture, magnetite content, and mineralization and integra- discussion of the geology of the Eastern Succession,
tes the results with the geophysics and petrophysical refer to Blenkinsop et al. (2008) and Foster and Austin
properties (e.g., magnetic susceptibility [MagSus], re- (2008).
manent magnetism, and density) of rocks within the The Isan Orogeny, which occurred from ca. 1.6 to
prospect. It presents new MagSus data and palaeomag- 1.5 Ga, consisted of several stages of ductile though
netic data from the prospect and uses the results to to brittle deformation, of which five (termed D1 -D5 )
constrain magnetic inversion/forward modeling of the are recognized in the Eastern Succession (Keys, 2008;
Brumby anomaly. Construction of a 3D model is Austin and Blenkinsop, 2010). Most workers do not
constrained by drillhole data (e.g., assay, lithology, recognize much evidence for the D1 thrusting event
and MagSus) in 3D to provide a fully constrained 3D of Bell (1983) in the Eastern Succession (cf. Sayab,
geologic model of the prospect. 2005), and it is thought to be relatively minor and
T64 Interpretation / August 2013

involve only thin-skinned thrusting and folding. In reactivation associated with quartz-hematite alteration.
contrast, D2 is the regionally dominant ductile event Minor kinking and reactivation of preexisting faults
responsible for the north–south structural fabric of took place, facilitating some redistribution of Cu and
the Eastern Succession (Beardsmore, 1988). D2 formed Au within the mineral system, leading to the develop-
north–south oriented, subhorizontal folds and reverse ment of minor epithermal mineralization and over-
mylonite zones during peak metamorphic conditions printing of preexisting mineral deposits (Austin and
at ca. 1590 Ma (Beardsmore, 1988; Austin and Blenkin- Blenkinsop, 2009) e.g., Ernest Henry.
sop, 2010). D3 is a less extensive ductile-brittle phase of
deformation, which occurred at ca. 1550 Ma in conjunc- Exploration history and data
tion with the earliest phases of the Williams Batholith The Brumby Prospect, like many IOCG targets, was
(e.g., Marramungee granite). To the north of Brumby, initially identified from aeromagnetic data, which in this
Austin and Blenkinsop (2010) recognize that D3 pro- area was flown by Aberfoyle Resources in 1990–1991
duced variably plunging north–northwest-oriented (Hicks and Komyshan, 1994). These initial aeromag-
folds within a north to north–northwest trending netic surveys were flown at 200-m spacing, along
anastomosing shear zone. They recognized that the east–west-oriented lines at a height of 100–120 m. Since
D3 deformation was concentrated within and adjacent initial identification of the anomaly, several companies
to major zones of deformation but was absent in have explored the prospect to varying degrees, achiev-
most places. D4 occurred at ca. 1530–1520 Ma and ini- ing moderate success.
tially involved development of large lenticular and pipe- Aberfoyle Resources were the first to investigate the
like hydrothermal Albite-Diopside-Actinolite-Magnetite magnetic anomaly, drilling seven percussion, eight
breccias associated with massive sodic-
calcic alteration and intrusion of the
Mount Angelay and Saxby granites.
While these hydrothermal breccias are
particularly concentrated within the
Doherty Formation along the Cloncurry
Fault Zone (Austin and Blenkinsop,
2010), the breccias at Brumby appear
to be texturally and mineralogically sim-
ilar and hence are inferred to be tempo-
rally equivalent. D4 also marks the onset
of the major Cu-Au mineralization phase
in the Mount Isa Eastern Succession
(Keys, 2008; Austin and Blenkinsop,
2009, 2010) and the onset of brittle fault-
ing (Austin and Blenkinsop, 2010). The
brittle faults that were active from
D4 -D5 are major structural controls on
mineralization in the Eastern Succes-
sion. Several workers (e.g., Butera,
2004; Mustard et al., 2004; Ford and
Blenkinsop, 2008; Keys, 2008; Austin
and Blenkinsop, 2009) have considered
the prospectivity of a range of fault
orientations in the Eastern Succession
and have concluded that jogs, splays,
and intersections along north to north-
northwest, northwest and west–north-
west-trending faults provide the highest
prospectivity for mineralization of Cu
and Au. From D5 (<1510 Ma), crustal
relaxation ensued in conjunction with
the final and largest magmatic phase,
intrusion of the Squirrel Hills Granite at
ca. 1500 Ma. Breccias were overprinted
by potassic ± chlorite alteration associ-
ated with brittle fault development Figure 1. Simplified geologic map of the Mount Isa Inlier showing selected
in conjunction with east–southeast- major mineral deposits of the region and the Brumby IOCG prospect in bold.
directed shortening and by subsequent Geology is modified from Geoscience Australia (2010).

rotary air blast, and four diamond holes into Brumby grid of air core (AC) holes into the basement (for base-
Prospect in the early to mid 1990s. Samples from Aber- ment geochemistry), prior to follow-up drilling, which
foyle’s drill core were the basis of petrographic studies included six deep diamond holes and eight RC holes.
by Williams (1993) and Foster (1995) that provided a MagSus readings were taken on all drill core and chip
significant advancement in the genetic understanding samples by Aberfoyle and Barrick, generally at 1-m
of the prospect. Natural remanent magnetism (NRM) intervals. All the laboratory samples discussed in this
was also measured in six samples from drillhole report are taken from the six diamond holes drilled
PDTD013 (Walker, 1994). The results of the study sug- by Barrick. Ivanhoe acquired the Brumby Prospect in
gested that remanent magnetism could be significant 2010 and are planning further testing. For a detailed his-
(e.g., up to 12 times stronger than induced magnetiza- tory of exploration over the Brumby Prospect, refer to
tion; see Table 1) in the Brumby Prospect. None of annual exploration reports by Komyshan (1993), Hicks
the samples was oriented, which precluded calculation and Komyshan (1994), Hicks (1995), and Grant (2001).
of definitive magnetization vectors. However, Walker
(1994) does suggest that magnetization was directed Deposit geology
up the hole, and it may have caused the dip of the body Host rocks
to be incorrectly estimated. If the remanence carried by Biotite schist and gneiss, which are similar to high-
the samples is consistently directed for all samples, grade equivalents of the Soldiers Cap Group, e.g., Gan-
then the Koenigsberger ratio (Q) calculated from the dry Dam Gneiss, are common. The biotite schists
average remanent and induced magnetizations is 3.0. commonly display a strong wavy foliation defined by
Assuming that the measured NRMs are representative biotite, but they rarely contain more than ∼20% biotite
of the in situ NRM, uncontaminated by drilling effects, in total. The units generally appear to be intact (i.e., not
and that the sample collection is representative of sheared, fractured, or brecciated) and often display gra-
the bulk properties of the magnetic source, this dational (i.e., conformable) relationships with adjacent
would imply that the remanent magnetization of the psammitic and amphibolitic units. The lithology is com-
source is about three times stronger than the induced monly barren of mineralization, devoid of magnetite,
magnetization. and records MagSus readings of <20 × 10−5 SI.
North Limited drilled six reverse circulation (RC) Psammitic units that are consistent with quartz-
holes in 2000 before control of the project returned rich horizons of the Soldiers Cap Group are also present.
to Western Metals, who subsequently conducted a de- This lithology appears to have undergone recrystalliza-
tailed ground gravity survey over the prospect that iden- tion during metamorphism and is commonly pervasively
tified a coincident gravity anomaly. Placer Pacific altered. The psammites are commonly brecciated and
(Osborne) took over control of the prospect shortly appear to be the major host to magnetite replacement
after and conducted a detailed subaudio magnetic and mineralization, possibly due to enhanced permeabil-
(SAM) survey in 2004, which provided more detailed ity, greater chemical reactivity (e.g., due to feldspars),
(ground) magnetic data and hence, the opportunity and/or more brittle rheology compared with adjacent
to conduct more detailed investigation of the geophys- rocks. Where relatively intact and unaltered, they are
ics of the deposit. The magnetic data that are modeled devoid of magnetite and commonly record magnetic
in this report come from the 2004 SAM survey. In 2005, susceptibilities of <100 × 10−5 SI.
Placer was absorbed by Barrick who subsequently Amphibolite units vary from intermediate (i.e., equal
undertook a large-scale drilling program comprising a amounts of ferromagnesian and feldspar minerals) to
Table 1. Results of previous palaeomagnetic study on samples from Diamond drillhole PDTD-013, after Walker
(1994).
Sample Meters K — MagSus J J Q — Koenigsberger Density

