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Loads for use in the design of ships and offshore structures

Article  in  Ocean Engineering · March 2014

DOI: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2013.09.012.

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 Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ocean Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oceaneng

Review

Loads for use in the design of ships and offshore structures

S.E. Hirdaris a,n, W. Bai b, D. Dessi c, A. Ergin d, X. Gu e, O.A. Hermundstad f, R. Huijsmans g,
K. Iijima h, U.D. Nielsen i, J. Parunov j, N. Fonseca k, A. Papanikolaou l, K. Argyriadis m,
A. Incecik n
a
Lloyd's Register Group Ltd., Republic of Korea
b
National University of Singapore, Singapore
c
INSEAN/CNR Maritime Research Centre, Italy
d
Technical University of Istanbul, Turkey
e
China Ship Scientific Research Centre, PR China
f
MARINTEK, SINTEF, Norway
g
Delft University of Technology, Netherlands
h
Osaka University, Japan
i
Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
j
University of Zagreb, Croatia
k
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
l
National Technical University of Athens, Greece
m
Germanischer Lloyd SE
n
University of Strathclyde, UK

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The evaluation of structural responses is key element in the design of ships and offshore structures.
Received 20 February 2013 Fundamental to this is the determination of the design loads to support the Rule requirements and for
Accepted 21 September 2013 application in direct calculations. To date, the current design philosophy for the prediction of motions
Available online 14 November 2013
and wave-induced loads has been driven by empirical or first-principles calculation procedures based on
Keywords: well-proven applications such as ship motion prediction programs. In recent years, the software,
Ships and offshore structures engineering and computer technology available to predict the design loads imposed on ships and
Loads offshore structures has improved dramatically. Notwithstanding, with the stepwise increase in the size
Fluid flexible structure interactions and structural complexity of ships and floating offshore installations and the advances in the framework
Ice loads of Rules and Standards it has become necessary to utilise the latest technologies to assess the design
Fatigue loads
loads on new designs. Along the lines of the recommendations from the International Ship and Offshore
Model tests
Structures Committee (ISSC) I.2 on Loads this paper reviews some of the recent advances in the
Full scale measurements
Uncertainties
assessment of loads for ships and offshore structures with the aim to draw the overall technological
landscape available for further understanding, validation and implementation by the academic and
industrial communities. Particular emphasis is attributed on methodologies applicable for the prediction
of environmental and operational loads from waves, wind, current, ice, slamming, sloshing and

Abbreviations: ACV, air cushion vehicles; ALE, Arbitrary Lagrangean–Eulerian Method; BBC, body boundary condition; BEM, Boundary Element Method; CCGS, Canadian
Coast Guard Ship; CeSOS, Norwegian Centre for Ships and Offshore Structures; CFD, Computational Fluid Dynamics; CIP, Constraint Interpolation Profile method; DB method,
Double Body method; DP, dynamic positioning; DSS, decision support systems; DWM, Dynamic Wake Meandering model; FAC, foil assisted craft; FANS, Finite Analytic
Navier–Stokes method; FCP, fatigue crack propagation; FEM, Finite Element Method; FLNG, floating liquid natural gas vessel; FOI, Floating Offshore Installations; FORM, First
Order Reliability Method; FPSO, Floating Production Storage and Offloading; FSBC, Free Surface Boundary Condition; FSRU, Floating Storage and Regasification Unit; GBS,
gravity based structures; GDI, Grounding Damage Index; GSS, gravity support structures; HBM, Horizontal Bending Moment; HOBEM, Higher Order Boundary Element
Method; HSC, High Speed Craft; IACS, International Association of Classification Societies; IEA, International Energy Agency; IMO, International Maritime Organisation; ISO,
International Standardisation Organisation; ISSC, International Ship Structures Congress; ITTC, International Towing Tank Conference; KORDI, Korean Ocean Research and
Development Institute; LES, Large Eddy Simulation; LNGC, liquid natural gas carrier; LPG, liquefied petroleum gas; MEL, Mixed Eulerian–Langragean method; MPS, moving
particle semi-implicit method; MT, motor tanker; NEM, Natural Element Method; NK, Neumann–Kelvin method; PS, Pulsating source; QTF, quadratic transfer function;
RANS, Reynolds average Navier–Stokes; RAO, Response Amplitude Operators; RF, Retardation Functions; SGS, dynamic Sub Grid Scale method; SORM, Second Order
Reliability Method; SPH, smoothed particle hydrodynamics; SST, Shear Stress Transport turbulence model; SWATH, Single Water Plane Area Twin Hull; TEU, Twenty Foot
Equivalent Unit; TIRF, Triangular Impulse Response Function; TLP, Tension Leg Platform; TM, Torsion Moment; TPS, Translating Pulsating Source; UFLP, Unified Fatigue Life
Prediction method; VBM, Vertical Bending Moment; VIV, Vortex Induced Vibrations; VLCC, Very Large Crude Carrier; VOF, Volume of Fluid; VSF, vertical shear force; WOI,
wake induced oscillations
n
Corresponding author at: 11th Floor, CJ Korea Express Bldg., 119, Daegyo-ro, Jung-gu (2,6-ga, Jungang-dong), Busan 600-700, Republic of Korea. Tel.: +82516405063.
E-mail address: spyros.hirdaris@lr.org (S.E. Hirdaris).

0029-8018/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2013.09.012
132 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174

operational factors. Consideration is also given to deterministic and statistical load predictions based on
model experiments, full-scale measurements and theoretical methods.
& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2. Load computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.1. Zero speed case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.1.1. Body wave interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.1.2. Effects of varying bathymetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.1.3. Multi-body interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.2. Forward speed case – overview of methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.2.1. Level 1: Linear methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.2.2. Level 2: Froude–Krylov Nonlinear Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2.2.3. Level 3: Body-nonlinear Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.2.4. Level 4: Body-exact Methods (Weak Scattered Methods) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.2.5. Level 5: Fully nonlinear Methods (smooth waves). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.2.6. Level 6: Fully nonlinear Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.3. Offshore wind loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.4. Loads from abnormal waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
2.5. Hydroelasticity methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2.5.1. Slamming loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
2.5.2. Experimental hydroelasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.5.3. Full scale measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.5.4. Specialist structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3. Ship structures – specialist topics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.1. Loads versus operational guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.2. Ice loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.3. Loads on damaged ship structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.3.1. Still water loads of damaged ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.3.2. Structural integrity and stability of ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.4. Green water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.5. Sloshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.5.1. Model experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.5.2. Hull flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.5.3. Advanced numerical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.5.4. Coupling sloshing with motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.5.5. Design assessment procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4. Offshore structures – specialist topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.1. Offshore lifting and installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.2. Cables, risers and moored structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.3. Vortex Induced Vibrations (VIVs)and Wake Induced Oscillations (WIOs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.4. Spars and TLPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.5. Semi-submersibles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5. Uncertainties in wave load predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6. Fatigue loads for ships and offshore structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.1. Fatigue analysis of ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2. Fatigue analysis of offshore structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.1. Loads on offshore structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.2. Loads on ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.3. Specialist topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

1. Introduction
The structural strength of ships and offshore structures can
only be realistically determined if it is assessed with sound
knowledge of the loads that it is likely to withstand. To reflect
this need over the last 250 years, Classification Societies have been
developing Rules for Ships and Floating Offshore Installations that
have been backed up by in-service experience and account for
wave effects. Modern engineering practise implies that in those
cases where the Rules are not deemed sufficient direct analysis
design assessment procedures are referenced in the Classification
standards. For example, procedures and updated empirical Rules,
have been implemented in the unified Common Structural Rules
for the Tanker and Bulk Carrier fleet introduced since 2007 by the
major Classification Societies (IACS Ltd. 2010a, 2010b). The move
from empirical and deterministic to performance based Rules the
continuous technology advances, the expanding offshore market
economics and the opening of new routes for shipping operations
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
(e.g. Arctic route), have raised significantly the demands for the
development of high quality future services in both marine and
energy sectors.
With the changing landscape for collaborative innovation
between industries and sectors it would be perhaps fare to
consider that technology understanding and implementation has
become centric enabler in facilitating upcoming assurance solu-
tions in the area of ship and offshore structures loads and
responses. The later is backed up by the vague boundaries
between design solutions, assurance compliance and engineering
consultancy implying that understanding the limitations of tech-
nologies and their applicability may become important, especially
in those cases where theoretical or computational models promise
to solve complex engineering problems.
It is not within the purpose of this paper to suggest an overall
strategic roadmap for research, technology development and
future implementation in the area of ship and offshore structures
load assessment. However, the authors driven by recent discus-
sions driven by the ISSC Report of the Technical Committee 1.2 on
Loads (2012) outline major trends and advances for the reporting
period from 2009 to 2012. Fig. 1 demonstrates the overall
approximate knowledge profile of different areas of research and
development within this reporting period. The papers reviewed
spread from the end of 2008 to the first quarter of 2012 and have
been published in International peer reviewed Journals and Con-
ferences. Figs. 2 and 3 look into the specific trends identified under
each research area. Whereas it would be difficult to conclude on
overspecialised trends it is useful to note that from the sample of
publications reviewed:

Most research efforts (approx. 47%) are dedicated on research
and development activities related with the computation of
wave induced loads (see Fig. 1). Whereas research on hydro-
elasticity methods and their validation clearly dominates this
area of work there is fare interest on the development of
hydrodynamic solutions for zero and foreword speed marine
structures. Research on wave loads from abnormal waves gains
momentum but still has a long way to go (see Fig. 2a).

Research on specialist ship structure topics (e.g. sloshing,
slamming, green water on decks etc.) comes second within
the overall trend as it accounts for approx. 32% of the publica-
tions presented (see Fig. 1). In this area sloshing is clearly an
important research topic driven by the industrial requirements
to improve current designs. There is renewed interest in the
research area of damaged ship structures; an area of work
Fatigue Loads for
Ships & Offshore Uncertainty
Structures, 7% modelling, 4%
Offshore Structures
Specialist topics,
10%
Computation of
Wave induced
Loads, 47%
Ship Structures
Specialist topics,
32%
Fig. 1. Approximate knowledge profile (in the form of percentage of publications)
of research development activities on wave loads for ships and offshore structures
from 2009 to 2012. Percentages include publications in International Conferences
and peer reviewed Journals.
133
where structural integrity evaluations require the combination
of knowledge from ship operations, stability, marine structures
and hydrodynamics within the context of risk assessment.
Interestingly enough the number of publications for green
water on deck problems, ice loads and Decision support
Systems (DSS) (e.g. operational guidance systems) is almost
equally spread. However, the high quality and expanding
number of publications on DSS demonstrates a paradigm shift
of the industry's behaviour with regards on safety (see Fig. 2b).

Publications on fatigue loads on ships and specialist offshore
structures although specialist account for 7% and 10% respec-
tively (Fig. 1). The later perhaps is a clear reflection of the
recent expansion of the high value assets operated by the
offshore sector (see Fig. 3a).

Publications on wave loads uncertainty modelling and valida-
tion are, generally, limited (only 4% of the overall trend – see
Fig. 1). However, a large amount of those relates with fatigue
load calculations (about 45% – see Fig. 3b).
In reflecting the above trends wave-induced loads on ships,
focusing on two- (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) methods, are
dealt within two different sections of this paper (see Sections
2 and 3). Those reference linear and nonlinear methods including
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) applications. Section 3
reviews specialist topics such as slamming and green water loads
as well as loading on damaged ships. Wave-induced loads on
offshore structures are reviewed in Sections 2 and 4, the former
dealing with single and multi-body interactions, including a note
on the effects of current and bathymetry. Section 4 focuses on
specialist topics, such as cables and risers, vortex-induced vibra-
tions (VIV), offshore lifting and installation and submersibles.
Finally, the current state of progress in short- and long-term
predictions and fatigue loads is examined and uncertainties in
experimental and full-scale measurements and computational
methods are discussed.
2. Load computations
2.1. Zero speed case
2.1.1. Body wave interactions
Traditionally the prediction of wave loading of zero speed body
wave interactions has been based on potential flow solutions.
Consideration of viscous effects has been commonly restricted to
specific problems such as, the calculation of slow drift motion of
offshore structures, the evaluation of rolling response close to the
roll resonance of ships or barges or the evaluation of the resonant
motions of the confined fluid between side-by-side arrangements
of floating bodies.
Recently, Pessoa et al. (2011) presented an experimental
investigation of the first and second order wave exciting forces
acting on a body of simple geometry subjected to long crested
irregular waves. The body is symmetric about the vertical axis, like
a vertical cylinder with a rounded bottom, and it is restrained from
moving. Second order spectral analysis was applied to obtain the
linear spectra, coherence spectra and cross bi-spectra of both the
incident wave elevation and of the horizontal and vertical wave
exciting forces. The linear and quadratic transfer functions (QTF) of
the exciting forces were obtained from the analysis of irregular
wave measurements. The results have been compared against
experiments in bi-chromatic waves and with numerical predic-
tions from a second order potential flow code. Whereas the
agreement of the experimental and numerical results was shown
to be satisfactory for the linear forces, it was concluded that the
134 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174

measured wave exciting forces include a significant nonlinear
contribution for the low frequency range.
Research results that have been presented in the area of
bottom founded structures (e.g. single or multi-array cylinders,
wind turbine foundations, gravity support structures (GBS) etc.)
show a trend toward the use of CFD simulations and approx-
imate nonlinear diffraction models. For example, Morgan and
Zang (2010) investigated the use of the open source CFD soft-
ware suite OpenFOAM for the simulation of focused wave
packets interacting with a vertical bottom mounted cylinder.
Wave elevation in the vicinity of the cylinder was compared to
experimental data. In a parent paper, Zang et al. (2010) inves-
tigated the higher-order diffraction effects on the loading and
demonstrated that the method leads to reasonable agreement
with experiments. Bredmose and Jacobsen (2010) reported
investigations on a typical bottom-mounted offshore wind
turbine foundation, also using the OpenFOAM suite. In this
study special emphasis was attributed to the wave generation
process. The fluid loading obtained from the CFD calculations
was compared to results given by a combination of the ‘Wheeler
stretching technique’ for the incident wave kinematics, and
‘Morison equation’ for the fluid loading. Comparisons between
empirical and computational results were shown to be satisfac-
tory. Roos and Haver (2010) and Roos et al. (2009) reported on
the experimental study of wave impacts on elements of a
Gravity Based Structure (GBS) composed of submerged storage
caissons combined with four surface piercing vertical cylinders,
in relatively shallow water. The authors indicate that larger

VIVs, WIOs, 24% Semi-

submersibles,
34%

Cables, Risers and

Moored
Structures, 12%

Spars and TLPs,

24%
Offshore Lifting
and Installation,
6%

Fatigue Analysis
of Ships, 35%
Uncertainties in
Wave Load
Predictions, 45%

Fatigue analysis of
Offshore
Structures, 20%
Fig. 2. Approximate knowledge profile (in the form of percentage of publications) of research development activities on (a) the computation of wave loads and (b) ship
structures specialist topics from 2009 to 2012. Percentages represent sub-categorisation of the main overall trends presented under Fig. 1.
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174 135

Zero Speed Case,

20%

Hydroelasticity
Methods, 43%

Forward Speed
Case, 20%

Loads from
Offshore wind Abnormal Waves,
Loads, 12% 5%

Loads from
Damaged Ship
Structures, 21%

Sloshing, 42%

Ice Loads, 15%

Loads versus
Operational
Guidance, 12% Green Water, 10%

Fig. 3. Approximate knowledge profile (in the form of percentage of publications) of research development activities on: (a) offshore structures specialist topics and
(b) fatigues analysis and uncertainties from 2009 to 2012. Percentages represent sub-categorisation of the main overall trends presented under Fig. 1.

