Field research is defined as a qualitative method of data collection that aims to observe, interact and

understand people while they are in a natural environment. The cause and effect of a certain behavior,
though, is tough to analyze due to presence of multiple variables in a natural environment.

The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and contribute to developing
knowledge in a field or study.

Aims and Hypotheses

• The aim of the study is a statement of what the researcher intents to investigate.
• The hypothesis of the study is an idea, derived from psychological theory which contains a
prediction which can be verified or disproved by some kind of investigation, usually an
experiment.
• A directional hypothesis indicates a direction in the prediction (one-tailed) e.g. ‘students with pets
perform better than students without pets’.
• A non-directional hypothesis does not indicate a direction in the prediction (two-tailed) e.g.
‘owning pets will affect students’ exam performances’.

A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a precise, testable statement of what the researcher(s) predict will be
the outcome of the study.

This usually involves proposing a possible relationship between two variables: the independent variable
(what the researcher changes) and the dependent variable (what the research measures).

In research, there is a convention that the hypothesis is written in two forms, the null hypothesis, and the
alternative hypothesis (called the experimental hypothesis when the method of investigation is an
experiment).

Types of Research Hypotheses

• Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the two variables
being studied (one variable has an effect on the other).

It states that the results are not due to chance and that they are significant in terms of
supporting the theory being investigated.

• Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two variables being
studied (one variable does not affect the other).

It states results are due to chance and are not significant in terms of supporting the idea
being investigated.

• Nondirectional Hypothesis

A two-tailed non-directional hypothesis predicts that the independent variable will have
an effect on the dependent variable, but the direction of the effect is not specified.
 E.g., there will be a difference in how many numbers are correctly recalled by children
and adults.

• Directional Hypothesis

A one-tailed directional hypothesis predicts the nature of the effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable.

E.g., adults will correctly recall more words than children.

Sampling

A sample is the participants you select from a target population (the group you are interested in) to make
generalisations about.

Types of Sampling:

• A Volunteer sample is where participants pick themselves through newspaper adverts,

noticeboards or online.
• Opportunity sampling uses people who are available at the time the study is carried out.
• Random sampling is when every person in the target population has an equal chance of being
selected.
• Systematic sampling is when a system is used to select participants.
• Stratified sampling is when you identify the subgroups and select participants in proportion with
their occurrences.

Variables

• Independent variable (IV) – the variable the experimenter manipulates, aassumed to have a direct
effect on the DV.
• Dependent variable (DV) – the variable the experimenter measures after making changes to the
IV.

We must use operationalisation to ensure that variables are in a form that can be easily tested e.g.
Educational attainment → GCSE grade in maths.

• Extraneous variables are all variables, which are not the independent variable, but could affect
the results of the experiment.There are two types: Situational variables (controlled through
standardisation) and Participant variables (controlled through randomisation).

Experimental Design

In an independent measures design (between groups), a group of participants are recruited and divided
into 2. The first group does the experimental task with the IV set for condition 1 and the second group
does the experimental task with the IV set for condition 2. The DV is measured for each group and results
are compared.
In a repeated measures design (within groups), a group of participants are recruited, and the group does
the experimental task with the IV set for condition 1 and then the same for condition 2. The DV is
measured for each group and results are compared.

In a matched pairs design, a group of participants are recruited. We find out what sorts of people we have
in the group and recruit another group that matches them one for one. The experiment is then treated
like an independent measures design and the results are compared.

Lab Experiment

This type of experiment is conducted in a well-controlled environment – not necessarily a laboratory –

and therefore accurate and objective measurements are possible.

The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in
what circumstances and using a standardized procedure.

Field Experiment

These are conducted in the everyday (i.e. natural) environment of the participants but the situations are
still artificially set up.

The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous
variables).

Natural Experiment

Natural experiments are when a naturally occurring IV is investigated that isn’t deliberately manipulated,
it exists anyway.

Participants are not randomly allocated and the natural event may only occur rarely.

Case Study

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community.

Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best-known ones carried out were by
Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an
attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

Case studies provide rich qualitative data and have high levels of ecological validity.
Correlation

Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are
related.

If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other then this is known as a
positive correlation.

If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other then this is known as a
negative correlation.

A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables.

Interviews

• Unstructured (informal) interviews are like a casual conversation. There are no set questions and
the participant is given the opportunity to raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask
them in their own way. In this kind of interview much qualitative data is likely to be collected.
• Structured (formal) interviews are like a job interview. There is a fixed, predetermined set of
questions that are put to every participant in the same order and in the same way. The interviewer
stays within their role and maintains social distance from the interviewee.

Questionnaire

Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by
telephone or post.

The questions asked can be open ended, allowing flexibility in the respondent's answers, or they can be
more tightly structured requiring short answers or a choice of answers from given alternatives.

The choice of questions is important because of the need to avoid bias or ambiguity in the questions,
‘leading’ the respondent, or causing offence.

Observations

• Covert observations are when the researcher pretends to be an ordinary member of the group
and observes in secret. There could be ethical problems or deception and consent with this
particular method of observation.
• Overt observations are when the researcher tells the group he or she is conducting research (i.e.
they know they are being observed).

Controlled: behavior is observed under controlled laboratory conditions (e.g. Bandura's Bobo doll study).

Natural: Here spontaneous behavior is recorded in a natural setting.

Participant: Here the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are observing.
Non-participant (aka "fly on the wall): The researcher does not have direct contact with the people being
observed.

Pilot Study

A pilot study is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used in an investigation; it involves selecting
a few people and trying out the study on them. It is possible to save time, and in some cases, money, by
identifying any flaws in the procedures designed by the researcher.