DH (ind) (NRM) ratio
# m SI A∕m A∕m JðNRMÞ∕JðIndÞ (g∕cm3 )
1 158.4 0.518 26 12.47 0.5 3.03

2 165.55 1.000 50 51.51 1.0 4.67
3 176.2 0.908 45 86.79 1.9 4.58
4 195.5 0.297 15 15.40 1.0 3.14
5 210.6 0.3–0.8 28 147.95 5.3 3.88
6 234.4 0.168–0.574 19 229.17 12.1 3.14
Values are compared with lab measurements of bulk MagSus. Average and median weighted Koenigsberger ratios and densities are also shown for each rock type.
Laboratory values for MagSus and density were based on the average value determined from three specimens of each sample. Koenigsberger ratios were calculated
from vector average remanence and average susceptibility. The Koenigsberger ratios are artificially inflated for many of the magnetite-rich rocks due to drilling-induced
thermoremanent magnetization.

mafic geochemistry. The units are similar to many breccia. No sulfides are observed within the granite,
amphibolites within the Soldiers Cap Group and Doherty and it commonly has susceptibility readings of
Formation and commonly preserve anastomosing <50 × 10−5 SI).
foliations defined by amphibole and feldspar. The lith- Numerous different types of pegmatite are present
ology is commonly unaltered but appears to be totally within the Brumby deposit. The pegmatites generally
albitized in parts, and rarely silicified and kaolinized. occur as veins consisting of quartz, feldspar, and rarely
The units are commonly intact and often display grada- tourmaline. While there are very few criteria to distin-
tional relationships with adjacent psammitic or pelitic guish between different generations, it is inferred from
units. Apart from some minor examples of fracture overprinting relationships that some must be early
hosted sulfides, amphibolites are barren
of mineralization. They commonly rec-
ord weak to moderate susceptibility
readings (e.g., <5000 × 10−5 SI) indi-
cating that they contain significant
magnetite.
There are at least two phases of gran-
ite intrusion observed within the
Brumby drill core. The first is relatively
coarse-grained granite and texturally
consistent with the ca. 1530–1520 Ma
Mount Angelay and Saxby granites.
Some of the granites could be Marra-
mungee aged (ca. 1555 or earlier), but
they do not appear to be significantly
deformed and, hence, are almost cer-
tainly postpeak metamorphism (i.e.,
<1590 Ma) in age. The coarse granite
is fresh in parts but is more commonly
albitized, silicified, and/or potassically
altered. In places, it appears that plagio-
clase within the granite has been re-
placed by magnetite en masse
(Figure 2a). Granites generally occur
as relatively thin sills of 1–5-m thickness
and are commonly found as clasts
within the host breccia. Apart from
some minor examples of fracture hosted
sulfides, coarse granites do not appear
to host mineralization. They commonly
have weak to moderate susceptibility
readings (e.g., 5000 × 10−5 SI) related
mostly to the extent of secondary mag-
netite replacement. The second type of
granite is much finer grained, possibly
indicating intrusion into shallower,
cooler conditions. Its texture is consis-
tent with some of the younger phases
observed from the (ca. 1510–1490 Ma)
Squirrel Hills Granite in the vicinity of
Borooma Creek and Mallee Gap to the
north (Mark, 2001; Austin and Blenkin- Figure 2. Shows the interrelationships between different styles of brecciation,
sop, 2008, 2010). It does not appear to magnetite, and sulfide content. (a) A typical granite from the Brumby Prospect
be even slightly deformed, nor is it af- but where plagioclase is preferentially replaced by magnetite. (b) The strong foli-
fected by albitization, actinolite-magnet- ation within a magnetite-diopside–albite breccia that appears to be ductile in
ite, or K-feldspar-chlorite alteration. origin. (c) Strong foliation and preferred orientation of clasts within an actino-
lite-albite-magnetite breccia. (d) Albite-magnetite-actinolite-chlorite breccia
Hence, it appears to be very late (i.e., with subrounded clasts showing magnetite overprinting textures. (e) A circular
D5 ; ca. 1500 Ma). The granite generally feature, cored of sulfide and rimmed by magnetite within a milled breccia. All
occurs as sills of 1–5-m thickness and photographs are of NQ core (47 mm thick) and are shown dry. Mt ¼ magnetite,
is not observed as clasts within the host Po ¼ pyrrhotite, Py ¼ pyrite, and Chl ¼ chlorite.

because they are folded during D2 or D3 . These pegma- Less commonly, breccias appear to have been hydro-
tites may correspond to those dated at ca. 1595 Ma by thermally fractured and milled, as evidenced by the
Gauthier et al. (2001) at Osborne. Many others are subrounded clasts, more pronounced differentiation
relatively late and may correspond to late-stage vapor- of clasts and matrix (Figure 2d, 2e), and more pervasive
rich melts associated with intrusion of the Squirrel Hills Na-Ca alteration through to chlorite and potassic alter-
Batholith. The pegmatites almost always have a suscep- ation. The rounded clast breccias are more texturally
tibility of <1 × 10−5 SI except in some of the earlier gen- evolved and are spatially coincident with most Cu-Au
eration, which are occasionally affected by magnetite mineralization. They commonly have a chlorite-rich ma-
alteration. trix (see Josey, 2004), suggesting that they formed dur-
ing the middle to late stages of brittle deformation in
Alteration the Eastern Succession (i.e., post-D4 ). For further
Albite alteration is developed in some rocks within descriptions of Breccia morphologies in the Doherty
the Brumby Prospect, but it does not appear to have Formation, see Josey (2004) and De Jong (1995).
been pervasive here (cf. Williams, 1993). In places, it Chlorite alteration is common in the Eastern Succes-
appears to completely recrystallize amphibolite, strip- sion, is usually restricted to areas proximal to brittle
ping out all ferromagnesian minerals (including magnet- fault zones (Mark et al., 2004; Austin and Blenkinsop,
ite), which is a potential mechanism for mobilization of 2009), and commonly predates, but is spatially associ-
Fe within the system. If the geochronology of Duncan ated with potassic alteration. Sulfides, including pyrite,
et al. (2011) is correct, then it is probable that the main pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite (bornite), are spatially
albitization event occurred at ca. 1570 Ma in conjunc- and temporally associated with chlorite (carbonate)
tion with formation of ironstones at the Starra and within late-stage fractures (e.g., Figure 2d). There is
nearby Osborne Cu-Au deposits. Magnetite is observed some evidence to suggest that the pyrite and pyrrhotite
to preferentially replace plagioclase (Williams, 1993) partially replace magnetite adjacent to fractures in
and infill the pore space within psammites (Figure 2a, some examples (e.g., Figure 2d, 2e), and it also appears
2b), suggesting that primary magnetite in the prospect that the fractures may be associated with metasoma-
crystallized at about this time forming a primary iron- tism that is depleting magnetite (e.g., removing magnet-
stone similar to those at Osborne (not the magnetite ite from the rim of the breccia clast in Figure 2d). It is
breccia, which was clearly later). not fully understood what happens to the depleted Fe
Sodic-calcic (Na-Ca) alteration is commonly thought in the system, but magnetite-rich veins are prominent
to have occurred at ca. 1530 Ma (D4 : Oliver et al., 2004, throughout the prospect and have significantly higher
2008) in conjunction with intrusion of the Mount Ange- MagSus than the host breccia.
lay and Saxby granites and involved alteration of feld- In one sample of core, there is a circular zone of
spars to albite, pyroxenes, and amphiboles to actinolite, alteration where the core is composed entirely of
titanite, and magnetite. A full review of Na-Ca alteration sulfide (pyrite) and the rim is composed of magnetite
is provided by Williams (1998, 2001), Williams and Pol- (Figure 2e). This small-scale example could be an
lard (2001), and Oliver et al. (2004, 2008). Na-Ca alter- analog for meso- and macroscale processes, whereby
ation is significant for this study because it is associated Cu-Au mineralization is localized by the reaction of
with the breccia that hosts mineralization within the highly reduced (S-rich) fluids with an oxidized host
Brumby Prospect. There is significant variation in the rock, leading to sulfide emplacement within and
morphology of breccias observed within the Brumby adjacent to late fractures and magnetite concentra-
Prospect, which represent a continuum from pseudo- tion away from fractures carrying the reduced fluids.
plastic to brittle deformation. In some places, breccias Such a hypothesis could explain the cyclicity of, and
appear to have been ductiley deformed (e.g., Figure 2b) sometimes inverse relationship of, susceptibility and
and are transitional toward mylonites. The diopside- Cu-Au mineralization.
rich nature of parts of the “breccia” suggests that its Potassic alteration is a major phase of alteration ob-
formation predates the onset of Na-Ca alteration. The served throughout the Mount Isa Eastern Succession
higher grade parts of the breccia consist of elongate that is often associated with Cu-Au mineralization
clasts or lenses of magnetite-enriched psammite, (e.g., Ernest Henry). It commonly alters country rock
amphibolite, and granite/pegmatite within a matrix of to K-feldspar þquartz (hematite), and it is often asso-
albite, magnetite, diopside, and actinolite (Figure 2c). ciated with late fault systems (e.g., the Cloncurry Fault:
These breccias are tectonically more evolved than Mark, 2004; Austin and Blenkinsop, 2008, 2010). It is
the primary breccias (Figure 2b) and contain only brec- developed within some of the biotite gneisses and vari-
ciated clasts of granite, which are shown intact in the ous other rocks within the Brumby Prospect, is spatially
corner of the photo (Figure 2a). The strong foliation but associated with sulfide mineralization, and in general
poor milling is possibly an indication that they formed appears to be spatially and temporally associated with
during a relatively early phase of ductile-brittle defor- chlorite-sulfide alteration within breccia zones. Altera-
mation, accompanied by or postdated by magnetite- tion is discussed in some detail by Williams (1993) and
actinolite alteration. Foster (1995).