impact loads to those measured on the underside of the deck (e.
g. wave in deck impact loads, loads on vertical columns etc.)
may be recorded successfully.
The recent expansion in the market of Floating Offshore
Installations (FOIs) has introduced the need to direct research
towards understanding the effects of varying water depths and
associated high frequency responses of such structures in waves
using advanced methods. For example, Johannessen (2011) revis-
ited the problem of the high frequency resonant response of
offshore structures in irregular waves, using approximate non-
linear diffraction models. The author concluded that provided the
incident wave spectral properties are carefully represented, such
models allow for a good representation of the resonant response
of stationary large offshore structures. Yan and Liu (2010) con-
ducted fully nonlinear analysis of a moored FPSO vessel in shallow
water waves using the Lagrangian–Eulerian finite element
method. Investigations were also carried out on the effects of
water depth on forces and wave run-up. The numerical results
suggest that the induced forces decrease. However, the nonlinear
components may be more significant as the water depth
decreases. Lee and Kim (2010) calculated motions of two floating
bodies (FSRU and LNGC) in shallow water. The authors concluded
that whereas the horizontal surge motion is significantly affected
by the wave deformation, the surge motion is considerably
amplified in low frequency waves by nonlinear wave–wave inte-
ractions.
136 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Park et al. (2010) studied the motions and loads of a LNG-FPSO
considering the effects of sloshing. The methodology is based on a
coupled model of sloshing and motion in the time domain. It was
confirmed that the sloshing impact pressure depends on the wave
period, the number of filled tanks and the tank filling level. Ryu
et al. (2010) studied sloshing loads in partially filled LNG tanks for
an FLNG at different headings and sea states. They described the
effect of wave heights on the sloshing loads, especially for partial
filled LNG tanks.
2.1.2. Effects of varying bathymetry
When shallow water operation is considered, the influence of
the seabed bathymetry variation on the loads acting upon the
floating body needs to be examined. de Hauteclocque et al.
(2008) presented a method to eliminate the interference caused
by the wave reflection on the boundaries of the truncated
bathymetry using the classical diffraction theory. Their method
applies semitransparent panels to the region of the bathymetry
boundaries. The radiation coefficients obtained were compared
with those obtained when only an opaque bathymetry is
considered. The wave kinematics obtained by the diffraction
code were compared to those obtained by a shallow water code
based on Green–Naghdi theory. The study concluded on good
comparisons against semi-analytical solutions (e.g. GNWave) of
wave kinematics along a slopped seabed. Further numerical
studies for the case of a barge floating over a horizontal
bathymetry and for a LNG over a slopped seabed demonstrated
that the interference effect of variable bottom on the wave loads
is important.
Molin et al. (2009) addressed the problem of determining
apriori whether the shoaling of the accompanying long wave to
an irregular wave system may lead to significant corrections with
regards to the flat bottom model. This study assumes that the
bathymetry is constrained in way of a constant depth zone that is
followed up by a rectilinear ramp. The authors compared their
results with those of a flat bottom. It was concluded that low-
frequency second-order loads are strongly reduced as compared to
their flat bottom reference values.
Athanassoulis and Belibassakis (2009) studied the problem of
transformation of the spectrum of an incident wave system over a
region of strongly varying bottom topography within the context
of linearity. This work focused on cases where the typical wave-
length and the characteristic length of the bottom profile varia-
tions are comparable and the waves propagate in intermediate-to-
shallow water depth. It was concluded that the approach permits
the consistent transformation of the full incident wave spectrum
over variable bathymetry regions and the calculation of the spatial
evolution of point spectra of all interesting wave quantities at
every point in the domain. Belibassakis (2010) presented a non-
linear hybrid domain decomposition method with application to
the problem of roll response of ship-hull sections of general shape
floating in general bathymetry regions. The idealisation is based
on a BEM for the representation of the nonlinear potential wave
motion around the floating body and a vortex particle method for
the generation of vorticity in way of the boundary layer. Results of
reasonable accuracy are presented and it is concluded that in those
cases where the viscous effects associated with boundary layer
separation may be significant, mixing of boundary integral and
particle methods may be useful in the evaluation of ship-hull
characteristics in rolling motion.
Ferreira and Newman (2009) discuss the importance of model-
ling the effects of significant variation in bottom depth along the
length of large LNG carriers. In this work, comparisons between
simplified and advanced numerical models idealising in detail the
bathymetry changes due to a sloping bottom in way of the ships’
parallel body are generally speaking small. Hence, reasonable
estimates of the heave and pitch motions are obtained using the
average depth along the length of the ship. The authors concluded
that differences in depth at the bow and stern do have a
substantial effect on the cross-coupling coefficients. Thus, the
phases of the heave and pitch motions and associated loads are
not as well approximated by computations assuming constant
depth.
de Hauteclocque et al. (2009) formulated a radiation–diffrac-
tion theory to calculate the wave kinematics, motions and loads of
a floating body in areas of varying bathymetry. The method
presented could be useful in the context of LNG terminals where
the depth is quite shallow and the bathymetric variations
significant. The bathymetry is modelled as a second body. A
modified formulation of the BEM is introduced to model accu-
rately the opaque bathymetry. Numerical results are shown to be
satisfactorily compared to a 3D shallow water code based on
Green–Naghdi theory. The differences with the constant depth
calculations are shown to be significant, due to the modified
incident wave field, modified added mass and radiation damping
terms. More recently, Pinkster (2011) also addressed the same
problem by introducing a modified diffraction method based on a
multi-domain approach capable of handling different water
depths in each domain. It this work it is shown that the multi-
domain approach can also be used for subdividing large domains.
The work by Sutulo et al. (2010) is a good example where
inertial and damping characteristics have been computed for ship
sections in way of multi-stepped and inclined bottoms using the
boundary integral equation approach. This work has also some
practical significance as the continuous growth of the average size
and speed of vessels recently resulted in repeated problems
related to insufficient water clearances affecting the navigation
safety and increasing the operation costs. Often these problems
are related to the squat sometimes resulting in undesirable
contacts with the ground which requires reduction of the ship's
speed deteriorating the waterway's capacity. The numerical inves-
tigation carried out by the authors for 3 characteristic ship
sections show that depending on the section's shape, oscilla-
tion frequency and mode, the influence of the local bottom
configuration can vary from negligible to very significant.
In general, near mid-ship sections with flat bottom are more
sensitive to the seabed configuration's details than typical bow
and stern sections. The influence of the number of approximating
steps is sometimes rather systematic but sometimes of a quite
unexpected character. Numerical results presented in this article
can be used for qualitative estimation of possible errors caused by
a too approximate bathymetry and the main practical recommen-
dation is that the seabed surface should be approximated as
accurately as possible.
On the other hand, the work by Griffiths and Porter (2012)
addresses important aspects on computational modelling of scat-
tering for a monochromatic train of surface gravity waves that may
be incident on a finite region of arbitrary three-dimensional
smoothly varying bathymetry. In this work the full three-
dimensional linear water wave theory is approximated by the
depth-averaged modified mild-slope equations and a Greens
function approach is used to derive an integral equation for the
function relating to the unknown surface over the varying bed.
The method is applied to bathymetries which exhibit focusing in
the high-frequency Ray theory limit and used to illustrate that
focusing occurs at finite wavelengths where both refractive and
diffractive effects are included. The method of scattering of surface
waves by an finite domain of arbitrary slowly varying bathymetry
has been applied to focusing, but can be extended in a number of
directions, such as interactions between multiple finite domains of
varying bathymetry, near trapping by long finite ridges and edge
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
wave excitation along semi-infinite ridges. Other extensions may
include shoaling domains on sloping beds, as considered by using
Green's function. Perhaps, it would be useful to follow on further
developments related with this work over the forthcoming ISSC
reporting period.
2.1.3. Multi-body interactions
Multi-body hydrodynamics became a relevant topic of research
over the last years as the offshore activities grow and diversify.
Many of the developments have been motivated by the operation
of side-by-side, or tandem, offloading of LNG from the floating
production unit to a shuttle tanker. Other examples of multi-body
systems include the classical problem of multiple surface piercing
vertical cylinders, very large floating structures and wave energy
converters. The calculation of the hydrodynamic interactions is
important in order to assess the operability of the coupled
systems, estimate the loads on the structure and on the mooring
lines (e.g. lines connecting the bodies and on the articulations).
The current practice is to use frequency domain potential flow
linear BEM to calculate the wave–body interactions. For computa-
tional economy the Higher Order Boundary Element Method
(HOBEM) is preferred for multiple bodies. If nonlinear mechanical
interactions need to be included, frequency domain results are
used to calculate hydrodynamic linear impulse response functions.
The equations of motions and loads are consequently solved in the
time domain by combining linear and nonlinear forces. There are
specific problems which require nonlinear hydrodynamic methods
(e.g. resonant free surface motions in a narrow gap between two
fixed or floating structures).
Lewandowski (2008) presented a systematic investigation of
the hydrodynamic coefficients, free surface elevation and motions
of two side-by-side rectangular barges. The author confirms that
standing waves between the hulls occur at critical frequencies and
they may have a significant effect on the hydrodynamic forces and
loads. Different methods to reduce the standing wave elevations
have been proposed as reported in the proceedings of the 14th and
17th International Ship and Offshore Structures Congress by ISSC
Report of the Technical Committee 1.2 on Loads (2000, 2009).
However some energy dissipation in the form of a damping term,
must be assigned by the analyst. Since the loading calculations of
moored floating structures often need to be carried out in the time
domain, the author discusses the effects of the critical frequencies
on the floater motions by memory functions. Such functions
become inherently lightly damped, which leads to truncation
errors in the evaluation of the convolution integrals. Bunnik and
Huijsmans (2009) proposed a variation of the damping lid method
introduced by Chen (2005) to reduce the unrealistically high
resonant wave elevations between two floating structures posi-
tioned side-by-side. The damping lid method was chosen as it
adds some damping to the free surface between the vessels. The
results from the new method were compared with experimental
data for two similar LNG ships in head regular waves. It was
concluded that the new approach compares well with available
experimental data for the in-gap wave motion and the wave
induced drift forces.
Kristiansen and Faltinsen (2009) applied 2D linear and non-
linear BEM to investigate the pumping mode induced by incoming
waves on an LNG carrier berthed near a gravity based structure in
shallow waters. The results were compared with experimental
data to conclude that both the linear and nonlinear predictions
overestimate the resonant free surface elevation, although non-
linear results are closer to the experiments. In a more recent
publication from Kristiansen and Faltinsen (2010) the flow separa-
tion of bilge keels was modelled by an inviscid vortex tracking
method. It was concluded that while the nonlinear free surface
137
effects have a small effect on the resonant free surface elevation
prediction, the damping effect from the flow separation is large
and in fact the predictions of the complete nonlinear model are
quite good.
A 2D viscous flow numerical method has been applied by Lu
and Cheng et al. (2010a, 2010b) to calculate the wave motion in the
narrow gap between rectangular cross sections, restrained from
moving when subject to harmonic waves. The Navier–Stokes
equations are solved with a finite element method, while the free
surface is captured with a VOF method. The viscous flow results are
compared against experimental data for the wave elevation in the
gap showing good agreement. It is concluded that a 2D linear
potential flow method is able to predict correctly the resonant
frequencies but overestimates the free surface elevation amplitudes.
Hansen and Carstensen et al. (2009) present an analysis of the
motions, mooring lines and fender forces on two LNG carriers
moored side-by-side in irregular seas and shallow water. The
motions are calculated in the time domain accounting for the
nonlinear mooring effects, while the multi-body hydrodynamic
problem is solved with WAMIT. The Boussinesq wave model is
applied to simulate the irregular sea states in shallow water. The
comparisons with experimental data show good agreement for the
first order motions and reasonable agreement for the forces on the
mooring lines and fender connecting the ships. de Wilde et al.
(2010) presented an experimental investigation with scaled mod-
els of the LNG stern-to-bow offloading with a shuttle tanker
behind a weather vaning platform in irregular waves, wind and
currents. Different options are assessed, namely passive tandem
mooring, taut hawser and full dynamic positioning (DP). The DP
shuttle tanker option significantly reduces the relative motions
between the vessels.
The operability of the LNG offloading with tandem configura-
tion can be assessed with the support of commercial computer
codes. For example, Wang and Sun et al. (2010) used the software
ARIANE 7.0 to carry out a systematic investigation of the time
domain responses of a floating production platform and a tanker
in tandem configuration. Clauss (2009) presents an LNG transfer
system based on new flexible cryogenic pipes where the shuttle
tanker is towed between the mooring wings of a turret moored
platform. The system is analysed with WAMIT and related impulse
response functions and with AQWA in the time domain, to
calculate the relative motions and mooring forces. Excellent
operability in the North Sea environment is reported. Brake et al.
(2009) propose to separate the floating LNG production platform
in two vessels, the first for the production, process and storage
of crude oil and the second for the storage of LNG and LPG.
The vessels are moored with spread lines and connected with a
yoke system in a tandem configuration. The relative motions and
forces on the mooring lines are calculated with WAMIT for the
multi-body hydrodynamics and OrcaFlex for the nonlinear coupled
mooring analysis.
Within the reporting period new linear and nonlinear methods
have been proposed to calculate the hydrodynamic interactions
between vertical cylinders. Siddom and Taylor (2008) present an
exact algebraic method to solve the diffraction and radiation of
linear waves by arrays of independently moving truncated cylin-
ders. The method is an alternative to BEM and since it does not
require discretisation of the boundaries, the solution is fast. The
boundary condition on the surface of the cylinders is satisfied by
the sum of Fourier–Bessel series. Mavrakos and Chatjigeorgiou
(2009) solved the second order diffraction problem of two con-
centric surface piercing cylinders subjected to harmonic waves
with a semi-analytical formulation. Wang and Wu (2010) applied a
finite element method to calculate the potential flow fully non-
linear interactions between incident waves and arrays of fixed
cylinders in a numerical tank. At each time step the FEM is used to
138 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
determine the velocity potential and then a difference method is
used to calculate the velocity of the free surface and track its
movement. A structured mesh is used near the wave maker which
is combined with an unstructured mesh around the cylinders.
2.2. Forward speed case – overview of methods
A large variety of different nonlinear methods for the forward
speed problem have been presented in the past three decades. One
may distinguish between methods based on potential theory and
those solving the Reynolds-Averaged-Navier–Stokes (RANS) equa-
tions. The majority of methods for ships at forward speed still
belong to the first group. Within this group there is a large variety
of methods ranging from linear theories to fully nonlinear meth-
ods. Between these two extremes there are many partially non-
linear, or blended, methods, in which one aims at including the
most important nonlinear effects. As techniques become more
sophisticated assumptions become more complex. Equally com-
putational time and complexity may be an issue when we try to
understand, simplify or validate the modelling assumptions. In the
subsequent discussion these methods are classified using 6 differ-
ent levels namely:

Level 1(linear)

Level 2 (Froude–Krylov nonlinear)

Level 3 (Body nonlinear)

Level 4 (Body exact – weak scatterer)

Level 5 (Fully nonlinear – Smooth waves) and

Level 6 (Fully nonlinear).
2.2.1. Level 1: Linear methods
In linear methods, the wetted body surface is defined by the
mean position of the hull under the corresponding position of the
free surface where the free surface boundary conditions are
applied. The hydrodynamic problem is solved in the frequency
domain by either 2D, 2.5D or 3D idealisations. One may distin-
guish between three levels of refinement in representing the
steady flow field when the equation system for the unsteady flow
is established. Those are:

The Neumann–Kelvin (NK) method where the base flow is
approximated by a uniform flow with velocity equal to the ship
speed (U).

The Double-body (DB) method where the base flow is approxi-
mated by the flow obtained when a mirror condition is
imposed on the plane defined by the mean free surface.

The Complete method where the complete steady flow, includ-
ing the steady wave elevation, is used.
In problems with low speed and relatively high frequencies, the
interaction with the steady flow in the Free-Surface Boundary
Condition (FSBC) can be neglected and the only interaction
appears as a U-term in the Body Boundary Condition (BBC). The
solution of the boundary value problem can then be divided into:

a zero-speed solution and

correction due to the forward speed. Such a speed correction
approach is used in the classical strip theory by Salvesen et al.
(1970) and it is also quite common in 3D methods. One
example is the so-called pulsating-source (PS) Green's function
methods.
A recent comparison of frequency-domain 3D Green's function
methods based on pulsating source (PS) and translating-pulsating
source (TPS) is presented by Chapchap et al. (2011a). The authors
studied the heave and pitch motions of the S175 containership at
Froude number 0.2–0.275 in head regular waves. The PS method
produced better results than the TPS for this case; a trend that has
also been observed for other hull forms at relatively high Froude
numbers discussed by Bailey et al. (1999). The forward speed
Green's function is significantly easier to evaluate in the time
domain than in the frequency domain, and many linear 3D
methods utilise this fact. For example, Datta et al. (2011) have
increased the robustness and the overall efficiency of the method
of Datta and Sen (2007) to enable calculation of motions of fishing
vessels. The simulations are compared with results from the 3D
WAMIT code introduced by Korsmeyer et al. (1988) and a strip
theory code for the zero-speed and forward-speed cases, respec-
tively. The method compares generally well with WAMIT for zero
speed for 3 fishing vessels, while the agreement with strip theory
varies depending on the Froude number (in the range 0–0.42) and
the hull form.
A systematic study of the influence of various degrees of
refinement in the modelling of the forward speed-effects has been
presented by Zhang et al. (2010). They compare hydrodynamic
coefficients, excitation forces and heave and pitch motions calcu-
lated by three interaction scenarios between:

uniform flow in BBC and FSBC (Neumann–Kelvin method)

double body (DB) flow in BBC and uniform flow in FSBC and

DB flow in BBC and in FSBC (Double-body method)
The authors studied the Wigley I hull of Journee (1992) at
Froude number 0.3 and a Series 60 hull at Froude number 0.2,
introduced by Gerritsma et al. (1974), and comparisons were made
with experimental data. It was concluded that for the hydrody-
namic coefficients, A35, A53, A55 and B55, including the DB-flow
in the BBC gave the most significant improvement. For B35,
including DB-flow in the FSBC was the most important, while for
B53, including DB-flow in BBC and in FSBC were of almost equal
importance. For the excitation forces, the effect of including the
DB-flow was small. For heave and pitch motions the double-body
method produced significantly better results than the Neumann–
Kelvin method.
In order to accurately compute the m-terms, involving interac-
tions between the base flow and unsteady flow fields in the BBC,
Qui and Peng (2007) introduced a panel-free method for fre-
quency domain forward speed problems. More recently, Peng and
Qui (2009) have applied their method to the Wigley III monohull
of Journee (1992) at Froude numbers 0.2–0.4 in head seas.
The calculated heave and pitch motions generally compare well
with the experimental results; except for pitch at the highest
Froude number. The heave resonance peak of the Wigley III at
Froude number 0.3 was well predicted by the Neumann–Kelvin
method of Peng and Qui (2009), while Zhang et al. (2010)
demonstrated that the Neumann–Kelvin method gave a relatively
large overestimation of the heave resonance peak of the Wigley I
at the same speed. This indicates that it is still difficult to draw
firm conclusions regarding the required refinement level when
including forward speed effects in the boundary value problem.
Shao and Faltinsen (2011) presented a time domain HOBEM,
which is based on cubic shape functions, to study the linear
seakeeping problem. Their validation results include the ampli-
tudes and phase angles of a Wigley hull subject to heave and pitch
motions in head seas, and the corresponding added resistance.
Finally, they studied the second order wave diffraction problem of
the Wigley hull and showed that the second order velocity
potential is dominating over the quadratic terms in the wave
induced excitation of nonlinear ship springing.
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Du et al. (2011) discuss the problem of irregular frequencies in
forward speed seakeeping analyses with singularity distribution
methods. For the majority of ship-like structures these irregular
frequencies lie outside the range of practical interest for rigid body
motions but they may create difficulties for the analysis of flexible
bodies, multi-hulled vessels and when using frequency-domain
data to create impulse-response functions for subsequent simula-
tion of vessel responses in the time-domain as demonstrated by
Bailey et al. (2001). A rectangular box and a Series 60 hull form are
analysed at zero and non-zero forward speed. It is concluded that
more practical numerical approaches are required to overcome the
problem of irregular frequencies.
Wu et al. (2010) applied the VERES/WINSIR strip theory based
hybrid hydroelastic method of Wu and Moan (2005) to study
heave/pitch motions and vertical bending moments for an ultra
large containership progressing at the Froude number 0.22 in head
seas. Comparisons were made with results from model tests and
with the 3D WASIM code. For RAOs of heave, pitch and vertical
bending moments (VBM), both computer codes agreed quite well
with the experimental data. However, it could not be concluded
that one code is superior to the other.
Some linear seakeeping methods have recently been modified
to enable analysis of special vessels, such as HSC, multi-hulls, ACV,
foil-assisted craft and SWATH-like vehicles. de Jong and Walree
(2009) extended the work of Lin and Yue (1990) and van Walree
(2002) to present a linearised time-domain Green's function
method for analysis of HSC. Predicted heave, pitch and vertical
accelerations are compared with experimental data for two high
speed monohulls in head irregular waves. Results in terms of
standard deviations compare well, but the numerical method
tends to underpredict the extreme vertical accelerations.
Milewski et al. (2009) present a practical simulation model for
seakeeping analysis of air-cushion vehicles. Saito et al. (2009)
applied a frequency domain Rankine panel method to calculate the
motions, pressures, vertical shear forces (VSF) and VBM for a
slender high speed vessel with aft outriggers in head seas. Froude
numbers 0.31, 0.5 and 0.69 were studied. Good agreement with
experiments is reported, but a strip theory method is shown to
give almost as good results for the heave and pitch motions.
For VSF and VBM at the two higher speeds, the 3D method
provided better agreement against experiments. Experimental
results for a trimaran, a monohull and two SWATH types at Froude
numbers 0.43–0.50 are given by Kihara et al. (2009). Comparisons
are made with strip theory calculations for the monohull and the
SWATHs. Additional damping due to lift and drag are accounted
for in a quasi-steady manner according to Lee and Curphey (1977).
Hydrodynamic interactions between hulls are neglected in the
calculations. The strip theory calculations generally agree well
with the experiments for hydrodynamic coefficients, excitation
forces and heave/pitch motions.
2.2.2. Level 2: Froude–Krylov Nonlinear Methods
In the Level 2 methods, the disturbance potential is calculated as
in the linear case. The incident wave forces are evaluated by
integrating the incident wave pressure and the hydrostatic pressure
over the wetted hull surface defined by the instantaneous position
of the hull under the incident wave surface. Level 2 methods are
very popular, since they capture many important nonlinear effects
with only a fraction of the computer time required for the Level
3 methods. It is common to use linear analysis to calculate the
frequency response or Retardation Functions (RF). The linear
frequency response functions are transformed to time domain,
yielding the RFs. The time domain response will contain a convolu-
tion integral with the RF to account for the memory effects. Another
common starting point is to solve the problem directly in the time
139
domain using the time-domain (transient) Green's function, which
also involves convolution integrals (e.g. Lin et al., 2007; Weems
et al., 2007). In the next step, various nonlinear modification forces
can be included in the time domain equations of motion in addition
to nonlinear Froude–Krylov and restoring forces in order to account
for slamming and green water.
The Level 2 time domain 3D formulation LAMP-2 has been
applied to a semi-displacement mono-hull by Ibrahim et al.
(2009). They incorporate lift and damping effects from the hull
by adopting a formula from Thwaites (1960). Lift and drag forces
due to trim tabs are also included. It is demonstrated that these
lift-effects are small for Froude numbers below 0.3. At higher
Froude numbers the effects of including these additional forces
become noticeable, but when comparing with experiments it is
not yet clear that they give more accurate results.
Bandyk and Beck (2009) present a Level 2 body exact strip
theory method used to solve the unified seakeeping and man-
oeuvreing problem in the time domain using direct pressure
integration to compute forces. A frame following the instanta-
neous position of the ship by translating and rotating in the
horizontal plane is used to solve the later. This has the advantage
that the speed or heading need not be predetermined. A nonlinear
6 degree of freedom Euler equation of motion solver is used to find
the new body position and velocities. The use of the time
dependent body wetted surface to integrate the forces and the
use of second order terms in the Bernoulli equation make sure that
vital nonlinearities are captured. Thus, both the high frequency
seakeeping and low frequency manoeuvreing is captured without
resorting to two separate time scales. However, the accuracy of the
manoeuvreing results needs to be verified. In addition the
assumption of of linear manoeuvreing forces may be erroneous
since nonlinear coefficients could play a vital role during tight
turns.
Bruzzone et al. (2009) applied a Level 2 method to a hard-chine
and a round-bilge catamaran, running at Froude numbers 0.5 and
0.3, respectively. A 3D Rankine panel method was used to calculate
the steady flow and linear radiation and diffraction forces in the
frequency domain. Interaction with the steady flow was included
in the FSBC. Relatively good agreement with experiments was
obtained for the vertical motions. Liu and Papanikolaou (2010)
presented a hybrid, time-domain domain potential theory method
and applied it to a variety of seakeeping problems. The validation
included steady flow, wave resistance calculations and studies of
nonlinear motions and loads in waves. Their results agree well
with experimental data for the wave making resistance of a
Wigley hull, heave and pitch motions of S175 ship in head sea
Fig. 4. Segmented scale model of a 13,000TEU containership during towing tests
(Wu et al., 2010).
140 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174

Fig. 5. Measured and simulated Probablility-of-Exceedance (POE) plots for hogging and sagging VBM at forward (Cut 1), midship (Cut 2) and aft (Cut 3) for the 13000 TEU
containership advancing at 10 knots in head irregular waves of HS ¼ 11.5 m and Tp ¼13.3 s. Results denoted LF þHS are obtained from analysis of the complete time signal,
while results denoted LF are obtained from analysis of a low-pass filtered signal, where the high-frequency vibrations are removed (Wu et al., 2010).