A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual things) or confusion in the
information given to participants or problems with the task devised.

Sometimes the task is too hard, and the researcher may get a floor effect, because none of the participants
can score at all or can complete the task – all performances are low. The opposite effect is a ceiling effect,
when the task is so easy that all achieve virtually full marks or top performances and are “hitting the
ceiling”.

Content Analysis

Content analysis is a research tool used to indirectly observe the presence of certain words, images or
concepts within the media (e.g. advertisements, books films etc.). For example, content analysis could be
used to study sex-role stereotyping.

Researchers quantify (i.e. count) and analyze (i.e. examine) the presence, meanings and relationships of
words and concepts, then make inferences about the messages within the media, the writer(s), the
audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a part.

To conduct a content analysis on any such media, the media is coded or broken down, into manageable
categories on a variety of levels - word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme - and then examined.

Meta Analysis

A meta-analysis is a systematic review that involves identifying an aim and then searching for research
studies that have addressed similar aims/hypotheses.

This is done by looking through various databases and then decisions are made about what studies are to
be included/excluded.

• Strengths: Increases the validity of the conclusions drawn as they’re based on a wider range.
• Weaknesses: Research designs in studies can vary so they are not truly comparable.
Peer Review

A researcher submits an article to a journal. The choice of journal may be determined by the journal’s
audience or prestige.

The journal selects two or more appropriate experts (psychologists working in a similar field) to peer
review the article without payment. The peer reviewers assess: the methods and designs used, originality
of the findings, the validity of the original research findings and its content, structure and language.

Feedback from the reviewer determines whether the article is accepted. The article may be: Accepted as
it is, accepted with revisions, sent back to the author to revise and re-submit or rejected without the
possibility of submission.

The editor makes the final decision whether to accept or reject the research report based on the reviewers
comments/ recommendations.

Peer review is important because it prevent faulty data from entering the public domain, it provides a way
of checking the validity of findings and the quality of the methodology and is used to assess the research
rating of university departments.

Types of Data

• Quantitative data is numerical data e.g. reaction time or number of mistakes. It represents how
much or how long, how many there are of something. A tally of behavioral categories and closed
questions in a questionnaire collect quantitative data.
• Qualitative data is non-numerical data expressed in words e.g. an extract from a diary. It can’t be
counted but can be turned into quantitative data by placing the data in categories and then
counting frequency. Open questions in questionnaires and accounts from observational studies
collect qualitative data.

Primary data is first hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation.

Secondary data is information that has been collected by someone other than the person who is
conducting the research e.g. taken from journals, books or articles.

Validity

Validity is whether the observed effect in genuine and represents what is actually out there in the world.

• Concurrent validity – the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar
measure and obtains close results. For example, a new intelligence test compared to an
established test.
• Face validity – does the test measure what it’s supposed to measure ‘on the face of it’. This is
done by ‘eyeballing’ the measuring or by passing it to an expert to check.
• Ecological validity – the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other
settings / real life.
 • Temporal validity – the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other
historical times.

Reliability

Reliability is a measure of consistency, if a particular measurement is repeated and the same result is
obtained then it is described as being reliable.

• Test-retest reliability – Assessing the same person on two different occasions which shows the
extent to which the test produces the same answers.
• Inter-observer reliability – the extent to which there is agreement between two or more
observers.

Features of Science

• Paradigm – A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline.
• Paradigm shift – The result of scientific revolution: a significant change in the dominant unifying
theory within a scientific discipline.
• Objectivity – When all sources of personal bias are minimised so not to distort or influence the
research process.
• Empirical method – Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through
direct observation and experience.
• Replicability – The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other
researchers.
• Falsifiability – The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the
possibility of being proved untrue.

Statistical Testing

A significant result is one where there is a low probability that chance factors were responsible for any
observed difference, correlation or association in the variables tested.

If our test is significant, we can reject our null hypothesis and accept our alternative hypothesis.

If our test is not significant, we can accept our null hypothesis and reject our alternative hypothesis. A null
hypothesis is a statement of no effect.

In Psychology, we use p < 0.05 (as it strikes a balance between making a type I and II error) but p < 0.01 is
used in tests that could cause harm like introducing a new drug.

A type I error is when the null hypothesis is rejected when it should have been accepted (happens when
a lenient significance level is used, an error of optimism).

A type II error is when the null hypothesis is accepted when it should have been rejected (happened when
a stringent significance level is used, an error of pessimism).
Ethical Issues

Informed consent is when participants are able to make an informed judgement about whether to take
part. It causes them to guess the aims of the study and change their behavior. To deal with it, we can gain
presumptive consent or ask them to formally indicate their agreement to participate but it may invalidate
the purpose of the study and it is not guaranteed that the participants would understand.

Deception should only be used when it approved by an ethics committee as it involves deliberately
misleading or withholding information. Participants should be fully debriefed after the study but
debriefing can’t turn the clock back.

All participants should be informed at the beginning that they have the Right to Withdraw if they ever feel
distressed or uncomfortable. It causes bias as the ones that stayed are obedient and some may not
withdraw as they may have been given incentives or feel like they’re spoiling the study. Researchers can
offer the right to withdraw data after participation.

Participants should all have Protection from harm. The researcher should avoid risks greater than
experienced in everyday life and they should stop the study if any harm is suspected. However, the harm
may not be apparent at the time of the study.

Confidentiality concerns the communication of personal information. The researchers should not record
any names but use numbers or false names though it may not be possible as it is sometimes possible to
work out who the researchers were.