Data and methods half of the samples were too strongly magnetized
Rock property data to measure on the 2G. Thus, the NRM results are a
To characterize the magnetic properties of the composite of measurements using the 2G and fluxgate
Brumby Prospect, it is imperative to get a spatial under- measurements where samples are too strongly magnet-
standing of the magnetic properties of the host rocks ized. Analysis of the magnetization components was
and ore lithology at deposit and sample scales. MagSus performed using an interactive version of Linefind
data can be used to assess the spatial relationships (Kent et al., 1983), in which linear segments are fitted
between ore and magnetite, and more importantly to to data points weighted according to the inverse of
provide an estimation of the bulk susceptibility of the their measured variances (as for Schmidt and Williams,
prospect, which is in turn used to constrain geophysical 2011).
modeling and inversion. Specific gravity (SG, i.e., The results of each analysis (magnetization vec-
density) data are also very useful, especially for a pros- tors) were plotted on stereonets and Zijderveld dia-
pect such as Brumby where high-resolution magnetics grams. Both were used to assess the migration of
and gravity are both available. SG data, coupled with the magnetization vectors with successive stepwise
MagSus data, can be used to attribute specific rock demagnetization. It is common for viscous remanent
properties to lithologies with the Brumby Prospect to magnetization (VRM) to be overprinted due to stress
constrain joint 3D geophysical inversion. release in the magnetic field within the steel drilling
Samples of oriented diamond core from Barrick’s rods in an orientation that is coincident with the
drilling program were collected to determine the up-directed drilling orientation (in the southern hemi-
strength and direction of remanent magnetization and sphere; in the northern hemisphere, drilling-induced
coercivity (a measure of how easily a rock can be re- remanence tends to be directed down the hole). So
magnetized) of the rocks within Brumby Prospect. the stereonet is also used to assess whether the iso-
Some 2.5 × 2.2 cm cores (the optimum cylindrical thermal remanent magnetization (i.e., drilling-induced)
approximation of a sphere) were drilled from each of component is likely, by comparison to the drilling orien-
38 samples of oriented core that were selected on site tation. It should be noted that even where stable compo-
in October 2011. Prior to further testing, densities nents of magnetization are derived, that the main
were calculated based on Archimedes’ method, using component of magnetization could be comprised of
a Mettler Toledo AG204 scale, and MagSus was mea- VRM, and hence the in situ remanence could be parallel
sured using a Sapphire Instruments SI-2B susceptibility to the earth’s natural field.
meter. Drilling-induced magnetization is particularly com-
mon for rocks where magnetization is relatively “soft”;
Remanent magnetization and coercivity i.e., they have a low coercivity. Hence, off-cuts from
The direction of remanent magnetism can be impor- samples were crushed to ~1-mm size powder and tested
tant in understanding the overall magnetization for their coercivity (relative stability of remanent mag-
strength and direction in highly magnetized ore bodies netism). Measurements were made of hysteresis loops
(e.g., Peculiar Knob; Schmidt et al., 2007). Understand- and remanence coercivity using a Petersen Instruments
ing remanent magnetism is crucial to determining con- Variable Field Translation Balance. The resultant
fidence in the resultant 3D model because it facilitates a graphs are too numerous to be shown in this paper,
reliable estimation of the impact of remanent magneti- but the data are summarized in a Day plot (Day et al.
zation on the overall (i.e., induced þ remanent) mag- [1977] in section on “Coercivity”).
netization of the prospect. Where magnetized rocks
have a high Koenigsberger ratio (high ratio of remanent Downhole MagSus data
to induced magnetization), and where the remanent MagSus data are routinely collected in most modern
magnetization direction is significantly oblique to the exploration programs but especially where magnetite-
inducing field, anomalies can be incorrectly modeled. rich ore types (e.g., banded iron formation [BIF], IOCG)
Remanent magnetization was analyzed with a 2G are sought. In most instances, the core is sampled at a
Enterprises 755R three-axis cryogenic magnetometer rate of one sample per meter. Almost all the drillholes
with in-line 2G 600 Series AF demagnetizers. All spec- into the Brumby Prospect have been sampled. There
imens were progressively demagnetized using an alter- are some obvious calibration issues involved in combin-
nating field (AF) of increasing intensity to incrementally ing data sets due to different sampling techniques and
remove remanent magnetization prior to each measure- instrumentation. However, the compiled data do facili-
ment. AF demagnetization consisted of 13 steps: NRM, tate a good understanding of the deposit scale distribu-
1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 70, and 100 mT. Strongly tion of magnetite at Brumby Prospect and can be used
magnetized samples could not be adequately measured to constrain geologic and geophysical modeling. The
on the 2G instrument due to the sensitivity of the super- 1-m sampling rate used is insufficient to allow for a
conducting quantum interference devices. Hence, the meaningful spatial comparison with other downhole
NRM of all specimens was first calculated from individ- data (e.g., assay, lithology, density) because the data
ual magnetization vectors measured with a fluxgate tend to suffer from large variations in susceptibility
magnetometer. This test identified that approximately over very small distances (i.e., a “nugget” effect). This

is especially true for the Brumby Prospect where Mag- magnetite within the breccia, e.g., magnetite-rich
Sus values can vary from 150,000 to 1 × 10−5 SI over a veining. To provide a more robust data set, all assayed
range of <1 m due to inhomogeneous distribution of sections of core from Barrick’s diamond holes
(BRNQ008–BRNQ013) were resurveyed
at 0.25–0.3-m spacing (three to four sam-
ples per meter) and merged with the
preexisting data. MagSus data were then
filtered using a 3, 7, and 11 sample mov-
ing average to smooth out inhomogene-

ities within the data and to estimate
the bulk susceptibility of the magnetite
breccia (Figure 3). A structurally con-
strained interpolation of downhole Mag-
Sus data for the Brumby Prospect is
shown in Figure 4. The downhole sus-
ceptibility data are also used to deter-
mine the internal homogeneity of
magnetite within the breccia and are
compared with assay results for Cu,
Au, and Co in Figure 5 (data in Figure 5b
are from Hunt et al., 1995).
Magnetic modeling
Three-dimensional magnetic forward
modeling and inversion was carried out
using Modelvision™ Pro 10 on 12 paral-
lel east–west survey lines, spaced 50 m
apart, from the 2004 SAM survey. The
modeling is constrained by various data
sets, including basement surface, base-
ment and subsurface geochemistry,
downhole MagSus readings, etc. Be-
cause the bulk susceptibility of the
Figure 3. Downhole MagSus data measured with a handheld susceptibility me-
ter on drillhole BRNQ-008. (a) Raw data. Data after application of a rolling aver- body is reasonably high, it was essential
age to (b) 3 data points, (c) 7 data points, and (d) 11 data points. Applying a to account for self-demagnetization.
rolling average filter allows a more accurate estimation of the bulk susceptibility This was achieved using the self-
of the breccia, which appears to be about 0.4 SI. Smoothing the data is an es- demagnetization function in Modelvi-
sential pretreatment of MagSus data that is to be interpolated in Leapfrog. sion, which estimates (see Hillan, 2013)
the self-demagnetization effect. The
modeling/inversion aims to match the
magnetic profiles of each of the 12 mag-
netic profiles simultaneously.
Results and interpretation