under different wave conditions and the added resistance of
various ship hulls. In a more recent publication the efficiency of
calculations was enhanced by use of a Chimera-type, overlapping
grid schemes on the free surface (Liu and Papanikolaou, 2011).
The hybrid hydroelastic nonlinear strip theory of Wu and
Moan (2005) was applied for the case of a 294 m long container-
ship by Drummen et al. (2009). Numerical results were compared
against experimental results derived from a flexible model in head
seas. The nonlinear strip theory agrees quite well with the
experimental results. It was demonstrated that sagging and hog-
ging moments in head seas increase and become more nonlinear
when the high-frequency vibrations due to hull flexibility are
accounted for. Springing is often excited by nonlinear wave loads
that oscillate at a frequency that is an integer multiple of the wave
encounter frequency. The same theory was applied to an even
larger containership (366 m) by Wu et al. (2010) and compared
with experimental results from a flexible model in head seas. The
calculated hogging moments generally agree quite well with
experiments. The total sagging moments also agree reasonable
well, but it is found that the wave-frequency sagging moments are
over predicted, while the whipping sagging moments are under
predicted. It is concluded that the 2D momentum slamming model
should be replaced by a more refined model in order to predict the
whipping moments more accurately (see Figs. 4 and 5).
Another nonlinear hydroelastic analysis of a large containership
(336 m) is reported by Lee et al. (2011a, 2011b). Calculated vertical
bending moments are compared with results from model tests with
a flexible model in head seas. The time-domain analysis uses linear
hydrodynamic coefficients obtained with a 3D panel method.
Momentum-based slamming forces are included in addition to
the nonlinear Froude–Krylov and hydrostatic forces. The theoretical
method captures the springing and whipping vibrations reasonably
well, but it is shown that there are some regular wave periods for
which the vibration magnitude is not correctly predicted.
2.2.3. Level 3: Body-nonlinear Methods
In Level 3 methods, the disturbance potential is calculated for the
wetted hull surface defined by the instantaneous position of the hull
under the mean position of the free surface. This requires re-gridding
and recalculation of the disturbance potential for every time step.
The computational costs will therefore increase dramatically as
compared to Level 2 methods. No publications regarding the Level
3 methods appeared during the reporting period.
2.2.4. Level 4: Body-exact Methods (Weak Scattered Methods)
These methods are similar to Level 3, but the wetted hull
surface is defined by the instantaneous position of the hull under
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
the incident wave surface. For Green's function methods, this
increases the complexity, since the commonly used time domain
Green's function satisfies the free surface condition on the mean
free surface and not on the incident wave surface. The later can be
circumvented by mapping the geometry into a computational
domain where the incident wave surface becomes a flat plane
(e.g. Lin and Meinhold et al., 1994). Level 4 methods are sometimes
referred to as “weak scatter methods”, since the disturbed, or
scattered waves, caused by the ship are disregarded when the
hydrodynamic boundary value problem is set up. It is assumed
that the scattered waves are small compared to the incident waves
and the steady waves.
Mortola et al. (2011a, 2011b) present a time-domain method
where the restoring, Froude–Krylov and diffraction forces are
calculated at each time-step for the exact position of the hull
under the incident wave surface. The diffraction forces are calcu-
lated with the strip theory approach (Salvesen et al., 1970).
Hydrodynamic coefficients for the correct instantaneous draft for
each section are applied during the simulation. These coefficients
are calculated beforehand by strip theory for relevant combina-
tions of section immersions and heel angles. This approach implies
that forward speed effects are accounted for only in a simple
manner. It is shown that the method predicts RAO-values of heave,
pitch and midship VBM for the S175 in head regular waves that,
for the zero speed case, compare quite well with predictions from
linear 2D and 3D frequency-domain codes.
Lately, Sclavounos (2012) presented a new formulation of the
nonlinear loads exerted on floating bodies by steep irregular
surface waves. The forces and moments are expressed in terms
of the time derivative of the fluid impulse which circumvents the
time-consuming computation of the temporal and spatial deriva-
tives in Bernoulli's equation. The nonlinear hydrostatic force on a
floating body is shown to point vertically upwards and the
nonlinear Froude–Krylov force and moment are derived as the
time derivative of an impulse that involves the time derivative
of a simple integral of the ambient velocity potential over the
time-dependent body wetted surface. The nonlinear radiation and
diffraction forces and moments are expressed as time derivatives
of two impulses, a body impulse and a free surface impulse that
represents higher-order wave loads acting along the body water-
line. Numerical results are presented illustrating the accuracy of
the new force expressions. Applications discussed include the
nonlinear seakeeping of ships and offshore platforms and the
extreme wave loads and responses of offshore wind turbines.
2.2.5. Level 5: Fully nonlinear Methods (smooth waves)
In these fully nonlinear methods, the scattered waves are no
longer assumed to be small, and they are included when the
boundary value problem is set up. In the MEL method, the Eulerian
solution of a linear boundary value problem and the Lagrangian
time integration of the nonlinear free surface boundary condition
is required at each time step. These methods assume that the
waves are “smooth”, i.e. there is no wave breaking or fragmenta-
tion of the fluid domain. Computations are typically forced to stop
based on a wave breaking criterion. The stability of the free surface
time-stepping can also be a problem (e.g. Bandyk and Beck, 2008).
Lin and Kuang (2009) applied the 3D fully nonlinear method
presented in their previous work (see Lin and Kuang, 2006) to a
fast vessel. Heave and pitch motions seem to agree well with
experimental results in head irregular waves, but only short time-
series for two different speeds are presented. Sun and Faltinsen
(2009, 2010) extended their fully nonlinear 2.5D theory (see Sun
and Faltinsen, 2007) to account for non-prismatic hull forms. Only
calm water results are presented, but the theory is also applicable
to the problem of forced heave and pitch motions.
141
Yan and Liu (2010) present a fully nonlinear 3D method.
An efficient MEL-based time-domain computational method is
developed using the pre-corrected Fast Fourier Transform algo-
rithm based on a quadratic BEM. The method is used to study
wave radiation of a heaving sphere, wave diffraction of a fixed
vertical cylinder, and wave generation of a forward moving ship
hull. Calculated results generally compare well with available
experimental data, although discrepancies still remain in the
predictions of the wave elevation near the bow of the ship hull.
More recently, in order to overcome some of the problems
associated with the MEL description of the fluid flow and enhance
its applicability, Chapchap et al. (2011b) describe the geometric
domain by means of signed distance functions, which considerably
simplify the mesh generation procedure.
2.2.6. Level 6: Fully nonlinear Methods
The boundary integral methods used in potential theory cannot
handle breaking waves, spray and water flowing onto and off the
ship's deck. Moreover, viscous forces are not part of the solution
and must be obtained by other methods. With the increasing
power of modern computers, methods solving the RANS equations
are becoming increasingly popular. In these methods, the water/air
volume is normally discretised, and a finite difference, finite
volume or a finite element technique is used to establish the
equation system. Particle methods, where no grid is used, have
also been applied to solve the Navier–Stokes equations. Examples
are the Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH), the Moving
Particle Semi-implicit (MPS) and the Constrained Interpolation
Profile (CIP) methods, with the latter believed to be more suitable
for violent flows.
The unsteady RANS code CFD Ship-Iowa V.4 has been applied
to a catamaran advancing in head regular waves by Castiglione
et al. (2009). In this code the free surface is captured using a single
phase level set method and turbulence is modelled by a blended
k–ε/k–ω model. The equations are discretised using a finite
difference approach. Calculated amplitudes and phases of heave
and pitch motions agree well with experimental results at Froude
numbers 0.45, 0.6 and 0.75. A modal hydroelastic analysis, using
CFDShip-Iowa V.4 for the fluid calculations and the commercial
FEM code ABAQUS for calculation of mode shapes, was presented
by Paik et al. (2009). The containership S175 at Froude number
0.2 in head regular waves was studied. Different ways of fluid–
structure coupling were investigated. Heave, pitch and VBM
compared quite well with experimental data obtained with a
flexible segmented model presented by Ramos et al. (2000).
Lin et al. (2009) used the Finite-Analytic-Navier–Stokes (FANS)
code developed by Chen and Yu (2006) together with the Froude–
Krylov nonlinear 3D potential theory code LAMP-2 to calculate
motions and wet deck slamming loads on a high-speed catamaran.
In this work LAMP is used for the flow solution in the outer region
and FANS is used in a local flow region immediately around the
ship for nonlinear free surface and 3-D impact effects. FANS use a
level-set method for interface capturing. The paper presents some
computational results obtained with this new hybrid method but
no comparison is made with experimental data.
Hu et al. (2010) applied the CIP-based code RIAM-CMEN to a
post-Panamax containership at Froude number 0.179 in head and
bow regular waves. RIAM-CMEN uses a Cartesian grid covering the
whole computation domain, the CIP combined and unified proce-
dure as the flow solver, a VOF-like Tangent of Hyperbola interface
capturing technique and a Lagrangian method for solid body
motion, in which the fluid–structure interaction is treated by an
immersed boundary method. Calculated heave, pitch, pressures,
VBM, horizontal bending moments (HBM) and torsional moments
(TM) were compared with experimental results for a segmented
142 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Fig. 6. RAO comparison of CFD method (CIP) against experimental measurements
for a Container ship advancing at 24.5 knots in head waves: (a) vertical bending
moment and (b) vertical shear force (Huijsmans et al., 2010).
model presented by Miyake et al. (2004) and with results from a
linear Rankine panel method and linear strip theory. The results
show that results from RIAM-CMEN generally compare better with
experiments than do the potential theory codes. This is particu-
larly the case for hydrodynamic pressures on the hull and for
heave and pitch motions. For HBM strip theory results compared
equally well with the experiments, and for VBM amidships strip
theory seemed to compare slightly better than RIAM-CMEN. None
of the methods could predict the torsional moment RAO in bow
waves with good accuracy.
The same CIP method as above was applied to a 270 m
containership at Froude number 0.24 in head regular waves by
Huijsmans et al. (2010). Calculated heave, pitch, VSF and VBM were
compared with results obtained with a segmented model. The CIP-
method predicts pitch motions with quite good accuracy, while
heave motions are underestimated. For VBM and VSF the discre-
pancies between computed and experimental RAO's appear to be
relatively large, although for the peak RAO-values of the VBM
amidships and the VSF at the fore quarter length the agreement
was fairly good (see Fig. 6).
2.3. Offshore wind loads
Wind loads are often considered as secondary with regards to
the overall loading of marine structures. This may be considered
acceptable as long as the magnitude of the mean wind forces and
moments are only a fraction of the total loading. For situations
such as cyclonic storms (e.g. hurricane Katrina), for offshore
offloading and operations or helicopter landing the magnitude of
wind loading is considered critical and should be accounted for in
the design.
Wind coefficients used in offshore structures load analysis are
often taken from literature or from wind tunnel measurements.
Engineering studies are usually focused on the prediction of the
global motion analysis and not in the definition of the wind load
itself. Accordingly, the wind, wave and current combined motion
analysis effects are analysed by numerical models and validated by
model tests. The approach used in model tests may be either used
to generate wind directly by fans or to simulate wind loads using a
dynamic winch. Wind load time series are then derived based on
wind tunnel tests as reported by Liapis et al. (2010) for the
Perdido spar.
With the advancement of computers complex computational
methods (e.g. CFD) are used as a cost-effective alternative to wind-
tunnel tests. For example, Wang et al. (2010) performed a wind
load analysis for a semi-submersible platform using CFD analysis
and compared the results with wind tunnel experiments. The
model used was a semi-submersible drilling unit with a length of
114 m and a main deck height of about 38 m. The analysis was
performed for a 1:192 size model. The platform was modelled by
using the FLUENT commercial CFD algorithm and standard turbu-
lence models were investigated by Large Eddy Simulation (LES).
It was concluded that the dynamic sub grid-scale (SGS) model
provides best results regarding pressure coefficients, drag and lift
forces as compared to model tests. The k–ε model results showed
acceptable force prediction but could not predict exactly the
effects of turbulence. Wnęk and Guedes Soares (2011, 2012) and
Wnęk and Guedes Soares () presented an analysis of the aero-
dynamic forces acting on a floating LNG platform and an LNG
carrier. The investigation focused on the approach manoeuvre of
the ship to the platform, which is the effect of platform shadow on
the vessel during operation under wind conditions. Results have
been obtained using the commercial CFD ANSYS CFX code and
were compared with experimental measurements performed in a
wind tunnel. Numerical and experimental results, presented in a
form of coefficients of the drag, lift components and yaw moment,
reached approximate agreement. The biggest discrepancy occurred
for lateral forces, where CFD under predicts by about 50% the
experimental results.
Within the reporting period special interest was shown to
loads during extreme events (e.g. cyclonic tropical storms, hurri-
canes etc.). For example, Jang and Chien (2009) identified the
effects of damages on wind turbines due to tropical storms and
analysed these effects on a wind turbine tower. Yang et al. (2009)
analysed the loads on drilling rig tie down systems during
hurricane conditions. The authors attributed special effort in
analysing the dynamics of the structures. The wind force time
series were calculated in a classic manner and applied as collinear
to the wave and current actions. In a similar type of work Mücke
et al. (2009, 2010) have analysed high frequency wind speed time
series measured at the GROWIAN site at the German North Sea
coast. In comparison with the standard models used for load
analysis of structures and wind turbines their models show a
higher probability of extremes. The analysis of probability density
functions of wind speed amplitudes showed a non-Gaussian
distribution with flatter tails. Adjusted wind turbulence models
as the one proposed by Kleinhans (2008) were used to numerically
analyse loads on wind turbines resulting in significantly higher
load fluctuations.
In those cases where the wake behind a simple object may be
roughly estimated using wind coefficients coming from experi-
ments or empirical formulas, CFD simulations can be valuable to
simulate the wake field astern complex ship structures.
For example, Koop et al. (2010) investigated the applicability and
accuracy of CFD analysis to derive wind loads for an FPSO tandem
offloading configuration. This work was performed within the OO1
Joint Industry Project and analysed the wind load on a fully-loaded
barge-shaped FPSO with 5 square blocks on the deck and a ballast
loaded shuttle tanker at a distance of 450 m. For the tandem
configuration the FPSO was modelled with a 301 misalignment to
the mean wind direction while the shuttle tanker was fully aligned
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
to the wind direction. The analysis was performed using the
MARIN in-house CFD code ReFRESCO and the CFX commercial
software on block structured and unstructured computational
grids. Steady state forces on the structures were derived. Compu-
tational results were compared against wind tunnel measure-
ments using segmented models. For FPSO or shuttle tanker
standard configurations different numerical analysis codes pro-
vided force coefficients within a bandwidth of the order of 15–30%
of the measurements. However, in the tandem configuration
numerical analysis showed large differences compared to wind
tunnel measurements. Trends in forces and moments were oppo-
site from measurements, a fact that led to an unexpected increase
in the drag force of the shuttle tanker. It was concluded that model
scale effects may influence the wake behaviour and grid adjust-
ments. CFD models therefore should capture more accurately the
vortices generated by the FPSO boxes.
A similar type of analysis was performed by Tannuri et al.
(2010) on a typical shuttle tanker when offloading an FPSO
moored in a spread mooring system. In that work shielding effects
when the shuttle is shifted to a tandem position, aligned to the
FPSO, were analysed. Two identical FPSO and shuttle tanker
structures (length 300 m) were tested for wind directions of 151
and 301. The steady state condition was analysed using the
commercial CFX algorithm and the model was calibrated using
wind tunnel measurements. The results showed accuracy of the
order of 10–40% depending on the load components and condi-
tions. For yaw moments large discrepancies were observed for
those cases where the absolute value of the moment is very small.
de Carvalho (2010) simulated the flow over a helideck in way of
the complex topsides geometry of an FPSO. The numerical inves-
tigation was performed using CFX for a typical Brasilian FPSO of
about 340 m length. During the preliminary tests comparative
simulations were carried out using the k–ε and Shear Stress
Transport (SST) turbulence models. SST results were in line with
the wind tunnel experiments performed for a 1:200 scale model.
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and hot wire measure-
ments compared well against the flow field numerical analysis
measurements. Comparisons against modelling guidelines resulted
in the conclusion that new turbulence criteria may have to be
developed in the future.
A special topic in wind load analysis is the loading of offshore
wind turbines. Currently, numerical schemes accounting for the
coupled dynamics of the wind inflow, aerodynamics, elasticity,
and controls of the turbine, along with the incident waves, sea
current, hydrodynamics, and foundation dynamics of the support
structure are being developed. Jonkman et al. (2010) and Vorpahl
et al. (2011) reported some of the results of a benchmark study
carried under the International Energy Agency (IEA) Wind Task 23
on aero-servo-hydro-elastic codes. In this work complex load
cases were defined and run to trace back differences against
simulation results. Different phases analysing the response a
5 MW turbine on (a) a mono-pile with fixed foundation, (b) a
mono-pile with flexible foundation, (c) a tripod and (d) a floating
spar buoy were studied and an adaptation of the codes to those
developments was enabled. The comparisons, in general, agreed
quite well. All codes used blade element theory to account for
rotor aerodynamics and the Morison equation to consider the
wave actions. The structural dynamics were modelled by FEM
methods or multi-body formulations that are acknowledged to
have influence on higher order eigen-frequencies. Some differ-
ences in the results obtained from different structural or hydro-
structural models were identified.
The influence of wakes within a wind farm may significantly
influence wind turbine loading. The standard approach is to
artificially increase wind turbulence intensity to account for added
vorticity and wind speed decay due to upwind wind turbines as
143
shown by Frandsen (2007). Madsen et al. (2010) proposed the use
of a dynamic wake meandering (DWM) model. Accordingly, by
using CFD computations simplified engineering equations were
derived considering basic physical mechanisms in the wake i.e.,
the velocity deficit, the meandering of the deficit, and the added
turbulence. The model has been validated by Hansen (2009) and
implemented in the HAWC2 and the Bladed codes by Schmidt
et al. (2011).
In the field of floating offshore wind turbines the coupling of
the rigid body motion (due to wave forces) and the elastic
behaviour of structure/blade with the aerodynamic loading may
be significant. Jonkman (2009) described the dynamics of offshore
wind turbines for load analysis. Cordle (2010) and Matha et al.
(2011) provided a complete overview of the state of the art and
existing codes as well as the requirements for floating offshore
wind turbine load analysis. Regarding aerodynamic loading one
interesting finding is that the large low frequency platform
motions experienced by floating wind turbines may result in
complex flow conditions in those cases where the rotor is traver-
sing back over its own wake.
2.4. Loads from abnormal waves
In the field of abnormal or freak (or rogue) waves some
investigations deal with the nature, as well as physical and
numerical generation of these waves, whilst others with the
effects of waves on floating structures.
The concept of rogue waves and their effect on ships and
offshore structures was first brought to prominence by Draper
(1964, 1971) through observations of the addition of many wave
components to form a larger wave during a world voyage. In more
recent decades the phenomenon has grown in consequence in the
marine industry as a result of high-profile encounters recorded by
vessels. For example, Haver (2000) reported on the effects of a
30 m high rogue wave that broke over the superstructure of the
Queen Elizabeth 2 during gale conditions in 1995. Stansberg
(2000) discussed the case of the FPSO Schiehallion that suffered
plate deformation of the order of 15–20 m above the mean
waterline, due to severe bow slamming experienced as the result
of an impact from a 20 m high wave crest. Haver and Andersen
(2000) reported on the event that occurred at the Draupner oil
platform on 1 January 1995 when a 26 m high rogue wave
occurred in a 12 m sea state, causing damage to the accommoda-
tion deck on the platform. More recently, Berlotti and Cavaleri
(2008) discussed the incident where the passenger ship Voyager
encountered a rogue wave in 2005. This event caused severe roll
motion, control room flooding and a loss of electrical systems.
From these known encounters information about rogue waves is
available in the form of crew observations and, in the case of the
Draupner platform, a wave record from a downward facing laser.
Unexplained ship losses have also been attributed to rogue wave
encounters. For example, Kjeldsen (2000) reported on the cases of
M/S Anita and M/S Norse Variant. Kharif and Pelinovsky (2003)
discuss the effects of rogue waves in relation to the loss of MV
Derbyshire.
The effect of freak waves on marine structures, in general, has
also been focused on the effect on stationary offshore fixed
structures. For example, Guedes Soares et al. (2008) present an
approach to determine the global load effects induced on ship
structures by abnormal, freak, or episodic waves. The authors refer
to a procedure that can be used for the determination of extreme
values of wave-induced responses, including the recent advances
of adopting time series of wave elevation as reference design
conditions to calculate the wave-induced structural loads on ships
in heavy weather. The publication discusses how this procedure
can be extended to account for abnormal or episodic waves. It is
144 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174

this work Fig. 7 demonstrates probability distributions of the

x 106 Experimental VBM at 1/2Lpp
9 vertical bending moment amidships for an FPSO platform and
Hs = 14.6m, Tp = 15.4s 5 design storms. The design storms are selected from the 100 years
Hs = 12 m, Tp = 12.8s return period contour of the North Sea scatter diagram. The
8 Hs = 13.3m, Tp = 17.6s
distributions correspond to time series obtained from nonlinear
Hs = 12.1m, Tp = 18.7s
Hs = 8.55m, Tp = 10 s time domain simulations and from model tests. The horizontal
7
lines correspond to rule minimum requirements according to the
IACS common structural rules for ships operating without restric-
6
Rules sagging minimum value tions in the North Atlantic for a period of 25 years. Although the
design of a FPSO platform does not necessarily follow the same
VBM [kNm]

5 Rules hogging minimum value procedures as ships do, in this case the geometry of the vessel is
similar to a tanker therefore the rule values are appropriate for
4 comparative purposes. The authors concluded that the discrepan-
cies were related to the nonlinear effects on the incident waves,
resulting in larger crests than troughs, and the run-up of the wave
3
as it encounters the hull. The maximum bending moments
obtained experimentally in the design storms were compared
2
with the Rule reference values and they were found to surpass
the later by around 30%.
1 Following the work of Clauss and Hennig (2004) on the
assessment of rolling and capsising of ships in large waves, more
0 recent investigations focused on understanding the behaviour of
10-3 10-2 10-1 100
moving vessels in severe random seas. For example, Drummen
Exceedance Probability et al. (2009) and Clauss (2009) addressed an experimental and
numerical studies for a Container Ship, a bulk carrier and a Ro-Ro
x 10
6 Numerical VBM at 1/2Lpp ship responses in severe seas. In these works it is recognised that
9 having chosen a rogue wave type, known repeatable rogue waves
Hs = 14.6m, Tp = 15.4s
Hs = 12 m, Tp = 12.8s
need to be produced in an experimental towing tank. It is also
8 Hs = 13.3m, Tp = 17.6s addressed that nonlinear fluid–structure interaction techniques
Hs = 12.1m, Tp = 18.7s including the physics of wave formation and the wave kinematics
Hs = 8.55m, Tp = 10 s should be developed and validated. The later may include the
7
nonlinear Schrodinger equation introduced by Onorato et al.
6 (2005) and the numerical wave tank approach suggested by
Rules sagging minimum value
Clauss et al. (2005). Rajendran et al. (2011) present direct compar-
VBM [kNm]

5 Rules hogging minimum value isons between experimental time records and linear and nonlinear
time domain simulations for a 117 m container ship in extreme sea
4
conditions. Predefined wave traces, corresponding to the New Year
Wave and a freak wave measured at North Alwyn, were repro-
duced in the tank. It is shown that the calculated response motions
3
compare well with the experiments. However, the vertical bending
moment amidships calculated using a linear method underesti-
2
mates the sagging peak while overestimates the hogging peaks.