Rock properties
The 2.5 × 2.2 cm cores used to deter-
mine remanent magnetization were
measured for MagSus so that an accu-
rate determination of the Koenigsberger
ratio can be calculated. However, the
data can also be used to better constrain
our understanding of bulk susceptibility
within the various lithologies of the
Figure 4. A structurally constrained interpolation of downhole MagSus data for Brumby Prospect, a Leapfrog interpola-
the Brumby Prospect showing a north–northwest-oriented fabric of approxi- tion of MagSus.
mately 150∕68 W and plunging 55 toward 165. The shell encloses a MagSus
of approximately 0.125 SI or higher. NB: the result is entirely dependent on
A summary of the measurements
the location of drillholes, and if, for example, there were a western limb of mag- grouped by their lithology, is pre-
netite, it might not be evident, due to a lack of intersecting drillholes. The x, y, sented in Table 2. Also shown is the ap-
and z axes are scaled in meters. parent error between bulk susceptibility

calculated from downhole measurements and from is a net-vein complex. However, such a distribution
2.5 × 2.2 cm cores. Based on these results, it is reason- might also represent preferential replacement of a
able to assume that actual MagSus is ∼20% greater mineral or of porosity by magnetite within a cyclically
than is calculated from downhole measurements. layered sedimentary sequence, displacement of mag-
The 2.5 × 2.2 cm cores used to determine remanent netic lithologies by overprinting pegmatites or intruding
magnetization were also measured for SG (density) to granites, a magnetite destructive net-vein network (e.g.,
determine the volume of the rock sample (which is re- replacement of magnetite with pyrite or hematite), or a
quired for determination of MagSus). Fortunately, these combination of the above.
data can be used to determine likely density values for There is a strong correlation between magnetite (in-
lithologies within the prospect, which may help con- ferred from high MagSus) and mineralization of Cu, Au,
strain joint 3D inversion of magnetic and gravity data and Co at a broad scale (i.e., all mineralization occurs
sets. SGs were determined for 114 cores representing within the magnetite breccia unit), and generally on a
38 individual rock samples. A summary
of the measurements grouped by their
lithology is shown in Table 2.
The interrelationships between den-
sity, MagSus, remanent magnetization
(NRM), and total magnetization are
shown in Figure 5. The results are largely
self-explanatory, but it is important to
point out that there are two major mag-
netic minerals, magnetite and pyrrhotite.
Magnetite tends to have very high sus-
ceptibility while pyrrhotite tends to carry
extremely high remanent magnetization
(Figure 5a). Figure 5b, 5c shows magneti-
zation-density trends for magnetite,
pyrrhotite, and nonmagnetic sulfides.
Where rocks have large proportions of
magnetite or pyrrhotite, they will also
be very dense, but high density may also
be due to large proportions of other sul-
fides (e.g., pyrite, chalcopyrite), where
total magnetization is low. Figure 5
may be used to discriminate between
host rocks: magnetite-rich mineralized
rocks and pyrrhotite-rich rocks. It is clear
from Figure 5 that many of the rocks
tested have properties that are intermedi-
ate between magnetite- and pyrrhotite-
rich. This is important because analyses
of remanent magnetization for such
rocks will actually be comprised of two
separate vector components that may
correspond to different metasomatic or
metamorphic events.
Downhole petrophysics and

geochemistry
Higher resolution susceptibility data
provide for more robust differentiation
of magnetic units (Figure 6) within the
sequence, which becomes particularly
evident when a moving average is ap-
plied. In most drillholes, the averaged
data take a harmonic waveform, with
peaks occurring every 4–6 m downhole. Figure 5. Rock property interrelationships for laboratory samples. (a) NRM
This is consistent with Williams’ (1993) versus MagSus, (b) MagSus versus density, and (c) total magnetization versus
observations, that the Brumby Prospect density. *(Max) values taken from Hunt et al. (1995).

finer scale within the breccia. However, Figure 6 shows netic anomaly, thus allowing for a more direct spatial
that mineralization can also display inverse relation- interrogation of the data. Figure 8a and 8b shows the
ships with MagSus (i.e., occur in areas of relatively TMI and the analytic signal of TMI at the deposit
low susceptibility within the breccia). This is demon- scale for the Brumby Prospect, along with a structural
strated by a high-mineralization/low-magnetization interpretation.
zone between 158 and 174 m downhole and also by The deposit-scale magnetic data are consistent with
moderate mineralization either side of a magnetization the regional-scale interpretation; i.e., magnetite occurs
high at 235 m downhole. This inverse relationship be- at the intersection of north-oriented features that ap-
tween MagSus and mineralization does not favor any pear to be truncated by northwest-trending features.
of the aforementioned hypotheses, but it would appear, Furthermore, an east–northeast trending feature that
based on observations in section “Deposit Geology,” crosscuts the prospect appears to postdate the previous
that it could be due to interaction of reduced mineral- two structures. The east–northeast structure is associ-
izing fluids with relatively oxidized host rocks where ated with magnetite depletion, whereas the northwest
magnetite is replaced by Fe-bearing sulfides. and north-trending shear/fault zones and their intersec-
tions appear to be magnetite-enriched zones. The sug-
Geophysical interpretation gested fault architecture is not unique to Brumby
Regional scale Prospect, and it is in fact almost identical to structures
A basic visual interpretation of lineaments in the to- observed at Cannington to the southeast (Walters and
tal magnetic intensity (TMI) data and the first vertical Bailey, 1998). Based on the apparent temporal relation-
derivative (1VD) of TMI suggest that Brumby sits at ships of the faults at Brumby it can be hypothesized that
the intersection of two structural trends. One is ori- the north to north-northeast trending shear zone
ented slightly east of north (5°–10°), and the other is formed early, ≥D2 (1590 Ma), the northwest-oriented
oriented approximately northwest (315°–325°), as faults formed later, possibly during D3 at ca.
shown in Figure 7. Based on current understanding 1550 Ma. Because the east–northeast-trending faults
of the regional tectonics (e.g., Austin and Blenkinsop, truncate the north- and northwest-trending structures,
2010), one could argue that the north–south feature they formed last, possibly at D4 (1530 Ma) to D5
is probably D2 in age (ca. 1590 Ma), whereas the north- (1500 Ma), which coincides broadly with the time
west structures are more likely D3 (ca. 1550 Ma) or evoked for Cu-Au mineralization by most researchers.
later. The interpretation is consistent with the work These structures probably represent localized dilation
of Austin and Blenkinsop (2009), which predicts that associated with reactivation of the north- and north-
Cu-Au deposits (IOCGs) within the easternmost part west-trending structures in a more brittle environment.
of the Eastern Succession tend to be localized at the
intersection of north and northwest fault sets and Basement geochemistry
Au-only deposits by east–northeast-trending structures. Geochemical data from the basement rocks were ex-
tracted and gridded to identify spatial correlations be-
Deposit-scale tween the hypothesized fault intersection model and
TMI data that were collected during the SAM survey geochemistry. Assay results for Au, Cu, Fe, and Co were
were imported into Modelvision, and the grid filter func- mapped using MapInfo™ and Discover™ and gridded
tion was used to produce an analytic signal amplitude into surfaces that are displayed as pseudocolor images
grid. The analytic signal amplitude (total gradient) is in Figure 8c–8f.
useful because it suppresses the effects of the earth’s The spatial relationships between the assay data and
magnetic field inclination from the shape of the mag- the inferred fault model suggest that the geometry of
Table 2. Bulk susceptibility values calculated from core measurements made at 0.25–0.03-m spacing downhole with
a MagSus meter.
Rock type Sample count Meter MagSus Lab MagSus Sus meter error Q (Average) Q (Median) Density
Average (SI) Average (SI) % JðNRMÞ∕JðIndÞ JðNRMÞ∕JðIndÞ (g∕cm3 )
Amphibolite 9 0.040 0.052 22% 0.70 0.57 2.94

Breccia 15 0.565 0.715 21% 2.64 1.40 3.43
Granite 7 0.039 0.059 34% 0.57 0.42 2.73
Altered psammite 4 0.360 0.569 37% 3.42 2.66 3.58
Pyrrhotite ore 1 0.090 0.291 69% 92.65 — 4.48
Chalcopyrite ore 1 0.303 0.382 21% 4.10 — 3.71
Magnetite ore 1 1.421 2.695 47% 1.63 — 4.35

Figure 6. A comparison of (a) MagSus data collected at 1-m resolution with (b) data collected on the same hole at 0.3-m res-
olution. MagSus is shown in blue; a rolling average of five measurements is shown in red, and a rolling average of seven mea-
surements is shown in green (shown only for the high-resolution data set). The data clearly show the nugget effect and that higher
resolution data can facilitate more robust estimates of bulk susceptibility. (c) A spatial comparison between MagSus and min-
eralization from a key drillhole illustrates a sometimes inverse relationship between Cu, Au, and Co mineralization and magnetite
concentration at mesoscales, e.g., at 235 m. At the deposit scale, there is a spatial coincidence between magnetite and minerali-
zation. The assay results are shown in percent for Cu and S, % ×10−1 for Fe, % ×10−2 for Co, and ppm for Au.

the mineralization and magnetization at Brumby Pros- surfaces along an approximately east–northeast plane,
pect are spatially coincident at the basement surface. which is interpreted from the TMI data to be a magnet-
Based on this result, we can fairly assume that the ite destructive fault zone running through the body.
geometry of the 3D body we use later to explain the This is consistent with the structural interpretation
magnetic anomaly must coincide with the location of made in section “Geophysical Interpretation”. The mag-
the geochemical anomaly and the analytic signal netite destructive zone may coincide with massive pyr-
anomaly at the surface. By making this assump- rhotite, which appears to have grown into a fracture
tion, the magnetic modeling results are further con- void, or take a somewhat globular form consistent with
strained; i.e., the final solution must fit the surface it replacing magnetite. The massive pyrrhotite is ob-
location of the geochemical anomalism. served in Hole BRNQ-012 at a 159-m depth and has
extremely high remanent magnetization that is oriented
3D data interpolation moderately upward toward the SE. Curiously, the east–
Assay and MagSus data were loaded into Leapfrog northeast truncation has an inverse relationship with
and interpolated with the variogram set to isotropic sulfur (Figure 9d), possibly suggesting an oxidized
(i.e., not favoring a particular structural fabric). Shells (sulfide-destructive) zone.
generated based on the MagSus data suggested that
there is a north–northwest trend (or north–northwest
trending truncation) in the MagSus of the body (e.g., Palaeomagnetism
Figure 4). Assay data for Fe also suggested that a Stable magnetization directions were determined for
north–south trending feature and north–northwest trend- all samples and plotted on a stereonet in Figure 10. A
ing feature control Fe distribution. There is significant mean magnetization direction was calculated, and it
enrichment in the near surface above the north-trending is plotted as an open black triangle in Figure 10a.
magnetic feature. There are distinct west-dipping north- Although this provides a reasonable estimation of the
west-oriented and east-dipping north-oriented fabrics remanent magnetization within the prospect, it does
observed Leapfrog shells for Au (Figure 9a, 9b). not take into consideration the intensity of the magneti-
Furthermore, the highest grade sections occur at the zation. Hence, a weighted mean magnetization was also
intersection of the two main fabrics, which defines a calculated, and it is plotted as an open black square in
pipe of mineralization with a moderate-shallow plunge Figure 10a. The resultant direction differs slightly (by
toward the south–southeast. 7.4°) from the previous unweighted calculation; the
Based on the structural understanding as discussed resultant mean magnetization has an inclination of
in the preceding section, structural trends are inferred 150.9° and declination of −70.4°, whereas the weighted
to constrain the leapfrog interpolation of the MagSus magnetization direction has an inclination of 144.6° and
data. Two trends, one striking 175°–186° and dipping declination of −62.2°. However, it should be noted that
42°–48° east and 150°–155°, dipping 62°–66° west, re- one sample of pure pyrrhotite, which was an order of
spectively, are used to constrain the “grade” shells magnitude more intensely magnetized than the next
for MagSus as shown in Figure 9c. This interpolation nearest sample dominated the result. This observation
approximates a net-vein breccia complex, which is con- may suggest that pyrrhotite could be the dominant min-
sistent with the interpretation of Williams (1993). A key eral that retains stable remanent magnetization, despite
feature in the result is an apparent truncation of the iso- the obvious abundance of magnetite.
Figure 7. A simple lineament analysis of the TMI and the 1VD data shows that Brumby sits at the intersection of north and
northwest structural trends that are inferred to by faults or shear zones. Data is extracted from the Australian 80-m TMI data
set (Geoscience Australia, 2010).

Figure 10b shows the stable magnetization direc- Stable magnetization directions were grouped by
tions of the different rock types. It shows that many magnetization direction cluster (Figure 10c), and these
of the breccias, pyrrhotite-bearing rocks, and magnet- clusters were used to derive mean vectors for each
ite-bearing granites have magnetization
directions with moderate (60°–30°) up-
ward inclinations to the southeast. It
is interpreted that acquisition of this
magnetization direction is coincident
with the major phase of brecciation

and magnetite and/or pyrrhotite precipi-
tation (or major episode of magnetite
resetting). Several of the breccias, in-
cluding one with Cu mineralization, dis-
play magnetization directions that are
subhorizontal toward the south–south-
west. It is interpreted that these samples
represent a later episode of reactivation
that coincided with Cu precipitation or
redistribution in the system and that
the magnetization is probably retained
in pyrrhotite, which can be more easily
reset. The interpreted association with a
later more brittle phase of brecciation is
consistent with the observations made
on the core, where the breccia is reacti-
vated during several episodes that be-
come progressively lower temperature/
lower pressure, and whereby Cu precipi-
tation is associated with late fractures.
Pyrrhotite, which is significant in the
system (as illustrated in section “Rock
Properties”), has a much lower Curie
temperature of 320°C (Butler, 1992),
which may have allowed magnetization
in the pyrrhotite rich parts of the system
to be reset during lower grade, post-
peak-metamorphic events in the Mount
Isa Inlier (e.g., D3 -D5 ), or potentially dur-
ing subsequent tectonism. Most of the
granites and amphibolites have a steep,
up to the southwest magnetization or
have northwest–northeast orientations
with moderate up inclinations. The
steep southwest orientation is assumed
to be associated with peak-metamor-
phism at ca. 1590 Ma. Northerly
directed magnetizations appear to sit
on a girdle about a southwest-plunging
axis and hence are thought to have
been generated by post-D2 folding of
preexisting magnetization. It is likely
that there would have been some rota-
tion of clasts during the formation of Figure 8. (a) Shows the TMI data and (b) the analytic signal data at deposit-
the breccia, but it is difficult to deter- scale for the Brumby Prospect along with a structural interpretation. Note that
mine whether the breccia pre- or post- the north-trending magnetic highs are truncated by the northwest-trending fea-
tures, which appear to be cut by east–northeast-trending features. (c–f) Grid
dates magnetite cooling through the maps showing the spatial relationships between the Brumby magnetic anomaly
Curie temperature because much of and several key elements (Au, Cu, Fe, and Co) in assay data for the top of the
the magnetite appears to be metaso- Proterozoic. Note the close spatial relationship between the assay data and the
matic, not metamorphic. inferred fault intersection in all cases.