0
10-3 10-2 10-1 100
Exceedance Probability

Fig. 7. Comparison between empirical distributions of the vertical bending

moment at midship sagging peaks for five 3 h duration design storms against
Classification Rules minimum requirements (Fonseca et al., 2010): (a) experimental
distributions and (b) numerical distributions.
T-HB VB

suggested that at the present stage of knowledge it is possible to

determine the loads induced by abnormal waves similar to ones
that have been measured at various ocean locations and that are
thus realistic. Although this information cannot replace the wave-
induced loads calculated with the presently established proce-
dures, it can serve as guidance for the design. Fonseca et al. (2010)
investigated the vertical motions and bending moments of an
Floating Production Storage and Offloading FPSO platform in
several design storms with duration of 3 h which correspond to
the 100 years return period of the North Sea. Experimental data T-HB T-HB
were systematically compared with numerical results from a Fig. 8. NASTRAN illustration of flexible modes of the Container Ship (T¼ Torsion,
nonlinear time domain strip method and they were found to H¼ Horizontal Bending driven, VB¼ Vertical bending, bold letters denote dominant
underestimate the relative motions at the bow. Along the lines of effects) (Hirdaris and Temarel, 2009).
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Recently, the work by Denchfield et al. (2009, 2010) concen-
trated on investigating the encounter between a rogue wave and
Lender Class Frigate in irregular head waves, including the
influence of forward speed, through a combination of experimen-
tal investigations and numerical models incorporating the effects
of hull flexibility. Predicted motions were compared with test
measurements from a rigid model and two options for generating
rogue waves, namely the first order optimisation approach and the
“New Wave” approach. Results have shown that as the significant
wave height and hence the rogue wave height increases, the
experimental wave traces exhibit greater second order character-
istics in the vicinity of the rogue wave peak. Comparisons in terms
of heave and pitch motions become more severe with the
introduction of a rogue wave into a seaway. The 2D linear model
shows good agreement at low and mid-range speeds but at high
speeds it shows some considerable discrepancies against experi-
ments. It was concluded that this is likely to be due to the extreme
“tunnelling” motion seen at high speed in large seas during
experiments.
2.5. Hydroelasticity methods
Wu and Cui (2009) present an overview of the developments
and achievements of linear and nonlinear 3D theories of ships and
the corresponding numerical and experimental techniques. In the
proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Hydroelasticity
in Marine Technology Temarel and Hirdaris (2009) present a
number of theoretical developments and applications of hydro-
elasticity methods on the design of ships and offshore structures.
Hirdaris and Temarel (2009) present a number of recent applica-
tions of 2D and 3D hydroelasticity theories for ship design along
with future ideas on the development and implementation of fully
nonlinear fluid–structure interaction models, including CFD based
methods, for the improved modelling of ship wave load predic-
tions (see Fig. 8).
Following some initial work by Uğurlu and Guedes Soares
(2008) and Uğurlu and Ergin (2009a, 2009b) proposed a 3D
hydroelasticity method for studying the response of surface
Fig. 9. First eigenmode of fluid conveying simply supported cylindrical shell for circumferential wave number, n¼ 5 and non-dimensional axial velocity, V ¼ 2.5: (a) t¼ 0; (b)
t¼ T/8; (c) t¼ T/4; (d) t¼ 3T/8; (e) t¼ T/2 (T is period) Uğurlu and Ergin (2009b).
145
piercing elastic structures using a higher order BEM approxima-
tion (see Fig. 9). The effects of approximation order and boundary
surface discretisation on the removal of irregular frequencies were
investigated by applying the extended boundary integral equation
method of Lee et al. (1996). The frequency dependent hydrody-
namic coefficients were calculated for a freely floating half-
submerged elastic circular cylindrical shell. It was shown that
the process of removing the irregular frequency effects becomes
inefficient for higher frequency values. Notwithstanding, repeating
the analysis with a higher number of free surface elements or by
using a higher order approximation may be useful.
Mikami and Kashiwagi (2008) derived a nonlinear hydroelastic
strip theory capturing the geometric nonlinearities in the hydro-
dynamic restoring and Froude–Krylov forces in waves. The fre-
quency dependence in the radiation and diffraction forces was
accounted for by using convolution integrals. The hull was
modelled using a Timoshenko beam approach. The calculations
were performed for a 716 TEU container ship and comparisons
against model test results were shown to be satisfactory for
symmetric distortions.
Kim et al. (2009a, 2009b) studied the springing response of the
flexible S175 ship using a Vlasov beam finite element method for
the motion of the flexible structure and a higher-order Rankine
panel based boundary element method to simulate the fluid
motion around the flexible body. The solution was sought by
strongly coupling these boundary integral equations and FEM
implicitly in the time domain. The structural domain was mod-
elled by beam finite elements, able to capture the coupling effect
between torsion and bending as well as warping distortion.
Comparisons between symmetric wave loads derived by the
Rankine-panel based time domain approach and a Green-
function based frequency domain approach appear to compare
well as demonstrated by Kim et al. (2009c, 2009d).
Hirdaris (2009), Hirdaris et al. (2009b) and Miao et al. (2012)
discuss a method for the dynamic analysis of beam-like ships with
large deck openings and associated structural discontinuities.
The authors employed different numerical models to assess the
influence of the discontinuities and the effect of other structural
146 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Fig. 10. Hydroelastic modelling of a 53,000 dwt bulk carrier in fully loaded condition: (a) fluid–structure interaction idealization; (b) 2-node vertical bending mode;
(c) 2-node horizontal bending mode; (d) 1-node torsion mode; and (e) 3-node vertical bending mode (Kaydihan et al., 2009).
parameters. They concluded that the inclusion of structural dis-
continuities may have an important influence on natural frequen-
cies, mode shapes and modal internal actions. In a similar type of
work, Senjanovic et al. (2009) investigated the hydroelastic
responses of an ultra large container ship (7800 TEU carrying
capacity) by coupling a beam structural model with a 3D hydro-
dynamic model. The analysis demonstrated reasonably good
results for symmetric wave loads. However, the structural
responses in way of the hatch corners were underestimated.
Riyansyah et al. (2010) employed the Euler–Bernoulli beam
theory and boundary element method to solve the beam equation
of motion and the governing equation of fluid motion, respectively,
for the hydroelastic response behaviour of a two floating beam
system. The authors investigated the relative beam stiffness on the
hydroelastic response behaviour. They observed that an increase in
the flexural rigidity may change the characteristics of the floating
beam system. It may also change the pressure distribution along
the floating beam system.
Along the lines of steady state hydroelastic modelling princi-
ples developed by Hirdaris and Temarel (2009), Kaydihan et al.
(2009) presented a hydroelasticity study investigating the model-
ling principles and response of six bulk carriers with different load
carrying capacities (see Fig. 10). The ships selected for this
investigation were two Handysize, one Panamax and two Capesize
bulk carriers. The authors calculated dry and wet natural frequen-
cies and associated modes as a function of the non-dimensional
parameters. They also presented hydrodynamic modes, such as
generalised added mass and hydrodynamic damping, as a function
of wave frequency, and wave excited responses.
Tian et al. (2009) investigated the rigid body motions and
structural responses of an 180,000 dwt large bulk carrier travelling
in regular and irregular head waves. The numerical predictions were
obtained by using the programs THAFTS and NTHAFTS that are based
on linear and nonlinear 3D hydroelasticity theories respectively.
The predicted linear hydroelastic responses are illustrated, together
with the investigation and discussion of the forward speed effect on
the hydroelastic responses. The successive second order nonlinear
hydroelastic analysis was also performed. It is shown that the
springing behaviour is clearly exhibited by the linear and nonlinear
predictions. The influences of the forward speed effect and the
nonlinear hydroelastic actions on the motions and structural loads
of this large bulk carrier were quantitatively discussed.
Itamura et al. (2009) studied the hydroelastic vibrations includ-
ing springing and whipping of an ore bulk carrier, and their
influences on fatigue damage. A fully 3D time-domain method
was employed to analyse the hydroelastic response. That is, shell
finite elements were employed to account for the complex
deformation behaviour of the ship to predict global and local
stress distributions while linear and nonlinear forces were con-
sidered with an extension of 3D potential flow theory. Springing
responses in regular and short-term irregular waves were dis-
cussed by different ship speeds and wave heights.
Taghipour et al. (2009) presented an alternative method for
hydroelastic analysis of marine structures by using state-space
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Fig. 11. Slamming test in regular waves: (a) segmented-hull model during water-exit and (b) comparison between experimental and theoretical estimations of the slamming
force on the second segment (from the bow) (Dessi and Mariani, 2008).
models. The method was applied to a very flexible barge, and the
dynamic response of the barge due to regular waves as well as its
transient response after release from an initial displacement was
simulated. It was concluded that state-space models may replace
the convolution integrals.
2.5.1. Slamming loads
The hydrodynamic loads imposed upon the water entry of
a flat plate were investigated by Iafrati and Korobkin (2008).
The authors developed a 2D potential flow theory accounting for
variable entry velocity. A theoretical estimate of the loads during the
early stage of the water impact by the method of matched asympto-
tic expansions compared well against numerical predictions.
Dessi and Mariani (2008) implemented the Von-Karman theory
with a BEM correction of the water up-rise to calculate the sectional
loads acting on the V-shaped bow of a fast-ferry. The authors
considered the effects of variable water-entry speed, the presence
of knuckles and the contribution of 3D terms given by the variation
of ship sections. The theoretical load prediction used seakeeping
experimental data (see Fig. 11) as input for the calculation in order to
avoid errors on the relative body motion derived from the theoretical
analysis. The sectional loads were spatially integrated along the ship
length and compared with the vertical force measured on the
physical model segments (see Fig. 10b).
Tveitnes et al. (2008) investigated the constant speed water-
entry of wedges at different dead rise angles. The authors
measured both loads and wetted length uprise during impact.
They concluded that careful investigation of results in way of
water entry and exit conditions may be useful for the refinement
of 2D slamming load theories. In a subsequent publication, Sun
and Faltinsen (2009) dealt with the 2D water entry of a bow-flare
ship section with constant heel angle by means of a BEM. Non-
viscous flow separation from the knuckles of the section or from
the curved bottom was taken into account. The numerical calcula-
tions were compared with drop tests available in literature. It was
shown that as long as the heel angle is increased, high localised
pressures arise on the impacting flare area. Thus, the flow separa-
tion for large heel angles may significantly affect the pressure
along the impacting bottom and its relevance seems much more
related to non-viscous than to viscous effects.
Lee et al. (2010a) exploited the moving particle semi-implicit
method to study the effects of an incompressible violent flow over
structures. The method exploits a more efficient algorithm and is
used for solving various highly nonlinear free-surface problems, to
evaluate the slamming loads on rigid plates with various incident
147
angles. It was shown that without using the Eulerian approach or
the grid system, the convection terms and time derivatives in the
Navier–Stokes equations can be calculated more directly with-
out any numerical diffusion, instabilities or topological failure.
The method also allows for the derivation of numerical results that
are in good agreement with available experimental data.
Greco et al. (2010a, 2010b) analysed the problem of bottom
slamming for very large floating structures using 2D potential flow
theory without and with coupling between the global behaviour of
the platform and local actions. Whereas a linear solver was
adopted to investigate the global behaviour, a nonlinear approach
was implemented to predict locally the slamming forces. For large
platform motions an iterative time-decomposition strategy was
developed to examine the resulting coupling. The effect of air
entrapment was taken into account along with a detailed descrip-
tion of pressure and stresses on the platform bottom using beam
theory to model the equivalent floating structure. Korobkin (2011)
discussed a refinement of the well-known generalised Wagner
model to improve the hydrodynamic forces measured on 2D
impacting bodies. Wagner models provide higher accuracy with
respect to other semi-analytical methods (e.g. modified Logvino-
vich Model) as they are able to predict better the pressures on the
body contour. However, they fail to integrate correctly the pressure
distribution due to lack of adequate numerical treatment. To avoid
this drawback, Korobkin (2011) employed rigorous analytical
calculations by separating the singular components of both the
flow velocity and the pressure. By reducing the original problem to
two nonlinear integral equations, where one of them serves to
evaluate the conformal mapping and the second one to compute
the position of the contact point improved prediction of the
pressure and hydrodynamic forces was achieved.
Another interesting application of Wagner's water impact
theory was provided by Qin and Batra (2009). They investigated
the local slamming problem of a deformable sandwich wedge by
taking into account hydroelasticity effects. The novelty of their
work resides upon the use of a sandwich panel theory, that
incorporates the transverse deformations of the core, with the
Kirchhoff plate theory for modelling of the face sheets. A numer-
ical procedure to solve the nonlinear system of governing equa-
tions, from which both the fluid load and the structure
deformations can be simultaneously computed, has been devel-
oped and verified. The hydroelastic effect on the hull deformations
appears to be noticeable and the core shows to absorb a consider-
able part of the strain energy due to transverse shear deformation
implying that the core can be effectively used for slamming impact
alleviation.
148 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Maki et al. (2011) highlighted the need to develop a practical tool
for the computation of slamming loads. Taking advantage of the
method developed by Paik et al. (2009) they recommend one-way
coupling of the fluid and structure models. The open source CFD solver
Open FOAM and the dynamic finite element method were employed
and the exchange of numerical data was facilitated by a grid matching
algorithm. The fluid-dynamic simulation was carried out on a rigid
body in the time domain and the modal equations of motion were
numerically integrated to yield the structural response in time.
Acoustic elements were used to account for the added mass due to
flexible modes. The procedure allowed solving the impact of a rigid
and an elastic wedge. Hanbing Luo et al. (2011a, 2011b) studied the
hydroelastic responses of a complex stiffened panels. A steel wedge
with complex stiffened panels was designed with a dead rise angle of
221 and a series free-drop model tests were carried out.
The explicit FEA commercial algorithm LS-DYNA was used to simulate
this coupled hydroelastic impact problem. Comparisons of the numer-
ical and the experimental results have shown generally good agree-
ment on the acceleration and stress responses. However, more
research is required to understand the influence of high frequency
oscillations on the measured accelerations and the local hydroelastic
effects. Tuitman (2010) and Tuitman and Malenica (2009) presented a
methodology to solve the seakeeping, slamming, and whipping
problems coupled within a single calculation. The coupled problem
is solved within a partly nonlinear time domain seakeeping pro-
gramme. The elastic modes used in this hydroelastic problem can be
calculated using a beam model or full 3D finite element model of the
ship structure. The slamming loading is calculated by a 2D method.
The main focus of this paper is the creation of an accurate and
consistent coupling between the 3D seakeeping programme and the
2D slamming calculation. Differences in timescale and integration
methods make this coupling complex. A large container ship is used to
illustrate the application of the presented methodology. The contribu-
tion of the nonlinearities and the whipping response to the expected
maximum bending moment and fatigue damage of this ship for a full-
wave scatter diagram is calculated. The results show that the
slamming-induced whipping response has a significant contribution
to both the ultimate bending moment and the fatigue loading of
the ship.
2.5.2. Experimental hydroelasticity
Over the last three years two major international Joint Industry
Projects (JIPs) concentrated on the validation of the effects of
springing and whipping on Container Ship Structures. In the first
Fig. 12. (a) Four segmented 6250 TEU container ship model used for WILS I model tests. (b) Vertical bending moments (VBM) comparisons between measurements and
predictions of the WILS Container Ship; Vs ¼ 5 knots, χ ¼ 1201 (Exp ¼experimental and A, B, C etc.¼ predictions) (Lee et al., 2011a).
one Classification Societies, CeSOS and MARINTEK carried out
model tests with the ultimate aim to investigate how the wave
induced vibration affects the fatigue and extreme loading at
different cross sections (see Storhaug et al., 2010a, 2010b).
The second international project namely WILS currently enters
its third phase (see Fig. 12); it is led by the Korean industry (KORDI
and Korean Shipyards) and is supported by all major Classification
Societies (for example, see Kim et al., 2009d, 2010; Lee et al,
2011a). To date the main conclusions of both JIPs can be sum-
marised as follows:

With regards to the impact of the wave-induced vibrations on
structural design, the tank test results seem consistent with
each other to the point that the fatigue damage is increased
due to the wave-induced vibration when the fatigue damage is
estimated by using the Rainflow counting method and the
Palmgren–Miner's rule. However, the validity of the fatigue
damage estimation method for the combined load is yet to be
confirmed against fatigue tests under combined high-
frequency and low-frequency loads that may be used to clarify
the effects of wave-induced vibrations on fatigue damage;

The scaled model techniques for the wave-induced vibrations
of hull girder in torsional mode have been developing and
there is still space for improvement. Scaled models need to
have similarities in modal shapes as well as the natural
frequencies. The consideration of the position of the shear
centre, which is normally located lower than the keel, and
measurement methods of the torsional moments seem to be
some of the directions where fundamental understanding
needs to improve;

Numerical simulation methods need to be validated in further
against tank tests and full scale measurements until they
become an established tool for predicting the wave-induced
vibrations of a ship's hull girder;

Slamming impacts seem to be a source of large uncertainty.
Drummen et al. (2009) presented an experimental and numer-
ical study of the responses of a container ship in severe head seas.
In this work it was demonstrated that hull flexibility could
increase the vertical bending moment by up to 35%. Comparisons
of experimental bending moments against nonlinear hydroelastic
strip theories provided reasonably good agreement. Kim et al.
(2009c) investigated the responses of a floating and flexible barge.
The experimental measurements were carried out in different
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
wave heading angles, from head waves to beam waves with angle
increments of 30˚. Different irregular waves were generated based
on the JONSWAP spectrum with different significant wave heights
and wave periods. RAOs were obtained by processing the irregular
motion time history using Fourier analysis.
Coppotelli et al. (2008) determined the operational vibration
modes of an elastically scaled ship using the frequency domain
decomposition method. By exploiting the ambient mode excita-
tion in head waves they have determined the mode shapes as well
as the associated frequencies and damping. In furthering this
work, Dessi et al. (2009) presented the preliminary results relative
to the correlation of model scale and full scale tests, for determin-
ing the bending response of a naval vessel in waves. The tests were
carried out at the INSEAN towing tank with a segmented hull
elastic model scaling the mass, sectional moment of inertia and
shear area. The vertical bending moments measured on board the
ship during the full scale trials were compared with those
determined with the segmented-hull tests and with the simula-
tions using 2D and 3D FEA models of the ship structure.
Dessi and Ciappi (2010) explored the bow and stern slamming
events experienced by a cruise ship comprising of five-segments. It
was shown that slamming intensity occurring at the ship stern in
following wave conditions was potentially larger than the one
relative to the bow in head waves. The response level was
evaluated as the time average of the envelope of the high-pass
filtered bending moment, obtained experimentally from the
strain-gages for different sea states, wave directions and forward
speeds. The mean bending moment was then related to the
number of impacts per minute and to the impact severity. Some
global trends between the observed variables were identified and
were found to be similar to those determined for other ship types.
More recently, the underlying requirement of broad-band excita-
tion has been clarified by Mariani and Dessi (2012). He applied the
proper orthogonal decomposition under the same hypothesis to
determine not only the modal shapes of the same physical model
but also the energy associated to each identified mode in the
Fig. 13. Backbone model with cut-outs carefully selected to scale down the natural
frequency in antisymmetric (torsional and horizontal bending) modes of vibration
(Iijima et al., 2009).
15
10
Torsion (Nm)
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
115 115.5 116 116.5
Fig. 14. Torsional moment measured on the backbone model for encounter period 0.50 s (Iijima et al., 2009).
149
response. This method is based on the construction of a correlation
matrix among the measured degrees of freedom with acceler-
ometers or strain-gages. It allows for deciding how many wet
modes may be required to perform simulations in certain condi-
tions (e.g. forward speed and sea-state).
Iijima et al. (2009) developed a scaled model design technique
to tune the natural frequencies in torsional mode as well as
vertical and horizontal bending modes (see Fig. 13). A backbone
beam approach with several cut-outs was shown to be effective in
giving an appropriate torsional stiffness as well as vertical and
horizontal bending stiffness by selecting the configuration of the
cut-outs. The natural frequency was measured in wet conditions.
Vertical and horizontal bending and torsion moments were also
measured by using longitudinal and shear strains calibrated prior
to the tank tests. By using this scaled model, the hydroelastic
vibrations in torsion as well as vertical bending in head/oblique
seas were measured. Springing response to linear/nonlinear loads
and whipping response to slamming impacts in both vertical
bending and torsion were reported. As it is shown in Fig. 14 for
an encounter period of 0.5 s the third harmonics can be clearly
observed and the period of high frequency clearly coincides with
the natural frequency in torsional mode.
Oka et al. (2009) carried out a series of tank tests in regular and
irregular waves using a segmented model for a large container
ship, with backbone. It was verified that estimated torsional
moment by means of FEA was strongly consistent with measured
torsional moments. Ship motions, accelerations, wave-induced
bending moments and torsional moments were measured in
various seakeeping conditions. The relation of wave loads of a
large container ship with respect to waves and ship speed was
examined. Derbanne et al. (2010) reported on the springing
measurements of a flexible large container ship. The model was
made of 12 segments attached to a squared section steel rod with
total length of 4.42 m. The steel rod was located just under the
baseline of the ship in order to have the centre of torsion as low as
possible. The tests were run without forward speed, in regular
head and oblique conditions. Linear springing response in tor-
sional mode and coupled resonance of the horizontal bending
were found to be strongly coupled.
Stenius et al. (2011) considered the hydroelastic interaction
involved in panel-water impacts for a high speed craft. Hydro-
elastic panel-water impacts were simulated by using the FEM code
LS DYNA and a simplified in-house developed method. It was
shown that hydroelastic effects can both increase and reduce the
panel responses depending on the impact envelope considered.
Thomas et al. (2011) studied the slam events experienced by high-
speed catamarans with a segmented model capable to measure
the whipping induced load responses in way of the centre bow.
Wet-deck slamming events were identified by analysing the load
time-history provided by strain-gages and their intensity was
related to the relative vertical motion (immersion and velocity)
at the same section. As expected, the slam intensity showed a
tendency to increase as long as the deck impact velocity became
higher. The experiments also highlighted an evident dependency
of the slam location on the forward speed.
exp
117 117.5 118 118.5 119 119.5 120
time (s)
150 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174

Fig. 15. Typical instrumentation for long strain gauges on an Ultra Large Container Ship (Hirdaris et al., 2010).