cluster of stable magnetization directions shown as uncertain whether the dominant magnetization event is
squares encased by circles. Note that the mean vectors the same in all.
for the moderate, up to the southeast cluster are
broadly coincident with results from Osborne; that Coercivity
the subhorizontal to the south–southwest is consistent As discussed previously, several samples had mag-
with some isolated samples from Starra and Osborne. netization directions that were coincident with the drill-
Other samples from Osborne and Starra broadly ing orientation, and they were hence suspected to be
coincide with spread of magnetization results shown drilling induced. To assess the relative contribution
in Figure 10c: Several samples coincide with BIFs from of stable remanence, coercivity, and hysteresis were
Osborne; most of the samples from Starra have mag- measured for some of the most highly magnetized
netization directions that are vertical to steep, up to samples, and the results are shown on a Day plot
the southwest trending toward moderate up to the (Figure 11).
southeast. One could infer from these relationships that The results indicate that for the most part, the spec-
events involving brecciation and precipitation of mag- imens that are the most highly magnetized are also
netite are common to all three systems. However, it is the most likely to be remagnetized during drilling.
Figure 9. (a, b) Unconstrained Leapfrog interpolation of Au assay data for the Brumby Prospect. The planes in each image cor-
respond to the two main observable trends in the data: (a) north-oriented and moderately east-dipping, (b) northwest-oriented and
steeply west-dipping. The highest grades on mineralization appear to sit proximal to a lineation that defines the intersection of the two
planes. (c) Results of an interpolation of MagSus data from all drillholes into the Brumby Prospect that is constrained by the ori-
entation of the two main structural trends. A truncation in the interpreted net-vein complex is defined by the northwest-dipping plane.
Note that the Cu mineralization shown in blue is concentrated along the truncation and along the trend intersection. (d) Uncon-
strained interpolation of Sulfur assay data, which display a distal relationship to the truncation, and thus, in part an inverse relation-
ship with much of the Cu. This may indicate oxidation of Cu mineralization along the relatively late east–northeast-oriented fault.

Therefore, much of the magnetite within the Brumby anomaly is caused by magnetite breccia hosted at the in-
Prospect is soft, and the coercivity results show that tersection of two shear or fault zones. The magnetized
magnetite-rich samples plot well inside the multidomain zone appears to be cut by a series of later (subparallel)
field. Hence, one could reasonably assume that much of northwest-oriented faults, which have reactivated parts
the in situ remanent magnetization measured at Brumby of the breccia zone. Magnetite precipitation at the tri-
is actually parallel to the earth’s natural magnetic field angular intersection of the two fault systems gives the
and that it can be modeled as one would model induced prospect its unusual “arrow-shaped” anomaly in the ana-
magnetization. Many samples of magnetite ore and brec- lytic signal data.
cias have Koenigsberger ratios of 2–5 (see Tables 1 and Leapfrog interpolation of Au, Cu, Fe, and Co assay
2) but because much of the measured magnetization is data suggests that mineralization sits at the intersection
caused by a viscous overprint, the rema-
nent component can be modeled as
10%–30% in addition to the induced mag-
netization calculated from the average
measured MagSus (D. Clark, personal
communication, 2011). The sample
of pyrrhotite measured (BR159) plots
within the pseudo single-domain field
of the Day plot, which suggests that sta-
ble remanent magnetization within the
Brumby Prospect is held predominantly
in pyrrhotite.
Constrained magnetic modeling

Structural-metallogeneic hypothesis
The preceding structural analyses
of the Brumby Prospect suggest that
there are two main structural trends, Figure 11. A Day plot (Day et al., 1977) correlating M rs ∕M s (saturation rema-
based on the evidence from regional nent magnetization/saturation magnetization) and Bcr ∕Bc (coercivity of rema-
nence/rock coercivity) to identify magnetic domain structure. The results
and deposit-scale magnetic data sets,
indicate that most samples have a multidomain (MD) structure. The remanence
the high-resolution MagSus data, and within these rocks is highly unstable and will quickly align with the earth’s mag-
the Leapfrog interpolations made from netic field. One sample that is composed of near pure pyrrhotite has a pseudo-
assay data for Cu, Co, Au, and Fe. It is single-domain structure, i.e., Bcr ∕Bc < 4 and M rs ∕M s < 0.5. This indicates that the
proposed that the Brumby magnetic stable remanent magnetization within the prospect is contained in pyrrhotite.
Figure 10. (a) An equal area plot of stable remanent magnetization orientations and calculated mean (open triangle) and
weighted mean (open square) magnetization directions that sits within a cluster of points. (b) Plot of stable magnetization
directions by lithology: squares ¼ granite; circles ¼ amphibolite; diamonds ¼ breccia, and triangles ¼ sulfide. The outlines
indicate interpreted magnetization clusters. The dashed line indicates possible folding of magnetization directions in host
rocks. (c) Plot of stable magnetization directions by magnetization direction cluster: triangles ¼ steep, up to southwest cluster;
circles ¼ moderate, up to southeast cluster; diamonds ¼ subhorizontal to the south–southwest. Mean magnetization directions
are indicated by the large squares, encased by circles showing the α95 of the mean. The interpreted ca. 1500 Ma event could
be significantly later, potentially reflecting resetting of magnetization in conjunction with early Cambrian rifting. Results of
the palaeomagnetic study on the nearby Osborne and Starra deposits (Clark, 1988) are shown for comparison.

of the two mineralized faults that strike approximately less-magnetic Fe oxides during a later episode of defor-
175°–186° and dip 42°–48° east and 150°–155°, 62°–66° mation and fluid flow. There are sulfides within the
west, respectively. The intersection of these structures prospect that are coarse-grained, fracture-controlled,
plunges 17°–37° toward azimuth 159°–165°, which is con- and appear to be significantly later than the magnetite
sistent with the extent of Cu, Au, and Co mineralization, breccia (they are clearly precipitated in a much cooler,
as interpolated using Leapfrog. There is some evidence more brittle environment). It is likely that the sulfides
of Fe enrichment within the more northerly trending of formed during brittle reactivation of the breccia/fault
the faults, mostly near the surface in the supergene system in conjunction with late chlorite alteration
zone. Both faults are consistent with major lineaments (probably at ca. 1530–1500 Ma) and potentially with rel-
in the regional TMI data and with faults observed at atively high levels of Cu and Au mineralization.
Cannington Mine (to the east), suggesting they are real
structures. Modeling
These initial results favor a metallogenic model The results of the previously outlined sections pro-
where mineralization takes place within and adjacent vide significant constraints on the detailed magnetic
to the east-dipping, north-trending and west-dipping, forward modeling/inversion presented below. The
north-northwest trending (150°) faults, at their intersec- model results shown here are the final results, built
tion (e.g., Figure 12), and in a zone of brecciation halo- upon during numerous modeling sessions, beginning
ing it. It appears that the north-trending structures were with simple pipe geometries and progressing onto more
formed early in the metallogenic evolution, and in this complex, multibody models. Models that incorporated
instance they formed a pathway for Fe metasomatism strong remanent magnetization within the bulk of the
within a ductile-brittle breccia zone, to form a subvert- body were tested, but it was found that the resultant
ical breccia (probably at ca. 1590–1550, D2 ). This was architecture was inconsistent with the architecture de-
later truncated and reactivated locally by a northwest- fined by downhole susceptibility data.
trending reverse fault, which caused mineralization The final model is consistent with the petrological
to precipitate at the intersection of the two fault understanding of the deposit and fits with the struc-
zones (probably at ca. 1530 Ma). The metallogeny of tural model proposed. The top surface of the model
the Brumby Prospect may have involved early pre- coincides with the intersection of two interpreted struc-
cipitation of magnetite and sulfides together, with tures of approximately north–south and northwest to
fine-grained disseminated mineralization of magnet- north–northwest orientation. It intersects the basement
ite-pyrite-pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite. We hypothesize that in a position that is consistent with the location defined
the east–northeast-trending structures are extensional by the analytic signal magnetic grid and with highs in
(dilational) fractures in the hanging wall of the later Fe, Au, Cu, and Co geochemistry. The final 3D model
northwest-trending reverse faults. These structures was cross checked against downhole MagSus logs
are associated with magnetite destruction and/or dis- and was found to closely match the areas of highest sus-
location of magnetite-rich zones at the prospect scale, ceptibility. However, it is important to emphasize that
suggesting that magnetite is replaced by sulfides and/or IOCG systems are extremely complex and that the extent
of internal inhomogeneity makes magnetic modeling
extremely difficult. The model presented here is a sim-
plification of a very spatially complex system, with very
large variations in geochemistry, lithology, and MagSus
over short distances (e.g., 0.1–10 m). The synthetic mag-
netic anomaly corresponding to the final interpretation is
within 3% rms error of the actual anomaly (Figure 13),
which is a good result, given the relatively tight con-
straints applied and the complexity of the system.
The final model (Figures 14 and 15) represents a sub-
triangular prism (in pink) that plunges approximately
55° toward 167° and has a susceptibility of approxi-
mately 0.7 SI. The body is modeled as being partly to
normal MagSus and partly to soft remanence, which
is assumed to be parallel to the earth’s field. This main
body is essentially an envelope of magnetic material
haloing the intersection of the two fault systems that
are shown for reference in green and red. The core
of this body corresponds to a magnetite-rich net-vein
Figure 12. Primary mineralization within the Brumby Pros-
pect appears to sit at the intersection of two main fault zone with modeled susceptibilities of 2.3–2.6 SI. The
systems. This fault intersection appears to be cut by a later remanent magnetization is interpreted as due mostly
east–northeast-oriented fault. to relatively late massive pyrrhotite sitting in the core

of the fault system, adjacent to the east–northeast- (alteration) at the core-sample scale is imperative in de-
oriented cross-cutting fault. termination of the likely spatial and temporal relation-
These zones represent part of an oxidation system ships between magnetization and mineralization. At
that is observed in the hand specimen of the drill core Brumby, there appear to be several episodes of brecci-
and in the data comparison between downhole suscep- ation that vary from early, relatively ductile phases to
tibility and assay results (Figure 13). The core of the increasingly brittle phases, presumably as the metamor-
system (i.e., the plumbing) is reduced, Fe occurs as sul- phic grade and lithostatic pressure decrease post-D2
fide (pyrrhotite-pyrite-chalcopyrite), and it is associ- (1590 Ma). It is observed that magnetite is precipitated
ated with relatively late Cu-Au mineralization. The (or recrystallized) during many (if not all) of these epi-
reduced core is rimmed by a relatively oxidized zone, sodes of reactivation. However, the Cu-Au mineraliza-
consisting of a highly concentrated magnetite vein tion appears to be associated with a relatively late
system, which is haloed by a more distal zone of less episode of reactivation, where sulfides are localized
abundant magnetite dispersed throughout the host in discrete fractures associated with chlorite and
breccia. It is likely that the magnetite breccia predates carbonate alteration. This episode of brecciation pro-
the core of the system, which appears to be much lower duced a much more milled breccia with rounded clasts,
pressure and temperature. in contrast to the earlier breccias, which are pseudofo-
liated and with limited clast transport.
Discussion Downhole MagSus data can be extremely helpful in
This study highlights some of the difficulties associ- elucidation of the architecture of mineralized breccia
ated with the interpretation of magnetite-rich sources, systems, such as Brumby Prospect. However, the wide
such as Cloncurry-type IOCGs, using magnetic data variation in values (over approximately five orders of
alone. Where there is sufficient prospect-scale geologic magnitude) presents difficulties for interpretation.
data and detailed geophysics, it is imperative to use as The spikiness of the high-resolution data (or the “nugget
many spatial constraints as possible to assist geophysical effect”) prevents reasonable interpolation of the bulk
interpretation. In this study, the relationships between architecture in programs such as Leapfrog. This study
structure, mineralization, geochemistry, MagSus, rema- has shown that the nugget effect can be dealt with by
nent magnetization, and coercivity of remanence were sampling downhole MagSus at three to four times the
analyzed in 2D and 3D as a basis for constraining the frequency and by subsequent application of a rolling
3D architecture of the Brumby Prospect. average filter. The study also has shown that gathering
Detailed assessment of the spatial and temporal re- much higher resolution data can be helpful for elucida-
lationships between different lithologies, structural tion of complex relationships between magnetization
overprints (e.g., breccias), and metasomatic overprints and mineralization. At a deposit-scale, mineralization
Figure 13. The magnetic anomaly of the resultant model was used to generate a (a) synthetic grid that is within 3% rms error of
the (b) actual magnetic anomaly, which is a good result given the structural and magnetic complexity of the source.

is spatially coincident with magnetite (high susceptibil- of the deposit. Brumby is interpreted to sit at the inter-
ity). However, this study also identified an inverse rela- section of north- and northwest-trending faults, and is
tionship that is inferred to be present within reduced, cut by a later east-northeast trending fault. This inter-
sulfide-bearing zones and where the magnetite-rich, pretation is consistent with work by Austin and Blen-
oxidized parts of the system are relatively lacking in kinsop (2009), which demonstrates that IOCGs within
Cu and Au. This interpretation fits with observations the easternmost part of Eastern Succession tend to
of the core by the first author, and with the petrographic be localized at the intersection of north and north-
analyses of Williams (1993) and Foster (1995). northwest faults sets and Au-only deposits by east-
Interpretation of magnetic and gravity data with en- northeast-trending structures.

hanced filters, coupled with geologic mapping at a Basement geochemical mapping of Cu, Au, Fe, etc.
regional scale and assessment of deposit-scale struc- and the analytic signal of TMI can be used to assist def-
ture at similar prospects and mines within the region inition of the top surface of the causative body. In each
can be used to help define the likely structural controls case, the assay data from the bottom of Barrick’s AC-
drilling program were gridded into an
assay map, and in each case, the anoma-
lies were closely coincident with the
interpreted fault intersection and with
the top of the body as defined by the
analytic-signal-filtered magnetic data.
Hence, the top of the magnetite-
Cu-Au-breccia body is well constrained
at the basement surface, and it can
be used to constrain the magnetic
modeling to a degree. However, subtle
differences between the geometry of
the anomalies (as illustrated by the vary-
ing assay results and geophysical inter-
pretation) do not permit a definitive
prediction of the 3D geometry of
the body.
The results of the palaeomagnetic
analyses suggested three main clusters
of stable magnetization vectors within
the ore samples, which would appear
to be related to either different thermal
or metasomatic (brecciation) events.
One component is oriented subvertical
up to the southwest, one is oriented
moderate up to the south–southeast
and one is oriented subhorizontal to
the south–southwest. All of these com-
ponents are recognized at Starra and
Osborne in the palaeomagnetic study
of Clark (1988). The remanent mag-
netization that is oriented toward the
south–southeast with moderate upward
inclination is the dominant magnetiza-
tion at Brumby, based on a weighted
average assessment of the stable
magnetization directions. This direction
was measured in a sample of pure
pyrrhotite that was shown by rock mag-
netic studies to have a pseudosingle-
Figure 14. Shows eight of the modeled sections used to construct the Brumby domain structure, and hence it was
3D model. Each section is oriented east–west, viewed to the north, and separated unlikely to be overprinted by drilling.
by 50 m. The top part of each section shows the actual magnetic field in black
and the modeled field in red with the vertical scale in nanotesla. The lower part
In contrast, many of the most highly
of each section shows the modeled geology: a fault intersection plunging mod- magnetized samples appeared to be af-
erately steep to the south–southeast, haloed by magnetite-rich breccia. The units fected by drilling, or postdrilling in-
are meters, and there is a 3× horizontal exaggeration. duced magnetization, as confirmed by

Conclusions
IOCGs are metallogenically, geochem-
ically, structurally, and geophysically
complex, from deposit to microscopic
scales. They cannot be modeled effec-
tively using geophysics alone. Where
there are sufficient prospect-scale geo-
logic data and detailed geophysics, it is
imperative to use as many spatial con-