40 Heading = 30deg
% enhancement of Significant WVBM 0.5Lpp

35
Heading = 60deg

Heading = 90deg
30
Heading = 120deg
25
Heading = 150deg
20
Heading = 180deg
15

10

Heading = 180deg
5 Heading = 150deg
Heading = 120deg
0 Heading = 90deg
7 Heading = 60deg
8
9 Heading = 30deg
10
11
T1 12
13

Fig. 16. Precentage (%) enhancement of significant values of amidships Wave Vertical Bending Moment of a GLBC due to springing (1801 denotes head sea, U ¼ 6 knots,
H1/3 ¼7.1 m); (H1/3 significant wave height and T1 characteristic wave period) (Hirdaris et al., 2009a).

2.5.3. Full scale measurements
Within the reporting period the work published on full-scale
measurements of ocean going ships has clearly shown that wave
induced stress components may vary in way of the two node hull
girder frequency (e.g. Okada et al., 2006; Miyahara et al., 2006;
Heggelund et al., 2010; Ito et al., 2010; Hirdaris et al., 2009a,
2009b, 2010) (see Fig. 15). These stress components show both
transient (whipping) and more continuous (springing) variations.
For example, Hirdaris et al. (2009a) presented a summary of an
investigation into the effects of hull flexibility when deriving an
equivalent service factor for a single passage of a Great Lakes Bulk
Carrier from the Canadian Great Lakes to China. It was shown that
the long term wave induced bending moment predicted using
traditional 3D rigid body hydrodynamic methods is augmented
due to the effects of springing and whipping by including
allowances based on two-dimensional hydroelasticity predictions
across a range of headings and sea states (see Fig. 16). The analysis
results were correlated with full scale measurements that are
available for this ship. The combined effects of springing and
whipping responses on the wave-induced VBM results were
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
predicted to enhance the design VBM and the service factors by up
to 37.7%. This prediction, although conservative, was considered
necessary to ensure a suitable design margin for the possible sea
states that might be expected. Comparisons against full-scale
measurement data also showed that achieving good agreement
between predictions and measurements, both for ship-wave
matching and springing, depend on the parameters of the wave
spectra as well as the estimation of structural damping for the
latter and any uncertainties involved in measuring such data.
Miyake et al. (2010) presented the whipping measurement
results of an ultra large container ship (12,000TEU) both in regular
and irregular seas. The authors reported on the relationship
between the maximum vertical bending moment amidships and
the wave amplitude for various combinations of wave/ship length
ratio in regular head seas. The non-dimensionalised hogging
moments were almost constant and equivalent to the first har-
monics of the hogging moments in small wave amplitude. How-
ever, the non-dimensionalised sagging moments increased with
the increase of the wave amplitude. Discrepancies in sagging and
hogging moments were also observed in irregular seas with
differences more prominent for the values whose exceedance
probability is lower.
Drummen et al. (2009) demonstrated that hull flexibility can
increase the vertical bending moment by up to 35% in sea states
relevant for design. They also compared measurements and
calculations of high frequency induced stress components and
have shown that their developed hydroelastic model slightly
over-predicts the increase of the bending moments due to hull
flexibility.
Jensen et al. (2009) and Pedersen and Jensen (2009) have
described a simplified calculation procedure for the probability
distribution of the combined wave and whipping induced stresses.
Reasonable agreements with full-scale measurements were found
provided the pertinent parameters related to the estimation of the
impulse slamming load are chosen with care. More detailed
procedures based on the solution of nonlinear hydrodynamic strip
theory formulations coupled with a Timoshenko beam model of the
hull girder have been presented in e.g. Iijima et al (2008), Drummen
et al. (2009), Wang et al. (2011) and Vidic-Perunovic (2010).
2.5.4. Specialist structures
Santos et al. (2009a, 2009b) studied the symmetric response of
a fast patrol boat using unified hydroelasticity analysis. 2D and 3D
idealisations were adopted to predict the structural response
behaviour. The fluid–structure interaction effects were calculated
Absolute Displacements [m]
0.015 0.018 0.022 0.026 0.029 0.033 0.036 0.040 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.054
Absolute Displacements [m]
0.015 0.018 0.022 0.026 0.029 0.033 0.036 0.040 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.054
Fig. 17. Hydroelastic response of barge like structures barge at the time step when the vertical shear forces are maximum in regular head waves (a),(b) air cushion supported
concept ((a) wave frequency¼ 5.1 rad/s and (b) wave frequency ¼6.0 rad/s) and (c),(d) conventional barge ((c) wave frequency ¼ 5.1 rad/s and (d) wave frequency ¼6.0 rad/s)
(van Kessel and Huijsmans, 2009).
151
using 3D potential flow analysis in a variety of seakeeping
conditions. The work demonstrated the inherent limitations of
the applicability of beam idealisations to vessels with a small
length/beam ratio using either the Prohl–Myklestad methodology
or an FEA model. It is concluded that structural discontinuities (e.g.
deck openings) and the long superstructure that is not aligned
with the ship's sides are additional factors affecting the applic-
ability of 2D hydroelastic models.
Ikoma et al. (2009) and van Kessel and Huijsmans (2009)
studied the hydroelastic response behaviour of aircushion sup-
ported structures in waves (Fig. 17). In the former study, the
motion reduction effect of aircushion was confirmed from theore-
tical calculations with zero draft assumption. In the latter one, a
new method that takes into account the fluid–air–structure inter-
action of aircushion supported structures in waves was derived.
Damaren (2010) examined the hydroelastic properties of the
vibration modes of a thin plate floating on the surface of an
incompressible, inviscid, irrotational ocean of infinite extent.
The results demonstrated that the modes of the plate of optimised
shape exhibit large damping coefficients. van Kessel (2010) pre-
sented the results for validation of a new hydroelastic code for
flexible floating structures moored in waves. Numerical results
were validated by model experiments of a flexible barge in waves
from different headings. In addition, the obtained results were
compared with results from other existing hydroelastic programs.
In general it is shown that numerical results show good agreement
with experimental values. Milgram (2007) addressed the impor-
tance of evaluating the unsteady forces and moments on an
underwater vehicle in finite-depth water, at small enough sub-
mergences for it to be influenced by sea waves. This study has
employed strip theory, including the effects of finite depth and lift
forces on fins to predict the unsteady seakeeping forces on
Fig. 18. Cylindrical shell conveying flowing fluid (Uğurlu and Ergin, 2008).
Absolute Displacements [m]
0.015 0.018 0.022 0.026 0.029 0.033 0.036 0.040 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.054
Absolute Displacements [m]
0.015 0.018 0.022 0.026 0.029 0.033 0.036 0.040 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.054
152 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174

streamlined underwater vehicles close to the surface. Comparisons
with experiments have shown errors within the range of applica-
tion of strip theory to ships. Following the work of Uğurlu and
Ergin (2008) and Can and Ergin (2010) presented experimental
data and theoretical calculations on the dynamic response beha-
viour of a flexible submarine pressure hull model vibrating in air
and water (see Figs. 18 and 19). Different representative to
submarine hull aspect ratios were selected.
Jagadeesh et al. (2011) presented a towing tank-based experi-
mental study on forces and moments on Autonomous Underwater
Vehicle (AUV) hull forms in the vertical plane. A five component
force balance was used to measure the variation of axial, normal,
drag, lift and pitching moment coefficients. The obtained results
0.6
0.4
0.2
V Eulerian formulation was developed. The presence of the free
Re(Ω)
point out a relevant sensitivity on the parameters, especially for
axial and normal force coefficients. As in a previous paper by Sulin
et al. (2009) the authors used CFD tools (ANSYS-Fluent) to
estimate the hydrodynamic coefficients of AUVs. However, the
complex shape of the body under investigation provided a more
challenging case. Because of the block-like structure of this under-
water vehicle, the relationships between the hydrodynamic loads
and the translational and rotational velocity of the vehicle are
nonlinear. Though comparison against experiments appeared
encouraging, the simplifying assumptions employed to carry out
the simulation and the successive interpretation of the results,
were not as straightforward as in the case of streamlined bodies.
Saout and Ananthakrishnan (2011) proposed a theoretical meth-
odology to determine the open-loop directional stability of a near-
surface AUV. They used an approach similar to that carried out for
surface ships that is based on solving the coupled sway and yaw
equations of motion. The stability derivatives were obtained
numerically through simulation of motions corresponding to
planar motion mechanism model tests. For the numerical simula-
tion, a boundary-integral method based on the mixed Lagrangian–

D R F D
0.0
surface, through radiation damping, was found to suppress
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
-0.2 unsteady oscillations and thereby to enhance the directional
stability of the vehicle. The shape optimisation of an AUV required
-0.4 to operate at snorkelling condition close to the free surface, where
torpedo-like shapes present some drawbacks, was studied by
-0.6
Alvarez et al. (2009). They dealt with this problem using a first-
order Rankine panel method to compute the wave resistance on
different axial-symmetric bodies moving close to the free surface,
6.0
constrained to have the same overall volume. The optimised shape
5.0 exhibited experimentally a smaller resistance than the reference one.
4.0
Im(Ω)

3.0
3. Ship structures – specialist topics
2.0

1.0 3.1. Loads versus operational guidance

0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 D 4.0 R 5.0 D Many new-build ships have extensive data collection systems
V D R (see Fig. 20) that are used for continuous monitoring of engine and
hull performance, for voyage performance and evaluation, etc.
Fig. 19. Non-dimensional eigenvalues of fluid conveying simply supported cylind-
rical shell with rigid extensions, for circumferential wave number, n¼ 5: (a) real
Often, such systems are, or could be, expanded to include also
parts; (b) imaginary parts. Key: , first axial mode; , second axial procedures for stress monitoring and for operational guidance,
mode; , third axial mode (Uğurlu and Ergin, 2008). where statistics of the most critical wave-induced ship extreme

Fig. 20. Illustrative example of a data collection system (Nielsen et al., 2011).
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Fig. 21. Conceptually, the reliability of decision support systems can be increased
by considering also past measurements as discussed in Nielsen and Stredulinksy
(2010) and Nielsen and Jensen (2011).
responses and fatigue damage accumulation can be estimated for
hypothetical changes in ship course and speed. The focus on goal-
based standards (see Papanikolaou, 2009; Papanikolaou et al.,
2010; Skjong and Guedes Soares, 2008) implies that future devel-
opments of operator guidance systems should be based on
numerical models that introduce probabilistic and risk-based
approaches. Further remarks and discussions about risk-based
methods for operational guidance have also been outlined by
Shigunov et al. (2010), Bitner-Gregersen and Skjong (2009) and
Nielsen et al. (2009).
The current state of the art in operational guidance typically
relies upon mathematical models in which the on-site wave
environment is automatically estimated. Ongoing developments
in EU FP7 WATERBORNE project Handling Waves (2011) are driven
by the development of systems that could be used for monitoring
in real time the actual ship responses and associated structural
loads due to weather changes and to possible changes in course or
speed. The research programme supports the notion that the
calibration of load predictions and the development of simplified
numerical models that are accurate and fast is necessary in order
to ensure that information and guidance are given with sufficient
time to the ship's master. This is, for example, is further investi-
gated and demonstrated in the work by Nielsen et al. (2009) and
Nielsen (2010). In these investigations the horizontal acceleration
and the racking failure mode of containers stowed on ships in
heavy weather are studied. A procedure which can be used to
obtain up-crossing rates for an inherent nonlinear ship response,
such as the racking force in containers, is derived. It is also shown
that first and second order reliability based formulations (FORM/
SORM) and associated procedures may be significantly faster than
more crude simulations (e.g. Monte Carlo). The motion simula-
tion of container stacks on deck is considered also by Wolf and
Rathje (2009). The authors deal with a (refined) numerical model
from which knowledge about the dynamic forces acting on container
stacks can be attained. The numerical findings and results of this work
could be useful for establishing decision support criteria with respect
to container and lashing loads. Considerations of computational
efficiency in relation to calculation of fatigue damage rates in the ship
hull girder and operator guidance have been presented by Ito et al.
(2010) and Nielsen et al. (2011).
Typically, the underlying approach for operational guidance
builds on a pure mathematical model only, where seakeeping
characteristics of the ship, often given in terms of response
amplitude operators (RAOs), are combined with information about
the on-site sea state using linear spectral analysis to make
statistical predictions of future responses to be expected. However,
the on-site estimation of sea state parameters at the location of an
advancing ship forms a crucial and fundamental problem to which
153
a perfect solution has not been found yet. For this reason, concepts
of a novel procedure for operational guidance have been proposed
by Nielsen and Stredulinksy (2010) and Nielsen and Jensen (2011)
(see Fig. 21). The purpose of the procedure presented is to increase
the reliability of the given guidance. Thus, predictions of future
response levels are based on an integrated model using a math-
ematical model that has as input the estimated sea state para-
meters, and using also past measurements of the considered
response(s). Both works include an analysis of full-scale motion
measurements, and the approach shows promising results.
3.2. Ice loads
Environmental changes, harsher winters in the area of Baltic
Sea and climate changes in other Arctic and Sub-arctic zones
create new challenges for further exploration of Northern Regions
including demands for more and environmentally safer ice-
strengthened vessels. The following discussion reviews some key
publications in the area of ice loading on ships and offshore
structures that have been presented over the reporting period.
Bekker et al. (2009) describe some of the characteristics of the
drifting of ice cover and the associated scenarios of ice loads. Their
study looks into the mathematical simulation of the physical
process of interaction between the ice cover and the offshore
engineering objects at Sakhalin offshore zone in terms of simula-
tion and statistical methods. By taking into account the dynamics
of an ice cover in the Sea of Okhotsk, the authors simulate various
design cases of combined effects on marine structures from
drifting ice features and ice fields. The authors made a compara-
tive analysis of ice loads on various types of gravity-based concrete
structures according to the standards, procedures and guidelines
imposed by different design codes. Comparative analysis of ice
loads from level ice fields and from ridges show a wide range of
load prediction variations. It is suggested that this scatter is caused by
the various approaches and models for load estimation. Comparisons
of the existing codes demonstrated that it is necessary to carry out
long-term experimental and theoretical investigations including full-
scale measurements on existing offshore structures.
Bjerkås et al. (2009) present a case study employing direct
simulation and empirical methods on the lighthouse Norströms-
grund in the Gulf of Bothnia. In the former study design ice loads
have been compared to existing code recommendations. It was
concluded that the lighthouse was designed for a load level of
110% higher than what is proposed by the recently issued ISO
19906 (2011) design code. Hence, it was suggested that separate
dynamic analyses should be performed instead of simply adding
amplification factors which is common practice in the prediction
of static loads. On the other hand, Gürtner et al. (2009) simulated
ice actions by means of a finite element model. In their approach
fracture of the ice sheet is accounted for by the cohesive elements
placed at internal FEA mesh boundaries in order to track traction
versus separation forces. The simulation results indicate that the
proposed numerical method derives comparable global ice loads
to the lighthouse to those of the selected ice event.
Comparisons against the ISO 19906 (2011) standard for offshore
installations are also provided by Masterson and Tibbo (2011).
Their work looks into the determination of ice loads due to
crushing on vertical structures and for bending loads on sloping
structures. It is concluded that load calculations based on large
scale measurements are preferable and more reliable than those
made using small scale data which are then factored for full scale
applications. It is also recommended that ISO 19906 could be the
preferred guideline for determining loads on offshore structures
placed in ice covered waters. Jordaan et al. (2010, 2011) present a
probabilistic load prediction model of the ice environment in the
northeast Caspian Sea. Once again the methodology is consistent
154 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Fig. 22. Typical hull measurement system (Lloyd's Register, 2012).
with approaches outlined in ISO 19906. The analysis software
includes modules for season length, ice thickness and movement
events, as well as ice crushing strength for vertical structures and
models for flexural failure including rubble formation on sloping
structures. A Monte Carlo approach has been used to simulate ice–
structure interaction events on an annual basis. The result is a
distribution of annual maximum forces from which n-year design
loads can be extracted.
Murray et al. (2009) report the results from 1:30 and 1:50
model scale ice tests for the prediction of loads of an ice resistant
spar design. They compare mooring and ice loads measured in
fixed and compliant conditions. A limited number of tests were
carried out at the two model scales in the same ice conditions to
investigate scaling effects. The study indicated that the model
scale testing methodologies employed, assuming the structure is
fixed, provide good estimates.
Frederking (2010) describes field data from operations of the
CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent during a period of icebreaking escort
operations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in March 1985. The bow of
the ship was strain gauged to measure ice impact loads. Forces,
operational conditions (ship speed and power), and ice conditions
(ice concentration, ice thickness and floe size) were recorded.
From these data, time series of measured loads were used to
obtain the maximum force of each measured impact, as well as the
impulse associated with it.
Su et al. (2010, 2011b) introduced a numerical method to
simulate ship manoeuvres and associated loads in level ice.
The coupling between continuous ice forces and ship motions is
considered and the three degree-of-freedom rigid body equations
of surge, sway and yaw are solved by numerical integration.
The numerical analysis is well validated by comparison with the
ship performance data from the ice trails of icebreaker AHTS/IB Tor
Viking II. More recently, Su et al. (2011a) derived an ice loading
prediction process that has a clear stochastic nature due to the
variations in the ice conditions and in the ice breaking processes of
ships. The statistical characteristics of local ice loads are studied by
field measurements. A numerical method is applied to simulate a
ship moving forward in either uniform or randomly varying ice
conditions where the thickness and strength properties of the ice
encountered by the ship were assumed to be constant or randomly
generated using the Monte Carlo method. To validate the numer-
ical results, an icebreaking tanker, MT Uikku, is modelled and the
ice loading process is stochastically reproduced. The calculated
amplitude values of the ice-induced frame loads are compared
against the field measurements.
Haase et al. (2010) report on the interaction between a conical
structure and unconsolidated ice rubble that was simulated by a
3D discrete element simulation method. The failure process of the
simulated ridge keels was studied by observing the rubble
displacement during the simulation run. The simulation results
were compared to full scale data and to results from an analytical
ridge load model for cones.
Wang et al. (2011) describe the development of a procedure for
determining design ice loads on Arctic offshore structures using
FORM incorporating the uncertainties in the underlying ice floe and
environmental parameters. Level ice and ice ridges are considered
as major load sources interacting with the offshore structure in the
ice regime. Ice loads on offshore structures mainly result from the
first-year ridges interacting with the structure. The geometric
parameters of ice floes are assumed as random variables in the
probabilistic approach. Specific site data are then used to demon-
strate the results which are comparable to Monte Carlo simulations.
It is concluded that the FORM approach is computationally eco-
nomic and becomes increasingly accurate for rarer events.
Määttänen et al. (2011) report on near full-scale ice crushing
tests that were conducted in Aker Arctic test basin. A 1:3 scale
ratio test rig was designed to allow ice to be crushed in controlled
conditions against a stiffened plate presenting a typical full size
ship or offshore structure plating. It is shown that contrary to
expectations the plate compliance played no role in crushing
pressure distribution. This differs from what is assumed in some
ice rules, e.g. the highest pressure at the location of stiffeners.
A new finding was that the target plate stiffness distribution
played no role in crushing. The results indicated that the ice
crushing pressure in the design of plating thickness should be
constant regardless of stiffeners.
Classification Societies over the last few years have been working
on extensive research and development programs attempting to
standardise the assessment of ice loads for ships and offshore
structures. For example, Lloyd's Register (2010),1 as part of their
work on ShipRight design and construction procedures have devel-
oped a Fatigue Design Assessment procedure (ShipRight FDA ICE) to
assess fatigue damage of ship structures induced by ice loads for
ships navigating in ice covered regions. This work considers trading
routes in ice regions, ice loads and impact frequencies, structural
stresses, fatigue performance at low temperatures, fatigue damage
and acceptance criteria (see Zhang et al., 2011). In addition, Lloyd's
Register (2012) and Bridges et al. (2012) are currently developing
ShipRight SEA(ICE) requirements for icebreakers. This work pro-
gramme attempts to validate current Classification requirements for
1
Lloyd's Register, its affiliates and subsidiaries and their respective officers,
employees or agents are, individually and collectively, referred to in this clause as
the “Lloyd's Register Group Ltd.”. The Lloyd's Register Group Ltd. assumes no
responsibility and shall not be liable to any person for any loss, damage or expense
caused by reliance on the information or advice in this document or how so ever
provided, unless that person has signed a contract with the relevant Lloyd's
Register Group entity for the provision of this information or advice and that in
this case any responsibility or liability is exclusively on the terms and conditions set
out in that contract.
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174 155

Fig. 23. Strain gauge locations and arrangements for transverse frame (Lloyd's Register, 2012).

2
1

8 9 11
17 3 4
15 16
5 6
7

9 10 11 12 13
8 31
14 15 16 17
18 19
20
21 22 23 26
24 25
27 28
30 29

Fig. 24. Global Wave Statistics ocean areas (Teixeira and Guedes Soares, 2010).
ice going ships and provide comparisons against operational guide-
lines and full scale measurements. Research includes understanding
of ice dynamics, ice interaction scenarios and the role of hull
condition monitoring instrumentation for such cases (see Fig. 22).
Strain gauge measurement systems may be applied on icebreaking
ships, where aggressive ice navigation is required, such as ramming
ice ridges, with the intention to monitor the vessel hull girder
stresses and motions as much as practicable to the position
(s) where it is expected to be most significant. If such stress cannot
be measured at the appropriate location then they may be adjusted
by a method to represent the stresses in that location (see Fig. 23). It
is expected that as the roles and functions of icebreakers change and
technological innovations are incorporated, Classification rules will
need to adapt to further define the ice performance envelope under a
range of ice interaction scenarios. This will provide greater clarity of
the ice conditions and operations the icebreaker is designed to and
that can be used by Captains and operators to reduce the risk of
operating in ice.
3.3. Loads on damaged ship structures
The principal difference between wave load effects employed
for intact and damaged ships is driven by environmental
Fig. 25. Global wave statistics coastal areas of Europe (Teixeira and Guedes Soares,
2010).
conditions and exposure times after damage. While for intact
ships the North Atlantic wave environment is usually adopted,
local scatter diagrams are proposed, as applicable, for the relia-
bility assessment of damaged ships as suggested by Luis et al.
(2009). Reduced exposure time to environmental conditions after
damage should also be considered before salvage to a safe location.
For example, Teixeira and Guedes Soares (2010) proposed a time
period of one week as the voyage duration of a damaged ship to
the dry-dock. They concluded that the mean extreme VBM of a
Suezmax tanker is about 15% lower when the exposure time is
reduced from one year in the North Atlantic (Fig. 24) to one week
in European coastal areas (Fig. 25).
The magnitude of the loads on damaged ships is also subject to
the extend and overall location of the damage. For example, Folso
et al. (2008) and Rizzuto et al. (2010) have performed seakeeping
computations on a damaged ship by the 3D linear hydrodynamic
code PRECAL. For the case of the flooded ballast tank amidships,
they obtained RAOs of the VBM worse than those evaluated in
intact conditions. The correlation between sea states and occur-
rence of the accident is partly addressed in accordance to the IACS
North Atlantic scatter diagram (HS Z7.5 m). The authors concluded
that the VBM of the damaged ship reduces by 19% of its mean
156 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174

Bending Moment, BE=180o, Grounded Ship (Fixed Heave, Free Pitch)

120000

Bending Moment /Wave Amp. [tm/m]

TB 1
100000
TB 2

TB 3
80000
TB 4

TB 5
60000
TB 6

TB 7
40000
TB 8

TB 9
20000
TB 10

TB 11
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Wave Length [m]

Fig. 26. Wave bending moments on stranded capsize bulk carrier acting at transverse bulkheads vs. wavelength, head waves (Zaraphonitis and Samuelides, 2009).

extreme value when the vessel is exposed for one day in a 0

truncated North Atlantic wave environment. -1000000
Hearn et al. (2008) also presented a study on the hydrodynamic
-2000000
and dynamic motion analysis of a damaged ship. In this work SWBM (kNm)
damaged ship statistics were used to provide the likely damage -3000000
scenarios and particular emphasis was attributed on modelling the -4000000
effects of water ingress when hydrodynamic and hydrostatic
-5000000
influences of the internal free surfaces as well as the aerostatic dam1
influences of the air contained within the damaged hold are -6000000 Intact
accounted for. The change of the mean position of the internal -7000000 dam3
surface as a consequence of the relative phasing of the motions of dam34
-8000000
the ship and the internal free surfaces was also modelled.
dam234
Zaraphonitis and Samuelides (2009) addressed the loading induced -9000000
on grounded hulls of bulk carriers. The determination of the loading 0 100 200 300