straints as possible, e.g., geophysical fil-
ters, basement geochemistry, structural
interpretation, and geochemical interpo-
lation, to constrain geophysical interpre-
tations.
The relationship between magnetite
content and Cu-Au mineralization in
IOCGs is not 1:1. While Cu-Au minerali-
zation is spatially coincident with mag-
Figure 15. The final magnetic model for the Brumby prospect showing the netite at a deposit scale, at finer
structurally controlling faults (red and green planes), high-grade magnetite
and pyrrhotite lenses that sit subparallel to the faults in a net-vein complex, scales, high Cu-Au mineralization can
and the enveloping lower grade breccia host. The image is a 3D perspective look- be correlated with low MagSus, which
ing northwest. may result from alteration of Fe oxides
to Fe (–Cu) sulfides.
Magnetite-rich IOCGs such as Brumby, Starra,
coercivity studies that showed magnetization in mag- Osborne, and Ernest Henry, do not retain large compo-
netite to be multidomain. In rocks that contain multido- nents of stable remanent magnetization but contain
main magnetite and that display a large component of large proportions of multidomain magnetite, which will
drilling induced magnetization, it could be assumed that commonly display in situ magnetization that is parallel
most of the remanent magnetization is soft and that the to the earth’s field.
in situ remanence would likely have been aligned to the Pyrrhotite-rich zones within IOCGs are more likely to
earth’s magnetic field. In general, it is quite difficult retain stable remanent magnetization. However, pyr-
to quantify the exact relationships between MagSus, rhotite is commonly minor in IOCGs, and thus it con-
stable remanent magnetization, and soft remanent mag- tributes little to the magnetic anomalism of deposits.
netization once the magnetization has been overprinted Furthermore because pyrrhotite has a lower Curie point
by drilling. than magnetite, it can be more easily reset by moderate-
The modeling presented provides the best estimate grade metamorphic events, which may not affect mag-
of the architecture of a breccia pipe. The modeling as- netite, and hence, may retain remanence in multiple
sumes that most of the remanent magnetization is soft directions.
and hence oriented parallel to the earth’s field, and it Magnetite-rich IOCGs commonly have magnetic sus-
includes only a small component of remanent magneti- ceptibilities greater than 0.5 SI, and self-demagnetiza-
zation carried in pyrrhotite, that is orientated moder- tion must be considered when modeling them.
ately, up to the south–southeast. The model takes
into account the predicted top of the body defined
by basement geochemistry and by using the analytic sig- Acknowledgments
nal filter applied to the magnetic data. The model takes We would like to thank the team at Ivanhoe Clon-
into account predictions of the deposit 3D architecture curry for the opportunity to study the Brumby Prospect
interpolated from MagSus and assay data using Leap- and in particular, M. Brown, B. Adiya, and J. Southern
frog. However, the Leapfrog modeling only defines for their assistance on site at Osborne. We extend our
the architecture of the very top of the body and only gratitude to D. Clark for his thorough review of the
where there is adequate drilling, so the bulk of the body manuscript and to our other colleagues in the mag-
(at depth) is interpreted via simultaneous forward mod- netics and gravity team at CSIRO, D. Hillan, M. Beiki,
eling and inversion, along multiple lines. The synthetic and M. Tetley, for their assistance and encouragement
magnetic anomaly generated from the final interpreta- on this project. We’d also like to thank M. Lackie for
tion is within 3% rms of the actual anomaly, which is an granting us access to sample preparation and labora-
extremely good result, given the constraints applied tory facilities at Macquarie University.
and the complexity of the system. However, it is impor-
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Brumby Prospect: Appendix M in Hicks D.J. and Komy- Inlier. He has 14 years of experience in academic, consult-
shan, P., 1994, EPM 7065 (Cuckadoo), 7066 (Tringadee), ing, and industry roles across multiple commodities in a
8204 (Squirrel Hills), Combined Annual Report for wide range of geologic provinces and is specialized in po-
tential field geophysics, structural geology, mineral explo-
Period February 1993–February 1994, http://mines
ration, rock property studies, 3D modeling, and GIS. He is
.industry.qld.gov.au/geoscience/company-exploration-
currently with the magnetics and gravity research group at
reports.htm, accessed 30 September 2011. CSIRO, where his main research projects include under-
Walters, S. G., and A. Bailey, 1998, Geology and minerali- standing the geophysics of mineral deposits and looking
zation of the Cannington Ag–Pb–Zn Deposit: An at extreme remanent magnetism in pre-Cambrian mafic in-
example of Broken Hill-type mineralization in the trusive rocks of Central Australia.
Eastern Succession, Mount Isa Inlier, Australia:
Economic Geology, 93, 1307–1329, doi: 10.2113/
gsecongeo.93.8.1307. Phillip Schmidt received a B.Sc.
Webb, M., and P. Rowston, 1995, The geophysics of the (Hons) (1973) from the University of
Ernest Henry Cu-Au Deposit (N.W.) Qld: Exploration New England and a Ph.D. (1976) in
Geophysics, 26, 51–59, doi: 10.1071/EG995051. geophysics from the Australian Na-
Williams, P. J., 1993, Petrographic synthesis of alteration tional University. After a postdoctoral
position in Ottawa with the Earth
and mineralization at the Brumby Prospect, EPM
Physics Branch of the Dominion
Tringadee (Cloncurry District). Appendix Q in Hicks,
Observatory, he returned to Australia
D. J., and Q in Hicks, D. J., and Komyshan, P., 1994, in 1978 to take up a position with
EPM 7065 (Cuckadoo), 7066 (Tringadee), 8204 (Squirrel CSIRO Mineral Physics to apply rock magnetism to min-
Hills), Combined Annual Report for Period February eral exploration. His research interests include physical
1993–February 1994. http://mines.industry.qld.gov properties of rocks, potential fields and the interpretation
.au/geoscience/company-exploration-reports.htm, ac- of magnetic and gravity surveys, palaeomagnetism and its
cessed 30 September 2011. interpretation in terms of earth history, and magnetic in-
Williams, P. J., 1998, Metalliferous economic geology of the strumentation such as differential magnetometry and mag-
Mt Isa Eastern Succession, Queensland: Australian netic tensor gradiometry.
Journal of Earth Sciences, 45, 329–341, doi: 10.1080/
08120099808728395.
Williams, P. J., 2001, Time-space relations of hydrothermal Clive Foss received a B.Sc. (Hons)
(1975) from the University of Reading
alteration and Fe-oxide–Cu–Au deposits in the Clon-
and a Ph.D. (1979) in palaeomagnetic
curry and Curnamona regions, Australia: Presented at
studies in southern Africa from Leeds
Geological Society of America Annual Meeting, Ab- University. From 1979 to 1987, he was
stracts with Programs. a lecturer in exploration geophysics at
Williams, P. J., and P. J. Pollard, 2001, Australian the University of Malaya in Kuala
Proterozoic iron oxide–Cu–Au deposits: An overview Lumpur. He then joined the Austral-
with new metallogenic and exploration data from the ian-Indonesian Geological Mapping
Cloncurry District, Northwest Queensland: Exploration Project in Bandung, where he worked on regional gravity
and Mining Geology, 10, 191–213, doi: 10.2113/0100191. mapping in Kalimantan. From 1990 to 1995, he worked
Zietz, I., and R. G. Henderson, 1956, A preliminary report with Geocon and ARK Geophysics as a consultant to
on model studies of magnetic anomalies of three- the petroleum industry, based in Kuala Lumpur and Ja-
karta. In 1995 he joined Encom Technology as principal
dimensional bodies: Geophysics, 21, 794–814, doi: 10
consultant, providing consultancy services for mineral
.1190/1.1438277.
and petroleum exploration, and working in development
of the ModelVision and PA software packages. In 2008
James R. Austin received a B.S. he moved to CSIRO, where he leads the magnetics and
(Hons) (1999) in structural geology gravity group. His main research interests include geologic
and applied geophysics from Mac- interpretation of the earth’s magnetic field, with particular
quarie University and a Ph.D. (2009) focus on the resolution of contributions from remanent
from James Cook University. His magnetization. He is also involved in the development
Ph.D. focused on understanding the and application of new magnetic tensor gradiometers
magnetic and gravity expression of for mineral exploration.
major crustal lineaments, their rela-
tionship to tectonic development,
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Magnetic modeling of iron oxide copper-gold mineralization constrained by

Article in Interpretation · August 2013

James R. Austin Clive Foss

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Magnetic modeling of iron oxide copper-gold mineralization constrained

James R. Austin1, Phillip W. Schmidt1, and Clive A. Foss1

Introduction case of magnetite-rich deposits (e.g., Ernest Henry,

Interpretation / August 2013 T63

induced and remanent magnetization, and it is impor-

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Sample Meters K — MagSus J J Q — Koenigsberger Density

1 158.4 0.518 26 12.47 0.5 3.03

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ing average to smooth out inhomogene-

Results and interpretation

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Downhole petrophysics and

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Amphibolite 9 0.040 0.052 22% 0.70 0.57 2.94

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with the major phase of brecciation

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Constrained magnetic modeling

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Interpretation of magnetic and gravity data with en- northeast-trending structures.

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imperative to use as many spatial con-

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dee), 8204 (Squirrel Hills), 10522 (Stallion), Tringadee 00101-7.

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