included the influence of dynamic effects and the interaction of the
hull with the sea bed in the grounding area (see Fig. 26).
An experiment on forced oscillation of a damaged ship section
is presented by Drake et al. (2009). The authors simulated a
damage of the keel by a longitudinal orifice. Various widths of
orifice were investigated, with the damaged hull form in two
configurations, open and airtight (to investigate the effect of
trapped air stiffness). The hull was forced to oscillate for a range
of amplitudes and frequencies and measurements of hydrody-
namic force and internal free surface elevation are discussed.
Recently, Lee et al. (2012) developed a computational tool for
the prediction of hydrodynamic loads of damaged ships. The
results of the theoretical method and experimental tests were
compared over a variety of design conditions. Whereas for the
loads in intact condition, the prediction with a duration of 20 years
at sea state 5 was used, for loads in damaged conditions, the
prediction with 96 h of exposure time at sea state 3 was employed.
It was concluded that the maximum values of the most probable
extreme amplitudes of dynamic wave-induced loads in damaged
conditions are much less than those in intact condition because of
the reduced time. An opening could change the distribution of not
only still-water bending moment but also wave-induced bending
moment. It is also observed that although some cross-sections are
not structurally damaged, the total loads acting on these cross-
sections after damage may be dramatically increased compared
with the original design load in the intact condition.
3.3.1. Still water loads of damaged ships
Review of stochastic models of still water bending moments
applicable for damaged ships is presented by Teixeira and Guedes
Longitudinal position (m)
Fig. 27. Still water bending moment (SWBM) for intact and various damaged
conditions (negative values are sagging) (Teixeira and Guedes Soares, 2010).
Soares (2010). The simplest way to take into account consequences
of the damage is to modify the still water load combination
coefficient. Luis et al. (2009) proposed values of 1.1 and 1.5 to
analyse the impact of the increased still water loads on the
reliability of a grounded oil tanker. In most cases, flooding of
ballast compartments in midship area is critical for double hull
tankers, as this causes increase of sagging moments. Examples of
this effect for VLCC are presented in Fig. 27. Hussein and Guedes
Soares (2009) have calculated the effect of the flooding of ballast
compartments of a double hull tanker and found increases of 30%
and 46% for one side and both side damages respectively. Rizzuto
et al. (2010) calculated asymmetrical flooding of the midship
ballast tank on one side only of the Suezmax tanker. The still
water bending moment corresponds to 152% of the intact value for
the same loading condition. They proposed to use coefficient of
variation in reliability assessment of damaged ship slightly higher
than for the intact ship. This is explained by additional effect in
damaged conditions seen in water inflow and outflow through the
damaged hull that is not accounted either in static or wave load
analysis.
Santos and Guedes Soares (2008a, 2008b, 2009) presented a
time-domain theoretical model capable of predicting the beha-
viour of a damaged ship subject to progressive flooding in still
water conditions. Their approach provides information in each
stage of flooding, concerning the ship motions, the amount of
water in each flooded compartment and shear forces and bending
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
moments acting along the ship's length. Applications on a pas-
senger Ro–Ro ship and a tanker led to the conclusions on the time
required to reach the most critical conditions and the increase in
global loads in damage condition. They also demonstrated that
during the intermediate stages of flooding, floodwater distribu-
tions can be generated. Those may cause significantly higher shear
forces or bending moments than the ones present in the final
equilibrium damage condition.
3.3.2. Structural integrity and stability of ships
Whereas computational methodologies and regulatory devel-
opments provide improved means for the assessment of the
damage stability of ships in waves, there is still a long way to go
before a variety of open issues, including combined loading and
dynamic response matters, are fully satisfactorily addressed.
Papanikolaou (2007) reviewed the recent scientific and regu-
latory developments on the damage stability of ships and identi-
fied trends on the way ahead. Developments of numerical
simulation methods for the prediction of damaged ship motions
and associated loads in waves were discussed on the basis of
related ITTC benchmark studies and the most significant open
issues for further research were briefly addressed. In more recent
papers Papanikolaou et al. (2010, 2011) discussed the new prob-
abilistic damaged stability regulations for dry cargo and passenger
ships, which entered into force on January 1, 2009. Whereas these
regulations represent a major step forward in achieving an
improved safety standard through the rationalisation and harmo-
nisation of damaged stability requirements there are serious
concerns regarding the adopted formulation for the calculation
of the survival probability of passenger ships, particularly for
ROPAX and large cruise vessels. In Papanikolaou et al. (2011), the
most recent progress of the work under the EU FP7 project Goal
Based Damaged Stability (GOALDS, 2009–2012) is outlined.
A thorough analysis and review of collected data of most recent
grounding statistics of damages resulted to (a) important new
knowledge regarding the location and extent of grounding
damages, both for passenger and cargo ships. A review of updated
data of collisions damages, in which most recent ship damages
were included, led to a confirmation of the validity of the currently
used probabilistic modelling of collision damages for passenger
ships, as considered in SOLAS 2009 (2009). A benchmark study on
the performance of computer codes for the assessment of the
stability of the damaged ships in waves was presented by
Papanikolaou (2009) under the work of the EU funded project
SAFEDOR. Comparison of benchmark codes led to the conclusion
that whereas the performance of standard computer codes
remains unchanged the divergence of the numerical predictions
for the damaged survivability of ships in waves is notable.
Santos and Guedes Soares (2008a, 2008b) presented an appli-
cation of shallow water theory to describe the motion of flood-
water inside a damaged rolling ship in waves. A time domain
hydrodynamic approach was applied to study the behaviour of a
passenger Ro-Ro ship in regular beam seas and the characteristics
of the floodwater motion were studied for a number of different
wave frequencies. The dynamic floodwater roll moment was also
compared against the static roll moment. The effects of parametric
variations of different factors in the ship's survivability were
addressed in a consecutive publication by Santos and Guedes
Soares (2008b). In this work numerical results are presented for a
passenger Ro-Ro ship under a damage condition involving the
main engine room. The permeability of this compartment is taken
into consideration by modelling the engines as intact blocks. The
ship's survivability in irregular waves is then calculated for with
respect to: the vertical location of the centre of gravity, the
spectral description of the seaway, the roll damping factor and
157
discharge coefficients, the depth to main deck, the double-hull in
the main deck and the initial heel angle.
A Holistic Assessment of Ship Survivability and Risk after
Damage was studied in the project EU project HASARD –
SURSHIP (2011). A comprehensive calculation procedure useful
for quantitative assessment of damaged ships survivability (incor-
porating structural collision resistance, structural stability and
collapse, time simulation of ship flooding and stability in waves)
was developed. Results from systematic simulations through this
calculation procedure (risk assessment/FSA) could be used in
recommendations for future IMO rule making. Results of this
project were published by Schreuder et al. (2012), following an
interdisciplinary calculation procedure encapsulating the chain of
events of ship collision, flooding, and loss of stability within given
time. The presented method concerns the interaction between
structural and damage stability computations and has been used
to study the influence of various parameters such as the significant
wave height and size of damage opening on a RoPax-ferry
damaged in a collision with a ship of similar size.
The time dependent survivability of Ro-Pax vessels was also
investigated by Spanos and Papanikolaou (2010) by use of numer-
ical simulations of ship motion and of flooding in waves. The study
reconfirmed that a Ro-Pax ship may capsize fast when sustaining
damages. The time dependent survivability may be estimated by
applying a Monte Carlo probability simulation but may be limited
within short times after the damage event.
Simonsen et al. (2009) presented the analyses and results of a
study aiming at developing damage stability requirements which
take into account the structural vulnerability to grounding
damage, i.e. the kinetic energy available to generate damage and
the structural resistance. The paper presents the analysis of new
damage statistics in order to determine impact scenarios, in
particular in terms of impact speed, impact location, and width
and height of damage. A new empirical damage prediction formula
was developed based on a combination of full-scale testing and
extensive nonlinear finite element analyses. This deterministic
prediction method was validated against grounding experiments
and then used in a probabilistic (Monte Carlo) simulation frame-
work. It was concluded that the grounding damage statistics for all
ships can be characterised by a single parameter namely the
Grounding Damage Index (GDI) which includes the ship kinetic
energy and its structural resistance to grounding damage. Simple,
closed-form expressions were developed for the GDI and it was
shown how the probability of exceeding a box-shaped damage is a
simple function of the GDI and the size of the box. The paper
therefore gives the background and the results for a new genera-
tion of damage stability rules where the structural crashworthi-
ness is taken into account and where the passive safety level is
explicitly expressed. It furthermore gives simplified prediction
tools and data for actual ships, i.e. a toolbox that is readily
available for risk analysis regarding grounding damage.
Kvon et al. (2010) addressed the coupled problem of loss of
stability and structural integrity due to progressive flooding and
structural failure by linear elastic fracture mechanics and the ‘Paris
Law’ crack propagation assessment methods. The authors consid-
ered the impact of wave induced loads on the deterioration of
damaged ship strength. They applied adopted methods to the
analysis of a sample ship mid-ship section sustaining collision or
grounding damages and found both methods promising for con-
cluding on the deterioration and the ultimate ship's strength after
damage.
3.4. Green water
Shipping of green water occurs when the deck of the ship or a
floating structure is immersed in the water. The green water
158 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Fig. 28. Seakeeping problem for a Patrol ship without forward speed: (a) picture of tests in the towing-tank and (b) domain decomposition results in terms of ship motion
and water evolution (incident wavelength λ ¼1.25L, steepness kA¼ 0.22) (Colicchio et al., 2010).
constitutes in a certain sense a counterpart of the slamming
problem provided that the water column impinges the structure
from above. However, since the green water problem shares with
sloshing similar flow features the computational approaches are in
closer relationship with those applied to sloshing than to slam-
ming phenomena. Within the reporting period research efforts
concentrated on defining new methods that combine the straight-
forward calculation of pressure and loads of the techniques based
on mesh definition (like FEM or BEM) with the interesting
property of mesh-less methods, like SPH, that do not suffer large
domain deformations or fragmentation.
Le Touzé et al. (2010) applied the SPH method to predict the
fluid behaviour for two different dynamic flooding scenarios.
The first is the interaction between a vessel and travelling waves.
The second is the transient flooding behaviour that occurs during
and immediately after a side collision between two vessels. Water
heights are measured close to the point of impact within the
vessel. Shibata et al. (2009) have proposed an incompressible
variant of the SPH method known as moving particle semi-implicit
method (MPS). In this paper, they compared the estimated
pressure with the experiments of Tanizawa et al. where the ship
is towed in head waves. The investigation has shown that there is
still some lack of agreement in terms of both pressure and forces
acting on the deck due to relevant oscillations in time.
Chen and Kai (2009) developed a level set numerical method
for the simulation of violent flows. In their approach Navier–
Stokes equations were coupled with an interface preserving
technique for the simulation of green water effects. Accordingly,
the free surface flows were modelled as two phase (air/water)
flows and represented by the zero level set function. Large eddy
simulation (LES) and Smagorinsky models were employed to
account for the effects of turbulence introduced by the violent
free surface motions. The technique was employed for the simula-
tion of slamming on a hemisphere and wet deck slamming of an
X-Craft. Numerical results indicated that such an approach is able
to deal with violent flows involving breaking waves, water
droplets, trapped air bubbles and wave current interactions.
Zhu et al. (2009) developed a numerical programme to model
green water occurrence on floating structures based on a com-
mercial CFD code. In their work a combination of numerical
programmes is presented in which the motions of an FPSO were
calculated by potential theory and CFD tools were used to
investigate the details of green water impacts. A technique of
dynamic mesh was introduced in a numerical wave tank to
simulate the green water occurrence on the oscillating vessels
in waves.
Lu et al. (2010c) developed a numerical time domain simulation
model to study green water phenomena and the impact loading on
structures. A Volume of Fluid (VOF) technique was used to capture
the violent free surface motion. The incompressible Euler–Navier–
Stokes equations, written in an Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian
(ALE) frame, were solved using projection schemes and a finite
element method on unstructured grids. Lee et al. (2011c) analysed
and compared experimental results of green water on the deck of
three different FPSO bow shapes in regular head waves. They
established a database for CFD code validation and proposed some
design considerations as well. The so called marker density
method has been applied to capture the extremely complicated
free-surface, including breaking, associated with the differentiated
nonlinear governing equations.
Kendon et al. (2010) considered results from a 2D model test
setup and compared the measured vertical loading on the deck
against two simple potential theory based methods and against
results from a commercial CFD code. The results demonstrated
that a second impact event closely following a first impact event
can have a much flatter free-surface profile (and stronger water
entry force) as a result of its interaction with deck diffracted
waves. They concluded that for isolated impact events the simple
potential flow based models, which do not consider the influence
of one impact event on another, are adequate to predict vertical
loading. Extending the same strategy Colicchio et al. (2010)
worked on the modelling of green water loads within seakeeping
codes (see Fig. 28). They used a domain decomposition method
and a potential flow analysis solver so as to determine the Navier–
Stoke inflow conditions. A similar problem was considered by Hu
and Kashiwagi (2009) who studied the 2D water on deck problem
with a constrained interpolation profile (CIP) based method. For
the validation of the simulation, a new experiment involving a
floating body of rectangular section in a wavy channel was
designed. Reasonably good agreement was obtained with regards
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Wave height = 5m
Wave height = 7m
Fig. 29. CFD simulation illustrating the effect of increasing sea state on the liquid motion. Maximum predicted sloshing load occurs at 6 m and then gradually reduces
for increasing wave heights (Hirdaris et al., 2010).
to body motions and the amount of water shipping, whereas still
minor indications were given about local loads acting on the deck
or the superstructure. The Natural Element Method (NEM) devel-
oped by Afansiev et al. (2011) employs both these features to solve
the dam-break problem promising to be a valid alternative to
other approaches for green water simulation.
3.5. Sloshing
Sloshing is a phenomenon of fluid movement in a partially
filled containment system that may be subject to nonlinear and
possibly extreme external excitation. Over the course of the
reporting period numerical solutions and model tests have been
developed extensively with the aim to reliably capture aspects of
sloshing behaviour on modern LNG vessels. In this particular case,
due to the motion of the ship in waves, the LNG sloshes around the
tank generating very high impact pressures on the containment
system and the supporting hull structure. Recent advances con-
centrate on aspects of hull flexibility, model scale validation, use of
advanced fluid dynamic methods for sloshing modelling or cou-
pling with overall hull girder loads.
3.5.1. Model experiments
Kuo et al. (2009) reviewed the relevant Exxon Mobil's sloshing
assessment methods. In this work it is also highlighted that among
the most significant developments is the introduction of a prob-
abilistic based framework that facilitates modelling of the high
variability of sloshing impact pressures due to sloshing physics
and insulation materials. Marès (2009) described the main
159
Wave height = 6m
Wave height = 8m
features into GTT's methodology for sloshing assessment. In an
accompanying paper Pillon et al. (2009) presented how GTT
developed and validated its numerical models to obtain a proper
representation of the complex and nonlinear motions of the
containment system. The authors explain that for the validation
of numerical models tests on specific subsystems are performed in
order to analyse the behaviour of critical response components
under different conditions related with the tank statics, dynamics
or ambient and cryogenic temperatures. Gervaise et al. (2009)
described recent GTT state of the art knowledge and developments
on hardware improvements, assumptions for sea-keeping calcula-
tions, loads and strength evaluations.
Hirdaris et al. (2010) discussed some of the recent advances in
model test tank investigations and reviewed the relevance of
allowing unrestricted fill levels in LNG membrane tank ships
(see Fig. 29). The assessment presented in this work allowed for
a reduction in the barred fill range from 80% to 70% of the internal
height of the tank. Model tests reviewing the loads on pump
towers revealed that there are several issues related to the
application of loads derived from model tests, namely (a) scaling
issues due to the use of water and air (or some other ullage gas);
and (b) suitable representation of the near boiling LNG liquid and
vapour in the ullage space.
Brosset et al. (2009) provided an overview of the SLOSHEL Joint
Industry Project along with information on experimental set ups,
the parameters tested and numerical approaches employed.
In furthering this work Bogaert et al. (2010a) and Zheng et al.
(2010) highlighted aspects on scaling issues and summarised the
key findings from model and full scale tests. Bogaert et al. (2010b)
utilised a database of large scale impact tests and discussed in
160 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Fig. 30. LNG containment system rig modelling and dynamics: (a) rig under construction in the model workshop, (b) images from high-speed camera for a regular test at
95% filling rate showing large bubble clouds and (c) images from high-speed camera for a regular test at 25% filling rate (Bunnik and Huijsmans, 2009).
detail the behaviour of Mark III corrugated primary membrane
systems under breaking wave impacts. Tabri et al. (2009)
employed the numerical models developed by Godderidge et al.
(2009) to study the sloshing induced liquid oscillation initiated by
ship collision. Data about the dependence of accelerations, strain
energy and tank water elevation on mass ratios and collision
velocity were collected. Though only linear sloshing is modelled
comparisons between experimental trends and simulation ana-
lyses were reasonable.
Bunnik and Huijsmans (2009) described a study of model test
experiments on a large scale 2D section (scale 1:10) of an LNG
carrier in various loading conditions without depressurisation.
Using high speed video observations the wave front formed by
the bore of the LNG in resonance was related to measured impacts
on the tank hull. The loading on a hydroelastic hull panel with
correctly scaled structural properties was also examined and the
influence of the stiffness on the pressure pulse was found to be
significant (see Fig. 30).
Lugni et al. (2010) focused on the air cavity evolution during a
depressurised wave impact, an event likely to occur not only in
partially filled tanks but also in other violent flow phenomena like
green water. Their underlying idea was to represent experimen-
tally a repeatable impact event so as to distinguish its different
stages and the main physical variables. It was concluded that air
cavities may lead to the formation of highly localised pressures.
Panigrahy et al. (2009) developed a liquid sloshing experimental
setup to estimate the pressure developed on the tank walls and
the free surface displacement of water from the mean static level.
The pressure and displacements were measured on the basis of
changing excitation frequency of the shaking table and fill level in
the tank. The experiments were carried out without and with
baffles.
3.5.2. Hull flexibility
Lee et al. (2010d) investigated the coupling effect between a
flexible ship and sloshing in beam regular waves by evaluating the
added mass contributions due to liquid motions in partially filled
tanks. Recently, Malenica et al. (2011) developed a modal (hydro-
elastic) method for assessing the influence of the dynamic motion
of the liquid cargo in containment systems. Maguire et al. (2009)
and Hirdaris et al. (2010) considered numerical simulations of fluid
loading by CFD and structural response by FEA. The simulations
described demonstrate that two different philosophies, namely
the decoupled (or one way coupled) and coupled (or two way
coupled) approaches are achievable. Accordingly, the effects of the
transfer of pressures from the fluid code to dynamic FEA and the
resulting instantaneous deformation response of the containment
system boundary being transferred back to the CFD solver have
been investigated. The later, although it may be computationally
expensive, it allows for the use of the instantaneous deformed
tank shape to evaluate the pressure at the each time step.
However, it is computationally expensive.
Lee et al. (2010a, 2010b) investigated the influence of hull
flexibility on the hydrodynamic forces and moments associated
with liquid sloshing and vice versa, as well as the dynamic
characteristics (e.g. resonance frequencies) of the whole system.
The method was validated by comparing hydrodynamic forces
from sloshing obtained using rigid and flexible body approaches.
The coupling effect between flexible ship and sloshing in partially
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
Fig. 31. Roll motions of LNG carrier with and without tank effects (Hirdaris et al., 2010)
filled tanks was investigated for an idealised LNG Carrier in beam
regular waves, considering different partial filling scenarios.
3.5.3. Advanced numerical methods
Gavory and de Seze (2009) reviewed the current status of the
numerical methodologies used for sloshing assessment. Their
work concluded that inviscid methods are still broadly used as
an intermediate benchmark of validity against other available
nonlinear computations. Cao et al. (2010) presented the range of
validity of potential flow models by comparing the predictions
with those by other CFD simulations and experiment measure-
ments of the liquid motion in an oscillating tank.
Peric et al. (2009) demonstrated the application of a procedure
to predict internal sloshing loads on partially filled tank walls of
LNG ships subject to realistic wave excitations. A moving grid
approach was employed and a finite volume solution method was
designed to allow for arbitrary ship motions. An interface captur-
ing scheme that accounts for overturning and breaking waves was
used to compute the motion of liquid inside the tanks. Liu and Lin
(2009) developed a Navier–Stokes numerical model to study the
3D liquid sloshing in a tank with a baffle. The numerical results
were validated against available analytical solutions and experi-
mental data. Another experimental study was performed by Wu
and Chen (2009) who developed a 3D time independent finite
difference method to study the sloshing waves and resonant
modes of a fluid in a 3D tank. In this work, five distinct types of
sloshing waves were observed and they were closely related to the
excitation frequency.
Delorme et al. (2009) investigated experimentally the 2D
shallow water sloshing phenomenon under forced rolling motion
conditions by the SPH method. The numerical model depicted
reasonably well the free surface shape obtained from tests and
assisted in reproducing the pressure trends during a water impact,
though overestimating the maxima. Lee et al. (2010c) described an
efficient and robust moving particle semi-implicit method to
predict violent free surface and floating-body motions as well as
impact pressures. The floating-body-motions and the impact
pressures induced by violent liquid sloshing motions were verified
by comparing numerical results against conventional methods. It
was concluded that the roll amplitudes could be significantly
reduced for excitation frequencies away from the lowest sloshing
natural frequencies.
Thiagarajan et al. (2011) applied a CFD method accounting for
air/water interaction to the problem of sloshing in a rectangular
tank. The fill levels varied from 10% to 95% of tank height,
corresponding to a 1:30 scaled model of a prototype tank.
161
The study employed the k–ε turbulence model to capture the
features of the flow and a volume-of-fluid (VOF) model to track the
sloshing free surface.
3.5.4. Coupling sloshing with motions
Faltinsen and Timokha (2009a, 2009b, 2011) presented an
overview of sloshing in the tanks of ships with swash bulkheads.
The authors highlight that whereas nonlinearities are important
for the assessment of sloshing excitations, ship hydrodynamics
may be handled well by linear theory except for the motions and
loads associated with viscous roll damping.
The use of simplified modelling of sloshing is also perceived as
a mandatory approach when the interaction between global ship
motion and partially filled tanks are investigated. This guideline
was followed for instance by Lin et al. (2011) and Hirdaris et al.
(2010) using a potential model for global ship motion coupled with
a sloshing model for the prediction of LNG tank loads, the last one
based on a RANS code with VOF surface tracking that exploits the
open source CFD code OpenFOAM libraries (see Fig. 31).
Hashimoto et al. (2010) reported on the use of nonlinear
potential theory and particle based hydrodynamics for the coupled
formulation of the sloshing/seakeeping problem. Bunnik and
Veldman (2010) compared the results on RAOs of roll motions
obtained linear and particle based hydrodynamics approaches
against the experimental results reported by Molin et al. (2008).
They concluded that whereas linear potential theory shows a
reasonable agreement there is a slight difference with the experi-
ments near the sloshing peak frequency in terms of the spread of
the peak as well as the shift of the peak frequency. The use of
nonlinear potential flow hydrodynamics may allow for good
agreement in all frequency ranges for both low and high sea states.
Huang et al. (2009) discussed the global force acting on the
tank under coupled internal liquid and LNG carrier sway motions
based on numerical and experimental results. They showed that
the coupling between the tank sloshing and ship motions can be
predicted by a linear potential theory as the global forces induced
by the liquid sloshing are relatively periodic and deterministic
whereas the local sloshing pressures are highly nonlinear and do
not affect the ship motions.
Lee and Kim (2010) investigated the coupling and interactions
between ship motions and inner-tank sloshing by a potential–
viscous hybrid method in the time domain. For the time domain
simulation of vessel motions, the hydrodynamic coefficients and
wave forces were obtained by a potential theory based 3D
diffraction/radiation panel programme in the frequency domain.
The corresponding simulations of motions in the time domain
162 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
were carried out using the convolution integral method. The liquid
sloshing in a tank was simulated in the time domain by a Navier–
Stokes solver. A finite difference method with SURF scheme
assuming the single-valued free-surface profile was applied for
the direct simulation of liquid sloshing. The computed sloshing
forces and moments were applied as external excitations to the
ship motion.
Nam et al. (2009) considered the motion responses of floating
bodies in waves coupled with sloshing-induced internal forces and
their effects on sloshing-induced impact loads. The linear ship
motion was solved by using an impulse-response-function
method. The nonlinear sloshing flow was simulated using a finite
difference method. Two models were considered namely (a) a
liquid natural gas floating production, storage, and off-loading unit
with two partially filled tanks and (b) a modified S175 hull with an
anti-rolling tank.
Tabri et al. (2009) studied the sloshing interaction in ship
collisions both experimentally and numerically. Sloshing affects
the collision dynamics and reduces the amount of energy available
for structural deformations. An understanding of the interaction
phenomenon was obtained by a series of model-scale experi-
ments, in which a striking ship, with two partially filled tanks,
collided with an initially motionless struck ship without any liquid
on board. The simulation model was validated with experimental
results and good agreement was achieved in the case of medium
filling levels in the tanks. On the other hand, Tan et al. (2010)
investigated the influence of hull flexibility on the hydrodynamic
forces and moments associated with liquid sloshing and the effects
of sloshing on wave induced responses. It was observed that the
liquid sloshing has an influence on the response of distortional as
well as rigid modes, i.e. wave-induced motions and loads.
Bunnik and Veldman (2010) employed the following two
different models to take into account the effect of sloshing on
ship motions: (i) a linear diffraction method in which both the
liquid motions in the containment system and the liquid motions
outside the vessel are described by linear potential flow in the
frequency domain; (ii) a time-domain coupling method in which
the sloshing liquid in the containment system is computed by VOF
and the ship hydrodynamics by means of linear diffraction theory.
Both methods were applied to model tests described by Molin
[215], in which he measured the motion response of a barge with a
partially filled water container on deck.
3.5.5. Design assessment procedures
Over the reporting period, procedures to predict sloshing loads
and evaluate structural strength have been introduced by most
Classification Societies. For example, Lloyd's Register (2009) devel-
oped a comprehensive sloshing assessment guidance document
with recommendations on the procedures that can be applied for
the assessment of sloshing loads on LNG tanks. The procedure
comprises of three parts namely (a) ship motions analysis and
determination of the design sloshing loads, (b) structural analysis
and (c) assessment criteria.
Wang et al. (2009) and Wang and Arai (2010) conducted a
dynamic structural analysis, considering fluid–structure interac-
tion, to determine the design strength capacity for the no. 96
containment system using sloshing model tests in terms of
selected environmental conditions, vessel configurations and
loading conditions. In these studies spatial, temporal and statis-
tical characteristics of the measured sloshing loads were investi-
gated. Linear transient FEA of the no. 96 containment system
including both the structure and the LNG was performed to obtain
structural responses at predefined critical locations under short
duration triangular pulse which is referred to as Triangular
Impulse Response Function (TIRF). In the FEA model orthotropic
material properties for plywood and acoustic medium for LNG
were considered. Statistical analysis results of peak stress values in
each component of the containment system were used as the basis
for determining design sloshing loads or strength assessment of
the no. 96 containment system.
4. Offshore structures – specialist topics
4.1. Offshore lifting and installation
Understanding of the loads imposed upon operating offshore
floating cranes has been of interest for many years (e.g. Schellin
et al., 1989). The analysis of offshore crane vessels can be largely
divided in two main categories namely structural analysis and
hydrodynamic analysis.
In recent publications, Al-Sweiti and Soffker (2007) and Cha
et al. (2010) reviewed the literature and reported on the effects of
undesired crane load motions. The common approach applied
assumes that the excitation is simply a prescribed motion of the
pivot point of a hoisting rope. This assumption leads to a
dynamical model with parametric excitation and the motion of
the vessel is neglected. Although such an approach may be
justified for vessels in sheltered basins and if the load to vessel
ratio is very small, it is certainly not appropriate for large moored
floating cranes operating offshore. The dynamics of such vessels is
affected by strong coupling between vessel and load motions and
depend on the characteristics of the mooring system. Along these
lines, Al-Sweiti and Soffker (2007) have developed mathematical
tools for modelling and control of elastic ship cranes which have
the Maryland Rigging system. Cha et al. (2010) have analysed the
problems from a different point of view and have performed a
more rigorous numerical analysis to find nonlinear static and
dynamic response of a floating crane and a heavy block that are
connected using elastic booms and wire ropes. In their work two
mathematical models of different levels of complexity are used to
systematically determine the responses of the vessel payload
systems to periodic forcing of waves. One technique is the multiple
scales method which allows for the investigation of the nonlinear
dynamical system in frequency domain and results in an analytical
solution. The other technique applies numerical path following
methods to trace bifurcations (parameter values for which a
qualitative change in the dynamics can be observed) of periodic
solutions.
4.2. Cables, risers and moored structures
The publications concerning cables risers and mooring systems
during the reporting period deal primarily with the coupled floater
mooring global response. It is also evident that there is still a great
deal of interest for issues that influence the nonlinear dynamic
behaviour of mooring lines and the slow drift motion of the
moored floaters. Recent developments on the later were high-
lighted in Section 2.1.3 on multi-body interactions (for example
see, Hansen et al., 2009; Clauss et al., 2009; Brake et al., 2009; Liu
et al. 2011).
The purpose of coupled analysis is to accurately predict the
loads on mooring lines and risers at extreme design conditions.
Chan and Ha (2008) used a fast domain coupled analysis along
with a frequency domain mooring analysis to predict the first
order slowly varying drift motions of an FPSO in design conditions.
The line tensions predicted in the time domain were compared
with the frequency domain solutions. Chen et al. (2008) used the
coupled analysis to assess the effect of two different top tensioned
riser configurations, one with buoyancy cans and one with
tensioners on the motion responses of a truss spar in ultra
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
deepwater. Nonlinear spring properties of tensioners and hydro-
dynamic loadings on the risers and the mooring lines were
calculated.
The coupled analysis requires extensive computational efforts.
Hence there is a need for the development of more simplified
methods for use in practical design applications. Within the
reporting period efforts concentrated on developing a highly
efficient frequency domain approach in which the drag forces
are linearised. For example Low and Grime (2011) have shown that
the geometric nonlinearity of the mooring lines/risers may be
insignificant. This was demonstrated by applying statistical tech-
niques in conjunction with frequency domain analysis to predict
the extreme responses of the coupled system. The crossing rates
for surge, sway and yaw obtained were found to agree well with
those extracted from the time domain simulation, whereas the
result for yaw is less favourable.
4.3. Vortex Induced Vibrations (VIVs)and Wake Induced Oscillations
(WIOs)
VIVs are highly nonlinear motions induced by flow periodical
irregularities. Over the last few decades, significant progress has
been made in understanding the VIVs of long circular cylinders by
means of numerical simulations and physical experiments.
The following discussion highlights some recent operational con-
siderations as well as theoretical developments in the area of VIVs
and Wake Induced Oscillations (WIO).
From an operators’ perspective it is today far more desirable to
eliminate or reduce VIVs than it is to amplify their effects. For
example, Tognarelli et al. (2008) reported on the hydrodynamic
performance of various offshore units and production platforms.
The measured data presented in this work shed some light on the
physical details of full scale riser response omitted from predictive
riser design tools. They were also used to establish performance
indicators for some VIV suppression devices that are currently
in use.
A comprehensive review of VIV prediction methods was pre-
sented by Williamson and Govardhan (2008). The authors sum-
marised fundamental research results presented over the last two
decades. Many of those are related with the push to understand
and, as applicable, implement very low mass and damping
mechanisms in existing and forthcoming experimental and com-
putational techniques. The authors focused on vortex induced
dynamics and energy transfer phenomena that may give rise to
dynamic loads. More recently, Kevlahan (2011) employed potential
flow and 2D Navier–Stokes calculations to investigate the role of
vortex shedding in the non-resonant flow induced vibration
of periodic tube arrays. This dual approach untangles the effects
of potential and vertical flow. The negative damping theory is
shown to be inconsistent with the Navier–Stokes simulations
allowing only a single degree of freedom in tube motion. Whereas
the later is thought to significantly overestimate the simulation of
critical velocities, the results presented assist to untangle the role
of vortex shedding and potential flow in way of the non-resonant
fluid elastic instability of tube arrays.
Investigations on flow interaction with moving circular cylin-
ders have always been carried out in 2D because of the unafford-
able computational effort that 3D simulations may demand. There
are a number of publications in this topic. For example, Prasanth
et al. (2006) studied the laminar flow induced vibration of a
circular cylinder at low Reynolds numbers. On the other hand
Wanderley et al. (2008), and Al Jamal and Dalton (2004) adopted
RANS and LES turbulence models to simulate the VIV response at
moderate Reynolds numbers. Such studies have also been
extended to cases of two circular cylinders. For example,
Prasanth and Mittal (2009) built upon the work of Schulz and
163
Kallinderis (1998) and Papaioannou et al. (2008) and reported on
the shielding effect of upstream cylinders in laminar flow induced
conditions.
In contrast to VIV problems understanding of the downstream
effects in WIO is relatively lagging behind. This is probably because
of the technical difficulties to approximate the large amplitude
motions that mooring and riser cylinder like structures suffer
from. Recent studies mainly focus on model measurements. For
example, Okajima et al. (2007) studied the stream-wise oscillation
of two tandem circular cylinders in different arrangements. On the
computational developments front Meneghini et al. (2001), Jester
and Kallinderis (2003) reported on 2D laminar flow interactions
between two fixed circular cylinders. Carmo and Meneghini
(2006), Deng et al. (2006), Kitagawa and Ohta (2008), Palau-
Salvador et al. (2008) performed 3D numerical simulations at
different Reynolds numbers using approximation models (e.g. LES
methods) that are able to simulate turbulence effects.
4.4. Spars and TLPs
The successful design and operation of floating production
units requires appropriate evaluation of the environmental loads
that prevail during transportation installation and operation. To
this end recent research also concentrated on spars and Tension
Leg Platforms (TLPs).
A numerical prediction of the spar motions in waves, wind and
current was carried out by Liapis et al. (2010). The predictions
were based on the COSMO/WAMIT commercial software and were
well compared with model test results. Special line members were
included to take the viscous loads and damping into account. Koo
et al. (2010) studied the motions and loads for the float-over
installation of spar topsides. The numerical analysis involved
multi-body hydrodynamic interaction, simulation of impact forces
and validation studies. In the transportation analysis it was found
that the predicted catamaran barge global motion statistics were
slightly conservative in comparison with those of the model tests.
In the past 3 years research on TLPs concentrated on experi-
mental and numerical studies presented by Heidari et al. (2008),
Bian et al. (2010), Jayalekshmi et al. (2010) and Taflanidis et al.
(2008). The aim has been to improve their design by damper
mechanisms that may reduce the loads on the tendons. For
example, Heidari et al. (2008) presented a study on the design of
a dry-tree FourStar TLP operating in a 4300 ft water depth. Bian
et al. (2010) presented the design of an integrated ultra-deepwater
TLP with an air spring type vibration absorber to suppress the
vertical resonance motions. Jayalekshmi et al. (2010) investigated
the effect of tether-riser dynamics on the response characteristics
of deepwater TLPs in water depths of 900 m and 1800 m and in
random waves. The nonlinear dynamic analysis of deep water TLPs
was carried out by using FEA and results were reported in the form
of statistical responses. These values increase with water depth
and a significant increase was observed when risers were included
in the analysis. Taflanidis et al. (2008) also explored the idea of
using mass dampers for the reduction of dynamic loadings and
hence the protection of offshore platforms. To achieve greater
vibration suppression appropriate tuning of the parameters of the
dampers was necessary. The later was achieved by a stochastic
design approach.
Srinivasan (2010) addressed the use of TLP in ultra deepwater
to support dry-tree in oil and gas production. To reduce the effects
of the wave loading, truss-pontoons were used. A technically
feasible and cost-effective artificial sea-bed was used to ease the
tendon design in deepwater and harsh environment. As a result a
simple and slim hull, which is easy to design, fabricate, transport
and install, was obtained. Lee and Lim (2008) studied the fatigue
induced loads on a TLP by using a frequency domain analysis
164 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
coupling the effects of first order wave, mean drift and linearised
viscous forces. Survivability analysis was then carried out in the
time domain where the second order wave and nonlinear viscous
forces were considered. The optimisation process led to a hull
form with improved dynamic performance and minimised top
tension of the tendon.
4.5. Semi-submersibles
The study on loads of submerged bodies has received consider-
able attraction for many years. The interaction between gravity
monochromatic waves and a fixed submerged horizontal circular
cylinder with its axis parallel to the crests of the incident wave
was first studied by Dean (1948) who used a linearised potential
theory and a conformal mapping technique. The first experimental
study related to this phenomenon was undertaken by Chaplin
(1984) who calculated the nonlinear forces of the reflected and
transmitted waves originated by a fixed submerged horizontal
cylinder. His study revealed the nonlinear components of these
forces with frequencies up to 3 times the fundamental wave
frequency.
Over the last few years the analysis of hydrodynamic perfor-
mances of submerged bodies has become increasingly important
with the growing interest in offshore activities related with the
generation of ocean wave energy via wave induced motion of
oscillating submerged bodies. For example, numerical and experi-
mental studies by Kent and Choi (2008) suggested a solution for
the velocity potential imposed upon submerged bodies by a multi-
pole expansion. More recently, Conde et al. (2009) studied the full
behaviour of a 2D horizontal cylinder by a nonlinear diffraction
analysis theory. Guerber et al. (2010) extended a 2D fully nonlinear
potential flow numerical wave model to include a submerged
horizontal cylinder of arbitrary cross-section. The interaction
between the free-surface flow and the surface tension for a
circular horizontal cylinder has been investigated by Moreira and
Peregrine (2010). Yan and Au (2010) has investigated the fully
nonlinear interaction between freak waves and 2D submerged
cylinders and Bai et al. (2010) has studied the 2D submerged dikes
interaction with viscous free surface waves using the Cartesian cut
cell approach.
Current loads on stationary submerged vessels have been
investigated by Vaz et al. (2009). Model-tests, semi-empirical
models and CFD methods were used to predict these loads. Two
key issues affecting the modelling accuracy, the location of the
transition to turbulent flow and the control of the numerical errors
were identified and discussed. Their field measurements indicated
that the design guidance derived from model tests, as presented
by Rijken and Leverette (2009), result in very conservative esti-
mates motions. It was also observed that the flow field around the
columns may cause oscillations along one of the vessel's main
diagonals under particular conditions.
Simos et al. (2009) showed that semi-submersible hulls may be
subjected to second order slow motions in heave, pitch and roll.
These resonant motions are directly related to the large dimen-
sions and relatively low natural frequencies of the floating sys-
tems. Their paper discusses the evaluation of the second order
wave induced motions of a large-volume semi-submersible plat-
form using the WAMIT second order module. It is shown that the
hydrodynamic forces induced by the second order potential affects
significantly the resonant response. Matos et al. (2010) studied the
scale effect of the slow drift motions in vertical plane of a large
volume semi-submersible platform. The importance of consider-
ing the resonant roll and pitch motions in the seakeeping analysis
of large-volume semi-submersible platforms was demonstrated.
5. Uncertainties in wave load predictions
Specification and quantification of uncertainties related to
environmental models, load predictions and response calculations
is important part of the risk-based assessment, design and opera-
tion of marine structures. To date, load uncertainties have been
specified by reliability based code formats (e.g. Vanem and
Gregersen, 2012; Bitner Gregersen and Skjong, 2009) and for
development of decision support systems that may be useful for
navigation guidance (e.g. Spanos et al., 2008).
Bitner-Gregersen and Skjong (2009) suggested to divide uncer-
tainties into two groups namely (a) aleatory (natural and physical)
and (b) epistemic (knowledge based). According to the authors the
information about uncertainties should be introduced in the
reliability analyses in the form of random variables. Aleatory
uncertainties represent a natural randomness of a quantity, also
known as intrinsic or inherent uncertainty, e.g. the variability in
wave intensity over time and cannot be reduced or eliminated.
Epistemic uncertainties represent errors which can be reduced by
collecting more information about a considered quantity and by
improving the methods of measuring it. These uncertainties may
be classified into: (a) data related, (b) statistics related and
(c) model related. Data uncertainties appear due to the imperfec-
tion of an instrument used to measure a quantity, and/or a model
generating data. If a considered quantity is not obtained directly
from the measurements, but some estimation process is inter-
posed (e.g. the significant wave height), then the measurement of
uncertainty must be combined with the estimation of model
uncertainty by appropriate means. Statistical uncertainty, often
also referred to as estimation uncertainty, is due to limited
information such as a limited number of observations of a quantity
and also due to an estimation technique applied for the evaluation
of the distribution parameters. Model uncertainty is due to
imperfections, simplifications and idealisations made in physical
model formulations for an event as well as in choices of prob-
ability distribution types used in the representation of uncertain-
ties. The accuracy of a quantity characterises the extent to which a
measured quantity agrees with the true value. To characterise the
later it is necessary to indicate a systematic error (also known as
bias) and a precision (or random) error. The systematic error, or
bias, of an estimator for a quantity considered refers to a
systematic deviation from the true value of the quantity. The
precision of the quantity considered refers to random variations,
and is usually summarised by the standard deviation. A normal
distribution is commonly adopted to describe the precision.
Studies by the 13th and 14th ships and offshore Structures
Congress presented in reports of the ISSC Technical Committee on
Loads (ISS Report of the Technical Committee I.2 on Loads, 1997,
2000, 2009) explain uncertainty in predicted extreme hydrody-
namic actions. Roughly, uncertainty in wave loads may be divided
into uncertainty of wave loads calculated under linear assump-
tions and uncertainty of nonlinear effects. Uncertainties of linear
wave load predictions refer to the shape of wave spectra, the
choice of wave scatter diagram, transfer functions, methods for
prediction of long-term extreme values and human actions.
Uncertainty of nonlinear effects in wave loads may comprise
different sagging and hogging bending moments mainly due to
non-vertical ship sides and influence of slamming and whipping
on extreme vertical bending moments.
The traditional approach for assessing the wave induced loads
in intact ships structures assumes that the sea states are domi-
nated by wave systems generated by local winds. However, in
many situations marine structures are subjected to the combina-
tion of more than one wave system and in this case the frequency
spectrum exhibits two peaks. Double-peaked wave spectra can be
observed when a swell system combines with wind-generated
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
waves. For example, Teixeira and Guedes Soares (2009) have
demonstrated that, for a trading ship of non-restricted operation,
the long-term distributions of the wave induced vertical bending
moment for combined sea states do not change significantly when
compared with the ones obtained from sea states of a simple
component. In their work it is recognised that double peaked wave
spectra can have a significant impact on the design and operability
of fixed and offshore platforms. They suggest that it would be
important to assess damaged ships since collisions and groundings
may occur in sea areas with swell dominated sea states and the
manoeuvrability may be affected as a consequence of the accident.
Ivanov (2009) proposed a method for calculating the hull girder
bending stresses following the procedure in the class rules but in
probabilistic terms. In this work the still water and wave-induced
hull girder hogging and sagging loads are presented in probabil-
istic format as one phenomenon, i.e. using bi-modal probability
density functions. The probabilistic distribution of the total hull
girder load is calculated using the rules of the composition of the
distribution laws of the constituent variables. Parunov and Corak
(2010), Parunov et al. (2010, 2011) investigated the influence of
environmental and operational uncertainties on the long term
extreme vertical wave bending moment of a containership assum-
ing rigid hull. As the long term distributions of vertical wave
bending moments are highly dependent on the assumed environ-
mental and operational parameters, their different combinations
are considered. Results are compared among themselves as well as
with the IACS rule vertical wave bending moments. Statistical
parameters which may be useful for reliability-based design
of containerships are quantified. Shu and Moan (2011) studied
the effect of the heavy weather avoidance on the long-term
wave-induced pressure along the midship transverse section of a
VLCC and a bulk carrier. They proposed a practical model to
consider the effect of heavy weather avoidance on the wave
pressure along a mid-ship transverse section. Mohammed et al.
(2009, 2012) discussed the basis of a cross-spectral formulation
that could be used to assess the combined effects of wave loads on
hull girder strength. The methodology accounts for long term
probability distributions and considers phase relationships
between narrow banded load processes.
Jensen (2009) provided a discussion of useful stochastic pro-
cedures for wave load problems covering the range from slightly
linear to strongly nonlinear (bifurcation) problems. The methods
employed are (a) Hermite transformation, (b) Critical wave epi-
sodes and (c) FORM. The procedures are illustrated by results for
the extreme vertical wave bending moment in ships. Another
simplified procedure for determining the long term distribution of
wave hull girder loads acting on containerships including transient
loads such as slamming and green water effects is presented by
Jensen et al. (2009). The authors combined high frequency
transient loads with lower frequency wave induced loads and
the entire simplified solution is presented in closed-form solution.
For nonlinear processes a good estimate for the mean out-crossing
rate can be found using FORM. An interesting – but not general –
property with the FORM analysis for the specific problem of the
extreme bending moment is that the associated reliability index is
inversely proportional to the significant wave height for fixed
values of other operational parameters. As pointed out by Jensen
(2010) this means that the computational efficiency of Monte
Carlo simulations for the specific problem can be increased
drastically by introducing a scaling of the significant wave height;
a phenomenon previously investigated by Söding (2009). Gaidai
et al. (2010) described a method for the prediction of extreme
whipping stresses measured in deck amidships a container vessel
during operation in harsh weather. Whipping response time series
were analysed for two different voyages of the same ship, similar
route and similar season month. Two different statistical methods
165
were applied and compared with respect to the extreme response
estimate. Parunov et al. (2011) investigated long-term distribution
of slamming loads of containerships accounting for different types
of environmental and operational uncertainties. In this work the
uncertainties studied were (a) the choice of the wave scatter
diagram, (b) the effect of the avoidance of heavy weather, (c) the
effect of the manoeuvring in heavy weather and (d) the method
for predicting the long-term extreme slamming pressures.
6. Fatigue loads for ships and offshore structures
6.1. Fatigue analysis of ships
In recent publications the contribution of high frequency
whipping and springing vibrations to the fatigue damage in the
hull girder is extensively studied by Storhaug and Moan (2007). It
was concluded that the high frequency components could be as
important as the contributions from the wave frequency range.
Similar observations have been found from full scale measure-
ments in container ships and LNG vessels (e.g. Heggelund et al.,
2010; Nielsen et al., 2011).
It is difficult to distinguish between springing and whipping
vibration components in full-scale measurements and their indi-
vidual contribution to the fatigue damage cannot be assessed
easily from such measurements. In total they might, however,
typically increase the expected fatigue damage by 20–50%
depending on the sea state, loading condition, speed and heading.
Based on both full scale measurements and model tests, the
following general conclusions can be made with respect to fatigue
damage accumulation in the hull girder of ships:

The correlation between significant wave height and fatigue
rate is strong, and most fatigue damage is accumulated in head
or following sea (see Heggelund et al., 2010);

It is necessary to further study the effect of safety margin
between hull girder capacity and loading by a more refined
approach (see Storhaug et al., 2010a, 2010b);

Whipping and springing-induced fatigue accumulation is a
complex phenomenon, which is not properly included in
design rules yet (see Boutillier et al, 2010; Storhaug et al.,
2010a, 2010b);

The only way to progress in the understanding of fatigue
phenomena is to combine all the available tools including
model tests, full-scale measurements and numerical models/
simulations (Hirdaris et al., 2010).
In a slightly different line of work, Garbatov et al. (2010)
studied the combined effects of vibration and wave induced loads
on fatigue. Their analysis considered local and global loads due to
wave actions and cargo effects by means of the hot spot fatigue
analysis approach. Detailed FEA was used to determine the critical
hotspots and the stress distributions on the hull structural joints.
As a result of the performed analysis the stress concentration
factors have been defined and used for fatigue damage calculation
by taking into account the combination of low frequency wave
induced loads and transient loads. It was concluded that the
calculated local stresses around the structural singularities
depends on the structural idealisation, the element types used
and the mesh subdivision. In a subsequent publication Garbatov
and Guedes Soares (2010) reported on the importance of assessing
fatigue life prediction related uncertainties by discrete, closed
form and spectral approaches. This work analysed the influence
of various factors (e.g. ship main characteristics, operational
profile, wave climatic data, heading distributions) and considered
the random origin of structure born deviations (e.g. mean stress
166 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
effect, imperfection, weld shape improvement, hot spot calcula-
tion and resulting notch stress concentration factor) to the fatigue
life of a butt welded ship structural component. It has been
observed that there is significant difference between the mean
fatigue damage pairs of the heading direction and distribution.
Also, different fatigue damage calculation approaches may intro-
duce different level of uncertainties resulting in different means
and standard deviations of fatigue damage.
A number of studies have recently been dedicated particularly
towards onboard monitoring of fatigue damage rates. Models and
procedures have been developed to evaluate fatigue damage
accumulation in the hull girder both for short-term (30 min to
3 h) decision support, (e.g. Nielsen et al., 2011) and for long-term
voyage planning (e.g. Mao et al., 2010). These studies present
comparisons between measurements and predictions of fatigue
damage rates and promising results are obtained. As uncertainties
related to fatigue damage analysis can be profound independently
of the prediction period, it should be considered to use risk-based
approaches for the evaluation of fatigue damage rates. This has not
been attempted until now, but ideas may be gained also from the
work by Choung et al. (2010).
6.2. Fatigue analysis of offshore structures
Fatigue is one of the most significant failure modes for offshore
platforms which are mostly made of metals. Metal fatigue has
been studied for more than 170 years. However, the fact that
fatigue life prediction methods are not based on Fatigue Crack
Propagation (FCP) theories remains a concern. Cui et al. (2011)
outline their idea to develop a Unified Fatigue Life Prediction
(UFLP) method for marine structures. The key issue for this
development is to establish a correct crack growth rate relation.
Hence, a new crack growth rate model based on the concept of
partial crack closure is presented. It is concluded that their
improved model shows strong capability in simulating the crack
growth curves under different load ratio of various metal materi-
als. Moreover, the model has been successfully applied for simu-
lating some special fatigue phenomena such as compressive to
compressive loading effect and overload retardation effect.
The importance of uncertainty in fatigue life prediction of
marine structures subjected to Gaussian loads has been discussed
by Bengtsson and Rychlik (2009). In particular, they discuss how
general types of environmental loads (that often vary with time)
can be included in a stochastic model. Bengtsson and Rychlik
(2009) derive a model which has the goal to compute a measure of
risk for the fatigue of a structural components during a specific
time period. In the model, the combination of different types of
uncertainties is facilitated by use of a calculated safety index. Some
results are presented for processes characterised by standard wave
spectra. Another study which deals with uncertainty related to the
analysis of fatigue data is presented by Guida and Penta (2010)
who introduced the concept of Bayesian inference. In their study a
Bayesian analysis of SN fatigue data is outlined for estimating
material properties and for establishing fatigue design curves from
small size samples.
Recently, two practical approaches for fatigue life assessment
have been presented by Low (2010, 2011) and Jia (2011). The
former presents an approach for calculating the fatigue damage
from a stochastic bimodal process, in which the High Frequency
(HF) and Low Frequency (LF) components are of narrow band
Gaussian format. The novelty of this method is claimed to be its
ability to incorporate two critical effects, which have been unrec-
ognised in prior studies; the reduction of the small-cycle ampli-
tudes caused by the LF process, and the offset between the HF and
LF peaks. The approach is found to produce highly precise damage
estimates (  1% error) when benchmarked against simulations
made as a number of case studies of theoretical multimodal
processes (with no particular attention to where the process
may derive from). The approach by Jia (2011) looks at the
calculation of wind induced fatigue of tubular structures by taking
into account the effects of the wind direction, across wind and
wind grid size. It is argued that calculation procedure has the
merit of reducing uncertainties without degrading a required
safety level, which may lead to a positive economic impact with
regard to construction and maintenance costs.
7. Conclusions
7.1. Loads on offshore structures
Traditionally, the prediction of wave loading of zero speed body
wave interactions has been based on potential flow solutions for
the prediction of global loads imposed upon FOIs. Research results
have also been presented in the area of bottom founded structures.
There is clearly a trend towards the use of CFD based methods and
nonlinear hydrodynamic diffraction approaches. However, these
models require further experimental verification.
When shallow water operation is considered, the influence of
the seabed bathymetry variation on the loads needs to be
examined. Current research is directed towards understanding
the effects of varying water depths and associated high frequency
responses of FOIs in waves by using nonlinear diffraction models,
Langragean–Eulerian methods and hybrid methods for the assess-
ment of sloshing motions in the time domain. Once more these
approaches require further experimental verification.
Side by side configurations that are used in offloading opera-
tions drive developments in the area of multi-body interactions.
Within the reporting period the calculation of loads is performed
mostly by linear and partly nonlinear boundary element methods
with the aim to assess operability of the coupled systems and
assess the loads on the structure, the mooring lines as well as lines
connecting the bodies and articulations. Accordingly, the publica-
tions concerning cables, risers and mooring systems deal primarily
with the so called coupled floater mooring global response. Time
and frequency domain mooring methods are employed to predict
the first order responses in extreme weather conditions. Consider-
ing that coupled analysis requires extensive computational efforts
more efficient computation schemes are needed for use in prac-
tical design.
In this area of work there is a clearly a need to address in
further practical problems related with the undesired effects of
water clearances on navigational safety and derive advanced
numerical schemes able to derive the effects of bathymetry on
surface waves. Whereas significant progress has been achieved in
the area of VIVs investigations of wave induced oscillations on
downstream circular cylinders are relatively lagging behind prob-
ably due to the technical difficulties to approximate large ampli-
tude motions. It would be useful to expand research efforts in
this area.
7.2. Loads on ships
A large variety of nonlinear methods for the forward speed
problem was reported. One may distinguish between methods based
on potential theory and CFD based methods. Between those extremes
there are various methods such as partly nonlinear or blended
methods in which different modelling assumptions are used to
approach selectively nonlinear effects. Further verification of available
techniques against experimental measurements is necessary.
Understanding hydroelastic responses of ships is recognised as
an important design verification tool. Whereas linear hydroelastic
 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
theories have reached a degree of maturity 3D nonlinear theories
are still under development. The primary difficulty in applying
CFD is related with the computational efficiency as well as the
implementation of free surface flows particularly for large scale
free surface effects around ships. In any case the use of CFD based
methods (e.g. CIP or RANS) looks promising and should be
investigated in further.
The need for quality benchmark data is as great as ever,
particularly relating to the measurement of global loads from
model tests. Within the reporting period experiments on elasti-
cally scaled models have been broadened and it would be useful to
see this trend continued and expanded. Whereas full scale
measurements provide the most robust form of validation in
terms of realism of the data collected the number of investigations
is limited and worthwhile to be expanded.
In the future, research and development of practical appro-
aches related with the prediction of long term assessment of loads
is particularly valuable. A ship, during its operational lifetime,
experiences a number of loads and the long term effects of those
can be performed by taking into account the hull form, the mass
distribution and the operational profile. A 2D or 3D linear hydro-
dynamic analysis, although fairly straightforward, may not be very
useful for concept design, because of the lack of detailed data or
the lack of detailed engineering expertise. For a risk assessment
involving thousands of different combinations of sea state and
operational parameters even linear strip theory calculations might
be too time consuming for routine applications. Naturally, compu-
tations may be even more complicated in those cases where partly
or fully nonlinear hydrodynamic or hydroelastic methods are used.
To this end, the development of rational and efficient procedures
able to predict the design wave-induced motions and accelerations
with sufficient engineering accuracy in the conceptual design
phase and in risk assessment procedures may be useful.
Evaluation of rogue wave induced loads continues to be dealt
using partly nonlinear methods and comparing prediction against
model tests. It will be interesting to apply fully nonlinear methods,
including CFD based methods, to this type of approach. The
potential flow formulation of slamming problems has continued
to raise interest. Recent research studies focused on the evaluation
of slamming loads on symmetric and asymmetric sections using
the Wagner approach. There is some rise in the use of hybrid CFD
based methods (e.g. RANS or SPH) using commercially available
solvers. However, it would be interesting to carry out further
validation studies.
7.3. Specialist topics
Typically the underlying approach for operational guidance
builds on combined theoretical seakeeping models and linear
spectral analysis used for statistical predictions. Recently, concepts
of novel procedures for operational guidance have been proposed
to increase the reliability. The approach shows promising results.
Specification and quantification of uncertainties related with
environmental models, load predictions and response calculations
is important part of risk based assessment for design and opera-
tion of marine structures. Load uncertainties have been specified
for the improvement of reliability based code formats and for the
development of decision support systems for onboard navigation.
It is recognised that both model experiments and sea trials are
providing the most reliable data for the validation of numerical
codes. In the future it is hoped that more data will be publicly
available.
Whereas there is currently some focus on developing fluid–
structure interaction models that simulate flooded damaged ship
dynamics, the use of reliability methods and the broader imple-
mentation of available methods within the context of risk based
167
design and assessment are strong trends that will be impacting on
future research and development. With reference to sloshing loads
recent advances concentrate on aspects of hull flexibility, model
scale validations and implementation of advances CFD methods
and tools to study the effects on the hull girder response. Perhaps,
amongst the most important developments is the introduction of a
probabilistic based framework that facilitates modelling the high
variability of sloshing impact pressures due to sloshing physics.
The issues of fatigue analysis of offshore structures are by and
large similar to those for ships. Within the reporting period efforts
were focused on including nonlinear effects in fatigue predictions.
Important properties are the non-Gaussian broad band width of
the nonlinear response and the sequence of loads. Further inves-
tigations are necessary in order to clarify to what extent transient
and hydroelastic effects need to be considered in fatigue analysis
and structural design of ships.
Whereas a number of models and procedures have been
developed to evaluate fatigue damage accumulation in the hull
girder for decision support, probably the best way to proceed in
understanding the phenomenon is to combine all available tools
including full scale measurements and numerical simulations.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the
academic and industrial establishments they represent. A pre-
liminary and less detailed version of this work has been presented
at the 18th International Ships and Offshore Structures Congress
organised by the Universities of Rostock and Hamburg in Septem-
ber 2012 at Rostock, Germany. The authors would like therefore to
thank Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Fricke (University of Hamburg,
Germany) and Prof. Dr.-Ing Robert Bronsart (University of Rostock,
Germany) for granting permission to extend and publish this work
in this Journal. The useful discussions throughout the preparation
and review of this manuscript with Prof. Carlos Guedes Soares
(Technical University of Lisbon) are highly acknowledged.
This research has been undertaken by the leading author while
working for Lloyd's Register Strategic Research Group, London, UK.
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